Definition of Limit

Basic Limit Theorems

One sided Limits
Infinite Limits, Limit at infinity and
Asymptotes
Infinite limits and Vertical Asymptotes
Limit at infinity and Horizontal asymptotes
Continuity of a function
One sided continuity
Continuity on Intervals
Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

3 — L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

3.1 Definition of Limit

Definition 3.1.1 Formal Definition of Limit Let f be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, with the possible exception of a itself. Then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is the
number L, written as

lim f (x) = L iff

x→a

for every number ε > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that if

0 < |x − a| < δ , then | f (x) − L| < ε.

A Geometric Interpretation
Let ε > 0 be given. Draw the lines y = L + ε and y = L − ε. Since | f (x) − L| < ε is equivalent to
L − ε < x < L + ε, lim f (x) = L exists provided that we can find a number δ such that if we restrict
x→a
x to lie in the interval (a − δ , a + δ ) with x �= a, then the graph of y = f (x) lies inside the band of
width 2ε determined by the lines y = L − ε and y = L − ε . (See Figure 3.1) You can see from Figure
3.1 that once a number δ > 0 has been found, then any number smaller than d will also satisfy the
requirement.

Figure 3.1:

R
46 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

1. δ is a function of ε
2. δ is not unique
3. For all δ � < δ it is true

� Example 3.1 Show that

lim (3x − 4) = 8
x→4
�

Proof: Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − 4| < δ ⇒ | f (x) − 8| < ε
Consider
| f (x) − 8| < ε ⇒ |(3x − 4) − 8| < ε
⇒ |3x − 12| < ε
ε
⇒ |x − 4| <
3
ε
Now choose δ = . Thus
3
ε
0 < |x − 4| < δ ⇒ |(3x − 4) − 8| = |3x − 12| = 3|x − 4| < 3 = ε
3

� Example 3.2 Show that lim (x2 − 1) = 3 �

x→2

Proof: Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ | f (x) − 3| < ε
Consider
| f (x) − 3| < ε ⇒ |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε
⇒ |x2 − 4| < ε
⇒ |(x − 2)(x + 2)| < ε
Let δ = 1 , thus,
|x − 2| < 1 ⇒ −1 < x − 2 < 1
⇒ 3 < x+2 < 5
Hence, |x + 2| < 5
Thus we have
ε
|x2 − 4| = |x + 2||x − 2| < 5|x − 2| < ε ⇒ |x − 2| <
5
ε
Now choose δ = min( , 1)
5
Thus
ε
0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |(x2 − 1) − 3| < 5|x − 2| < 5 = ε
5

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

3.1 Definition of Limit 47

� Example 3.3 Using ε − δ definition of limit prove that �

1. lim (x2 + x) = 12
x→3
2. lim (x2 + x) = 6
x→−3
2 1
3. lim =
x→3 x + 3√ 3
4. lim (2 + x) = 5
x→9

Proof. 1. Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ |(x2 + x) − 12| < ε
Consider
| f (x) − 12| < ε ⇒ |(x2 + x) − 12)| < ε
⇒ |(x + 4)(x − 3)| < ε
⇒ |x + 4||x − 3| < ε
Take δ = 1, then
|x − 3| < δ ⇒ |x − 3| < 1
⇒ −1 < x − 3 < 1
⇒ 2<x<4
⇒ 6 < |x + 4| < 8
Thus we have
ε
| f (x) − 12| = |x + 4||x − 3| < 8|x − 3| < ε iff |x − 3| <
8
ε
Now choose δ = min(1, )
8
Thus,
ε
0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ |x2 + x − 12| = |x + 4||x − 3| < 8 = ε
8
2. Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − (−3)| < δ ⇒ |(x2 + x) − 6| < ε
Consider
| f (x) − 6| < ε ⇒ |(x2 + x) − 6| < ε
⇒ |(x − 2)(x + 3)| < ε
⇒ |x + 3||x − 2| < ε
Take δ = 1, then
|x + 3| < δ ⇒ |x + 3| < 1
⇒ −1 < x + 3 < 1
⇒ −4 < x < −2
⇒ −6 < x − 2 < −4
⇒ 4 < 2−x < 6
⇒ |2 − x| < 6
Thus we have
ε
| f (x) − 6| = |x + 3||x − 2| < 6|x + 3| < ε iff |x + 3| <
6
ε
Now choose δ = min(1, )
6
Thus,
ε
0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ |x2 + x − 6| = |x + 3||x − 2| < 6 = ε
6

∴ lim (x2 + x) = 6
x→−3

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

48 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

3. Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ such that

� �
� 1 ��
�
0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ � f (x) − � < ε
3
Consider
� � � �
� 1 � � 2 1 �
� f (x) − � < ε ⇒ � − �� < ε
� 3 � � x+3 3
� �
� 6 − (x + 3) �
�
⇒ � �<ε
3(x + 3) �
� �
1 �� x − 3 ��
⇒ <ε
3 �x+3�
Take δ = 1, then
|x − 3| < δ ⇒ |x − 3| < 1
⇒ −1 < x − 3 < 1
⇒ 2<x<4
⇒ 5 < |x + 3| < 7
1 1 1
⇒ < <
7 |x + 3| 5
Thus we have
1 1 1
|x − 3| < |x − 3| < ε iff |x − 3| < 15ε
3 |x + 3| 15
Now choose δ = min(1, 15ε)
Thus,
2 1 1 x−3 1
0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒ | − |= | | < 15ε = ε
x+3 3 3 x+3 15

4. Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ such that

0 < |x − 9| < δ ⇒ | f (x) − 5| < ε
Consider √
| f (x) − 5| < ε ⇒ |(2 + x) − 5| < ε
√
⇒ | x − 3| < ε
x−9
⇒ |√ |<ε
x+3
Take δ = 1, then
|x − 9| < δ ⇒ |x − 9| < 1
⇒ −1 < x − 9 < 1
⇒ 8 < x < 10
√ √ √
⇒ 8 + 3 < x + 3 < 10 + 3
1 1 1
⇒ √ < √ <√
10 + 3 | x + 3| 8+3
Thus we have
1 1 √
|x − 9| √ <√ |x − 9| < ε if f |x − 9| < ( 8 + 3)ε
| x + 3| √8 + 3
Now choose δ = min(1, ( 8 + 3)ε)
Thus, � �
√ � x−9 �
0 < |x − 9| < δ ⇒ |(2 + x − 5| = �√ �
� x+3�
1 √
< √ ( 8 + 3)ε = ε
8+3
�

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

 3.2 Basic Limit Theorems 49

3.2 Basic Limit Theorems

Theorem 3.2.1 If m and b are any constants, then lim (mx + b) = ma + b
x→a

Theorem 3.2.2 If c is a constant, then for any number a, lim c = c

x→a

Theorem 3.2.3 If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M then;

x→a x→a

1. lim ( f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = L ± M

x→a x→a x→a
2. lim ( f (x).g(x)) = lim f (x). lim g(x) = L.M
x→a x→a x→a
lim f (x)
f (x) x→a L
3. lim = = provided that M �= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) M
x→a

Theorem 3.2.4 If lim f (x) = L and n is any positive integer, then

x→a

lim [ f (x)]n = Ln
x→a

Theorem 3.2.5 If lim f (x) = L, then

x→a � √
n n
lim f (x) = L
x→a

if L > 0 and n is any positive integer, or if L ≤ 0 and n is a positive odd integer

Theorem 3.2.6 If f and g are functions such that lim g(x) = L and lim f (x) = f (L), then
� x→a
� x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) = f (L)
x→a x→a

� Example 3.4 Evaluate the following limit

�
(a) lim (3x2 − 2x + 1)3 x−9 (g) lim
3
3x2 − 4x + 9
x→−1 (d) lim √ x→5
x→9 x − 3
3x3 − 5x2 − 1 √ √ x3 − 1
(b) lim x+1− 1−x (h) lim
x→1 2x − 3 (e) lim x→9 x − 1
2x2 − 5x + 2 x→0 x√ 3x − 3
(c) lim 2 x2/3 + 3 x (i) lim √
x→2 5x − 7x − 6 (f) lim 3
x→1 x + 7 − 2
x→8 4 − 16/x

√
Solution: (i) Let t = lim 3 x + 7 =⇒ t 3 = x + 7 =⇒ x = t 3 − 7
x→1
Observe that as x approaches 1, t approaches 2. Therefore

3x − 3 3(t 3 − 7) − 3 3t 3 − 24
lim √ = lim = lim
x→1 3
x+7−2 t→2 t −2 t→2 t − 2
2
3(t − 2)(t + 2t + 4)
= lim = lim 3(t 2 + 2t + 4) = 36
t→2 t −2 t→2

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

 50 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

3.3 One sided Limits

Definition 3.3.1 1. Let f be a function which is defined at every number in some open interval
(a, c). Then the limit of f (x), as x approaches a from the right, is L, written
lim+ f (x) = L
x→a
if for any ε > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that,
| f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < x − a < δ

2. Let f be a function which is defined at every number in some open interval (d, a). Then the
limit of f (x), as x approaches a from the left, is L, written
lim− f (x) = L
x→a
if for any ε > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that,
| f (x) − L| < ε whenever −δ < x − a < 0

Theorem 3.3.1 If f is defined throughout an open interval containing a, except possibly at a itself,
then lim f (x) = L if and only if both lim+ f (x) = L and lim− f (x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

√
� Example 3.5 Find lim (1 + x − 2) �
x→2+

|x|
� Example 3.6 Suppose f (x) = if x �= 0 and f (0) = 1. Find lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x). What is
x x→0 x→0
lim f (x)? �
x→0

�
x + 3 if x �= 1
� Example 3.7 Suppose f (x) = �
2, if x=1

�
−x + 3 if x≤2
� Example 3.8 Suppose f (x) = √ �
x − 2, if x≥2

The Squeeze Theorem

Theorem 3.3.2 The Squeeze Theorem
Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval containing a, except possibly at a, and

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

x→a x→a

Then

lim g(x) = L
x→a

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

3.3 One sided Limits 51

Figure1: An illustration of the Squeeze Theorem

1
� Example 3.9 Find lim x2 sin �
x→0 x

Solution: Since −1 ≤ sint ≤ 1 for every real number t, we have

1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1 f or every x �= 0
x
Therefore
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2 , x �= 0
x
1
Let f (x) = −x2 , g(x) = x2 sin , and h(x) = x2 .Then
x
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x).
Since
lim f (x) = lim (−x2 ) = 0 and lim h(x) = lim x2 = 0
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
The squeeze theorem implies that
1
lim h(x) = lim x2 sin = 0
x→0 x→0 x

Theorem 3.3.3

sin θ
lim =1
θ →0 θ

π
Proof: First, suppose that 0 < x < . The Figure below shows a sector of a circle of radius 1.
2
The area A of a sector with radius r and a central angle of θ radians can be derived by:
� �
A θ area of the sector central angle of the sector
= =
πr2 2π area of the circle centar angle of the circle
From the figure we see that
1 1 1
Area of � OAB = base.height = (1) sin θ = sin θ
2 2 2
1 2 1
Area of sector OAB = r θ = θ
2 2
1 1 1
Area of � OAC = base.height = (1) tan θ = tan θ
2 2 2

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52 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

Since 0 < Area of � OAB < Area of sector OAB < Area of � OAC, we have,
1 1 1
0< sin θ < θ < tan θ
2 2 2
Multiplying through by (2/ sin θ ) and keeping in mind that sin θ > 0 and cos θ > 0 for 0 < θ < π/2
we obtain
θ 1
1< <
sin θ cos θ
or, upon taking reciprocals,
sin θ
cos θ < <1
θ
sin θ
Let f (θ ) = cos θ , g(θ ) = , h(θ ) = 1 Observe that,
θ
lim f (0) = lim cos θ = 1 = lim h(θ )
θ →0 θ →0 θ →0

Then the squeeze Theorem implies that

sin θ
lim g(θ ) = lim =1
θ →0 θ →0 θ

Theorem 3.3.4

cos θ − 1
lim =0
θ →0 θ

� Example 3.10 Find

sin 2x 2x + 1 − cos x
(a) lim (c) lim
x→0 3x x→0 4x
tan x
(b) lim
x→0 x

Solution:
sin 2x 2 sin 2x 2 2
(a) lim = lim = (1) =
x→0 3x x→0 3 2x 3 3
tan x 1 sin x 1
(b) lim = lim = (1) = 1
x→0 x x→0 cos x x cos 0
2x + 1 − cos x 2x cos x − 1 2 1
(c) lim = lim − = − (1)(0) =
x→0 4x x→0 4x 4x 4 2

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

 3.4 Infinite Limits, Limit at infinity and Asymptotes 53

3.4 Infinite Limits, Limit at infinity and Asymptotes

3.4.1 Infinite limits and Vertical Asymptotes
Definition 3.4.1 Let f be defined on an interval that contains a except possibly at a itself. Then
1. lim f (x) = ∞ iff for every M > 0, there is a δ > 0, such that
x→a

if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then f (x) > M

2. lim f (x) = −∞ iff for every N > 0, there is a δ > 0,

x→a

if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then f (x) < N

Definition 3.4.2 The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if any one
of the following limits holds true:
lim− f (x) = ±∞, lim− f (x) = ±∞, lim f (x) = ±∞
x→a x→a x→a

1
� Example 3.11 Show that lim 2 = ∞ �
x→0 x

Solution: Let M > 0 be given. We want to show that there exists a δ > 0 such that
1
> M whenever 0 < |x − 0| < δ .
x2
To find δ , consider
1
>M
x2
1 1
x2 < =⇒ |x| < √
M M
1
Choose δ = √ . Thus, |x| < δ =⇒ x2 < δ 2
M
1 1
so > 2 ≥M
x 2 δ

2x x2 + x + 2
� Example 3.12 (a) lim+ =∞ (c) lim+ =∞
x→3 x−3 x→3 x2 − 2x − 3
2x
(b) lim− = −∞
x→3 x − 3

2x
Therefore, the line x = 3 is the vertical asymptote of f (x) =
x−3

3.4.2 Limit at infinity and Horizontal asymptotes

Definition 3.4.3 1. Let f be defined on an interval (a, ∞), then
lim f (x) = L iff
x→∞
for every ε > 0 there is a number M > 0 such that if x > M, then | f (x) − L| < ε.
2. Let f be defined on an interval (−∞, a), then
lim f (x) = L iff
x→−∞
for every ε > 0 there is a number M < 0 such that if x < M, then | f (x) − L| < ε.

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54 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

Definition 3.4.4 The line y = L is called horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L , or lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞

� Example 3.13 Find

1 x2 + 1
(a) lim =0 (d) lim
x→∞ x x→−∞ x − 2
1 3x
(b) lim = 0 (e) lim √
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x2 + 1
2x2 − x + 1
(c) lim 2
x→∞ 3x + 2x − 1

1
Therefore, the line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of f (x) =
x

� Example 3.14 Find the vertical √

and horizontal asymptotes of the graph of
9x2 + 1
f (x) = �
3x − 5

Solution:
1. To find vertical
√ asymptote
9x2 + 1
lim− = −∞
5 3x − 5
x→
3
5
Thus, the line x = is the vertical asymptote of f (x)
3
2. To find the horizontal Asymptote �
√ 1
x2 (9 + 2 )
9x2 + 1 x
lim = lim
x→∞ 3x − 5 x→∞ 3x − 5
�
1
x 9+ 2 √
x
= lim , since x > 0, x2 = x
x→∞ 3x − 5
� �
1 1 √
x 9+ 2 9+ 2
x x 9
= lim = lim = =1
x→∞ 5 x→∞ 5 3
x(3 − ) (3 − )
x x
Again, � �
√ 2
1 1
x (9 + 2 ) (−x) 9 + 2 √
9x2 + 1 x x
lim = lim = lim , since x < 0, x2 = −x
x→−∞ 3x − 5 x→−∞ 3x − 5 x→−∞ 3x − 5
� �
1 1 √
(−x) 9 + 2 (−1) 9 + 2
x x − 9
= lim = lim = = −1
x→−∞ 5 x→−∞ 5 3
x(3 − ) (3 − )
x x
Thus, the lines y = 1 and y = −1 are the horizontal asymptote of f (x)

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

 3.5 Continuity of a function 55

Exercise 3.1 Find the asymptote of the following functions

2x
1. f (x) =
1 − x2
2x − 5
2. g(x) = 3
x − 2x2 + x
�

3.5 Continuity of a function

Definition 3.5.1 A function f is said to be continuous at a if lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a

Note: If f is continuous at a, then

1. f (a) is defined
2. lim f (x) exists
x→a
3. lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
If f is not continuous at a, then we say that f is discontinuous at a.

� Example 3.15 Find the points of discontinuity of

x2 − x − 2 2x
1. f (x) = 3. f (x) =
x−2 1 − x2
 2
 1 , i f x �= 0 x −x−2
, if x �= 2
2. f (x) = x2 4. f (x) = x−2
1, i f x = 0 
1, if x=2

3.5.1 One sided continuity

Definition 3.5.2 1. f is said to be continuous from the right at a if
lim+ f (x) = f (a)
x→a
2. f is said to be continuous from the left at a if
lim− f (x) = f (a)
x→a

�
2x + 1 if x < 1
� Example 3.16 Let f (x) =
x2 − 2 if x ≥ 1
Determine whether f is continuous from the right at 1 and/or from the left at 1. �

Solution: Because
lim f (x) = lim− (2x + 1) = 3 �= f (1) = −1.
x→1− x→1
Hence, f is not continuous from the left at 1
lim+ f (x) = lim+ (2x + 1) = −1 = f (1) = −1.
x→1 x→1
Hence, f is continuous from the right at 1.

R A function f is continuous at a if and only if f is simultaneously continuous from the right and
from the left at a.

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 56 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

3.5.2 Continuity on Intervals

Definition 3.5.3 A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous

at each point of (a, b). A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on
(a, b) and is also continuous from the right at a and from the left at b . A function f is continuous
on a half-open interval [a, b) or (a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b) and f is continuous from the
right at a or f is continuous from the left at b , respectively.

�
� Example 3.17 Show that the function f defined by f (x) = 9 − x2 is continuous on the closed
interval [−3, 3] . �

Solution: We first show that f is continuous on (−3, 3) . Let a be any number in (−3, 3). Then, using
the laws of limits, we have
� �
lim f (x) = lim 9 − x2 = 9 − a2 = f (a)
x→a x→a
and this proves the assertion.
Next, let us show that f is continuous from the right at −3 and from the left at 3.
Again, by invoking the limit properties, we see that
� �
lim + f (x) = lim + 9 − x2 = 9 − 32 = 0 = f (−3)
x→−3 x→−3
and
� �
lim− f (x) = lim− 9 − x2 = 9 − 32 = 0 = f (3) and this proves the
x→3 x→3
assertion. Therefore, f is continuous on [−3, 3] .

Theorem 3.5.1 If f and g are continuous at a, and c is a constant then the following are also
continuous at a.

(a) f ± g, (b) c f , (c) f g, f

(d) , if g(a) �= 0
g

Theorem 3.5.2 The following functions:

Polynomial, Rationals, Root functions, Trigonometric functions, Inverse trigonometric functions,
exponential functions and Logarithmic functions are continuous on thier domain.

Theorem 3.5.3 If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b, then

x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b) i.e., lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x))
x→a x→a x→a

Theorem 3.5.4 If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then f og is continuous at a i.e.,

lim f (g(x)) = f (g(a))
x→a

� Example 3.18 Find the constanta and b such that

 ax + 3, i f x > 1
f (x) = 4 if x = 1
 2
x +b if x < 1
is continuous at x = 1 �

Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I

 3.5 Continuity of a function 57

Solution: f is continuous at a iff lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = f (a)

x→a x→a

lim f (x) = f (1) ⇒ lim (ax + 3) = f (1)

x→1+ x→1+
⇒ a+3 = 4 ⇒ a = 4−3 = 1
and
lim f (x) = f (1) ⇒ lim (x2 + b) = f (1)
x→1− x→1−
⇒ 1+b = 4 ⇒ b = 4−1 = 3

Determine whether f is continuous or discontinuous at a.

Exercise 3.2 √
1. f (x) = x − 2; a = 2
 |x − 4| for x �= 4 a=4
2. f (x) = x − 4
e4−x for x = 4

x sin 1 if x �= 0 a=0
3. f (x) = x
2 if x = 0
�

3.5.3 Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Theorem 3.5.5 Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
If f ∈ C[a, b] and k is any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) �= f (b) then there exist a
number c in (a, b) for which f (c) = k

Theorem 3.5.6 IVT for Locating root

If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs, then there exists at least one
number x0 in (a, b) such that f (x0 ) = 0.

Figure 3.2: Solution of f (x) = 0 between x = a and x = b

� Example 3.19 Show that the equation

x5 − 2x4 − 2x3 + 8x2 − 3x − 3
has a solution between 1 and 2 �

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58 L IMIT AND C ONTINUITY

Solution: Let
f (x) = x5 − 2x4 − 2x3 + 8x2 − 3x − 3
Since f is a polynomial function, then f is continuous on R .
Note that f (1) = −1 and f (2) = 7
Thus, f (1) < 0 < f (2)
i.e., k = 0 is between f (1) and f (2)
So, by the IVT there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0.

Exercise 3.3 Show that the equation given below has at least one real root.
1. 2x3 + x2 − x + 1 = 5 in [1, 2]
π
2. x + tanx = 1 in [0, ]
4
3. x5 − x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 in [−1, 0]
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Zena S. @ ASTU, 2017 Applied Mathematics I