REACTIVE POWER

–
VOLTAGE CONTROL

K.MAHESH KUMAR,
AP(Sr.Gr)/EEE
 Introduction
 The voltage at various buses of the power system
needs to be maintained at rated values within
certain specified limits.
The voltage at a bus can be controlled by the
injection of reactive power of the correct sign.
Various reactive power sources are used for
controlling the voltage such as Excitation
Systems, Static capacitors, Shunt reactors,
Synchronous compensators and static VAR
compensators and other means are tap-changing
transformers and regulating transformers.
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive
Power
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS:
Synchronous machines can be made to generate or
absorb reactive power.
The ability to supply reactive power is determined
by the short circuit ratio.
Short Circuit Ratio = 1
Xs
where Xs is the synchronous reactance
 However the VAR capacity can be increased by
the continuously acting voltage regulators
An over excited machine generate reactive power
while under excited machine absorbs reactive
power.
OVER HEADLINES:
Fully loaded lines absorb reactive power.
Reactive power absorbed = I2X / phase
Where I is current in Amperes for a line of
reactance X ohms/ phase
 The shunt capacitance of lightly loaded lines may
become predominant and the lines become VAR
generators.
TRANSFORMERS:
Transformers always absorb reactive power.
(VA of load) 2
Therefore VARs absorbed = * XT
Xs

CABLES:
When current flows through a line or cable it
produces a magnetic field which absorbs reactive
power.
In the case of cables designed for use at 275 or
400kV the reactive power generated by the
electric field is always greater than the reactive
power absorbed by the magnetic field and so
cables are always net generators of reactive power
owing to that of high capacitance.
SHUNT CAPACITORS & SHUNT REACTORS:
Shunt Capacitors offers the cheapest means of Q
supply
Shunt Reactors offers the cheapest means of Q
absorption
LOADS:

If P > 0, Circuit absorbs real power

If P < 0, Circuit generates real power
If Q > 0, Circuit absorbs reactive power (I lags V)
If Q < 0, Circuit generates reactive power (I leads V)
Reactive power Q is exchanged between inductive
and capacitive loads in the network and influences
the voltage in the network.
 Excitation Systems
 The excitation system consists of an exciter and
automatic voltage regulator.
 The function of an exciter is to provide the necessary
field current to the rotor winding of the alternator.
When the excitation system has also the task of
maintaining the terminal voltage of the alternator
constant under varying load conditions, it
incorporates voltage regulator.
 Voltage Regulator, sensing the requirement from the
terminal voltage of the alternator, actuates the exciter
for the necessary increase or decrease in the voltage
across the alternator field.
There are two schemes for supplying the excitation:
Common Excitation bus scheme
Unit Exciter scheme.
Common Excitation Bus Scheme
 In this scheme, two or more exciters feed a bus bar
to which field systems of all alternators are
connected.
Unit Exciter Scheme
In this scheme, each alternator is fed from its own
exciter. The unit exciter scheme is more preferable,
because a fault in common excitation bus scheme
affects all alternators.
Advantages of the Unit Exciter Scheme
Greater reliability
Simple layout of the station
Better suitability to the use of automatic
voltage regulator.

Some exciters operate self excited, others are

separately excited and still others use a
combination of both
General Structure of Excitation System

This is the General Structure of Excitation System

and the elements are described in brief
Synchronous generator
Synchronous generator is a machine, run by a
prime mover and generates A.C. three-phase
power.
The terminal voltage of the generator is maintained
constant during varying load conditions with the
help of excitation system in conjunction with
voltage regulator.
Exciter
The purpose of the exciter is to supply field current
to the rotor field of the synchronous generator.
It may be a DC generator driven by a prime
mover.
But in the modern systems of excitation, solid
state devices, usually thyristors are used for
rectification of AC voltage into DC voltage.
Voltage Regulator
Voltage Regulator, working in conjunction with
the exciter, tries to maintain terminal voltage of
alternator constant.
The voltage regulator is the heart of the excitation
system.
In fact voltage regulator couples the output
variables of the synchronous generator to the
input of the exciter through feed back elements
for the purpose of regulating the synchronous
machine output variables.

Types of excitation systems*

• DC excitation system
• AC excitation system
• Static excitation system
• Brushless excitation system
( *self study topics)
 DC excitation system
In DC excitation system, the field of the main
synchronous generator is fed from a DC
generator, called exciter.
Since the field of the synchronous generator is in
the rotor, the required field current is supplied to
it through slip rings and brushes.
The DC generator is driven from the same turbine
shaft as the generator itself.
The exciter may be driven by a motor or the shaft
of the generator. It may be either self excited or
separately excited
When separately excited, the exciter field is
supplied by a pivot exciter comprising
a permanent magnet generator.
This type of DC excitation system has slow
response.
Normally for 10 MVA synchronous generator, the
exciter power rating should be 20 to 35 KW for
which we require huge the DC generator.
For these reasons, DC excitation systems are
gradually disappearing.
 AC excitation system
In AC excitation system, the DC generator is
replaced by an alternator of sufficient rating, so
that it can supply the required field current to the
field of the main synchronous generator.
In this scheme, three phase alternator voltage is
rectified and the necessary DC supply is obtained.
Generally, two sets of slip rings, one to feed the
rotating field of the alternator and the other to
supply the rotating field of the synchronous
generator, are required.
Brushless excitation system
Old type AC excitation system has been replaced
by brushless AC excitation system wherein,
inverted alternator (with field at the stator and
armature at the rotor) is used as exciter.
A full wave rectifier converts the exciter AC
voltage to DC voltage.
The armature of the exciter, the full wave rectifier
and the field of the synchronous generator form
the rotating components.
The rotating components are mounted on a
common shaft.
The advantage of this method of excitation is
that the moving contacts such as slip rings and
brushes are completely eliminated thus offering
smooth and maintenance-free operation.
A permanent-magnet generator serves as the
power source for the exciter field.
The output of the permanent magnet generator is
rectified with thyristor network and is applied to
the exciter field.
The voltage regulator measures the output or
terminal voltage, compares it with a set reference
and utilizes the error signal, if any, to control the
gate pulses of the thyristor network.
 Static excitation system
In static excitation system, a portion of the AC
from each phase of synchronous generator output
is fed back to the field windings, as DC
excitations, through a system of transformers,
rectifiers, and reactors.
An external source of DC is necessary for initial
excitation of the field windings. On engine driven
generators, the initial excitation may be obtained
from the storage batteries used to start the engine.
A major advantage of such a system is that, when
required the field voltage can be varied through a
full range of positive to negative values very
rapidly with the ultimate benefit of generator
Voltage regulation during transient disturbances.
The thyristor network consists of either 3-phase
fully controlled or semi controlled bridge
rectifiers.
Field suppression resistor dissipates Energy in
the field circuit while the field breaker ensures
field isolation during generator faults.
 MODELING OF EXCITATION
SYSTEM
Mathematical model of excitation system are
essential for the assessment of desired
performance requirement, for the design and
coordination of supplementary control and
protective circuits, and for system stability
studies related to the planning and purpose of
study.
A simplified block diagram of the generator
voltage control system is shown in the diagram
The generator terminal voltage Vt is compared
with a voltage reference Vref to obtain a voltage
error signal ∆V.
This signal is applied to the voltage regulator
shown as a block with transfer function KA/
(1+TAs).
The output of the regulator is then applied to
exciter shown with a block of transfer function
Ke/ (1+Tes).
The output of the exciter Efd is then applied to
the field winding which adjusts the generator
terminal voltage.
The generator field can be represented by a block
with a transfer function KF/(1+sTF). The total
transfer function

The stabilizing compensator shown in the

diagram is used to improve the dynamic response
of the exciter. The input to this block is the
exciter voltage and the output is a stabilizing
feedback signal to reduce the excessive
overshoot.
 Performance of AVR loop
The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the
generator terminal voltage within acceptable
values.
A static accuracy limit in percentage is
specified for the AVR, so that the terminal
voltage is maintained within that value.
For example, if the accuracy limit is 4%, then
the terminal voltage must be maintained within
4% of the base voltage.
Relation between Voltage, Power
and Reactive power at a node
The phase voltage V at a node is a function of P
and Q at that node
V= ϕ (P,Q)

Taking the total differential of V, we get

dv= ∂V .dP + ∂V .dQ 1

∂P ∂Q
 ∂P ∂V ∂Q ∂V
Using . = 1 and . =1 , we get
∂V ∂P ∂V ∂Q
dP dQ
dv = + 2
∂P/∂V ∂Q/∂V

From the above equation , it can be seen that the

change in voltage at a node is defined by the two
quantities
( ∂P/∂V ) and ( ∂Q/∂V )
As an example, Consider a transmission line
between buses 1 and 2, which is supplying power
to a load connected at bus 2. Bus 1 is the sending-
end bus and bus 2 is the receiving-end bus. The
line has an impedance of (R + j X) Ω and zero
shunt admittance as shown in Figure.
From the line,
PR + QX
∆V = V1 - V =
V

(V1 – V ) V = PR + QX
(V1 – V ) V - PR - QX = 0 3
PR = (V1 – V ) V – QX
P = (V1 – V ) V – QX
R
∂P V1 – 2V
Taking partial derivatives, =
∂V R
4
From equation 4, We can also write
QX = (V1 – V ) V – PR
Q = (V1 – V ) V – PR
X
∂Q V1 – 2V
Taking partial derivatives, =
∂V X
5
Substitute eqns 4 and 5 in eqn 2 , we get
Upon simplifying, we get
R dP + X dQ
dv = V1 – 2V 7

This is the required relation between

Voltage, Power and Reactive power at a node.
Inference:
For constant V and ∆ V, R dP + X dQ = 0.
Smaller the value of X, larger the value of (∂Q/∂V)
When there is short circuit at a node , then the
magnitude of (∂Q/∂V) is equal to the short circuit
current and the sign decides the nature of Q.