What is a Structured Query Language (SQL)?

SQL is a standard language for storing, retrieving and

manipulating data on a relational database. All the relational
database like MySql, Oracle, MS Access, SQL server uses
Structured query language(SQL) for accessing and manipulating
data.

SQL provides wide range of effective command to perform all sort

of required operations on data such as create tables, insert
record, view recodes, update, alter, delete, drop, etc.

What is DDL and DML?

All the SQL commands are categorized into five categories:
DDL,DML,DCL,DQL,TCL. In this course we are going to cover only
DDL and DML commands in detail.

Data definition Language(DDL): Data Definition Language

actually consists of the SQL commands that can be used to define
the database schema. It simply deals with descriptions of the
database schema and is used to create and modify the structure
of database objects in the database. Example: Create, Drop, Alter,
Truncate.

Data Manipulation Language(DML): The SQL commands that

deals with the manipulation of data present in the database
belong to DML or Data Manipulation Language and this includes
most of the SQL statements. Example: Insert, Delete, Update.

Data Types in MySQL

Data stored in a database table are of different types, As SQL
developers we have chose the suitable data types for each field
while defining a table. SQL offers supports a wide range of data
types from which the developer can choose the most appropriate
data types for each column.

char(size): used for fixed length string data.

Example: A column defined as char(10) , it can contain string

values of maximum 10 length. SQL allocates 10 bytes of memory
irrespective of legth of data to be stored.

varchar(size): used for variable length string data.

Example: If a column defined as varchar(10) , SQL allocates
maximum 10 bytes to each value, but bytes allocated may vary
depending on the length of data.

int( ): Used for integer/digits data without decimal. Can

accommodate maximum 11 digit numbers.

float(M,D): Permits real numbers upto M digits, out of which may

be D digits after decimal .

Example: a column data type defined as float(6,3) may have

234.684

Date: used to store date in YYYY-MM-DD format.

Constraints In SQL
constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
Commonly used constraints are:

Not Null- Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

Unique- Ensures that all values in a column are different

Primary Key- A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE.

Uniquely identifies each row in a table

Foreign Key- Prevents actions that would destroy links between

tables

Check – Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific

condition

Default- Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

MySql Commands
CREATE Database: Used to create a new database.

Syntax: CREATE DATABASE <database name>

e.g. CREATE Database MySchool;

SHOW Databases: Used to list all existing databases.

Syntax: SHOW Databases;

DROP Database: Used to delete an existing database.

Syntax: DROP Database <databasename>

e.g. DROP Database MyStore;

USE Database: Used to select/enter a existing database.

e.g. USE MySchool;

Show Tables: After a database has been selected this command

can be Used to list all the tables in the database. e.g. SHOW
TABLES;

CREATE Table:

Syntax: CREATE TABLE <table name>( column1 datatype,

column2 datatype,

……..

columnN datatype,

PRIMARY KEY( one or

more columns ) );

E.g. CREATE TABLE cs_students(sid int(3), sname varchar(30),

sclass int(2), smark int(3), skill varchar(30), primary key(sid));

Creating a table with multiple constraints:

CREATE TABLE Employee (Eid int(5) Primary Key,

Ename varchar(30) Not Null,

 age int(2),

Dept varchar(20) Default

“Manufacturing”,

contactno int(10) unique,

Constraint ChkAge
Check(Age>18));

DESCRIBE Tables: A DDL command to display the structure of

the table.

Syntax: DESCRIBE <table name>;

ALTER Tables:

ALTER TABLE is a DDL command that can change the structure of

the table. Using ALTER TABLE command we can add, delete or
modify the attributes/constraints of a table.

Adding a column using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD column <Column

Name Data type>;
Deleting a column using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> DROP column <Column

Name >;

Modify a column using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> MODIFY column <Column

Name Data type>;

E.g. MODIFY the data type of an existing column

Adding a Primary Key Constraint using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD Primary Key (<column

names>);

Drop Primary Key Constraint using Alter table:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table name> DROP Primary Key;

DROP Tables: DROP TABLE is a DDL command used to delete a

table from the database.
Syntax: DROP TABLE <table name>;

E.g. DROP Table Employee;

INSERT INTO:

INSERT is a DML command used to insert a new record/row in an

existing table.

Syntax: INSERT INTO <Table Name> values (val1,val2,val3..);

Insert a new record in the table with specific field value.

Syntax: INSERT INTO <Table Name>

(Column1,Column2,..ColumnN) values (val1,val2,..valN);

SELECT Command:

Used to retrieve and display data from the tables .

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2,..

FROM <Table Name>;

To Select all the columns from the table:

SELECT * FROM <Table Name>;

WHERE Clause:

The WHERE Clause can be used with SELECT command to select

the data from the table based on some condition.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2,..

FROM <Table Name>

WHERE <condition>;

Operators That Can Be Used In Where Clause :

Mathematical: +, -, *, /

Relational: >, >=, <, <=, =, <>

Logical: AND, OR, NOT

E.g. Select * From cs_students WHERE smark>90;

To select ID and Name of the students whose skill is Database:

Using Logical Operators in Where clause:

IN Operator: Used To specify multiple possible values for a

column

E.g. Select * from cs_student where skill in(“Networking”,

”Database”);
BETWEEN Operator: Used To specify values in a certain range.

E.g. Select * from cs_student where smark BETWEEN 95 AND 100;

DISTINCT Clause: Used to retrieve the distinct values in a field.

Syntax: Select * from student where mark is null;

ORDER BY: It is used to sort the data in ascending or descending

order.
By default ORDER BY sort the data in ascending order, for
descending order we need to use ”DESC”.

Handling NULL Values: To handle NULL entries in a field we can

use “IS” and “IS NOT”, as NULL value is a Value which is Unknown
so we can use =, <> operators to select NULL values.
Lets Consider the Employee table above, to select all the
employees whose salary is specified as NULL in the salary field we
must use IS NULL operator.

LIKE OPERATOR

LIKE is used for string matching in MySql, it can be used for

comparison of character strings using pattern. LIKE uses the
following two wildcard characters to create string patterns.

•Percent(%): used to match a substring of any length.

•Underscore( _ ): Used to match any single character.

The LIKE keyword selects the rows having column values that
matches with the wildcard pattern.

Update Command

UPDATE is a DML command used to change values in the rows of a

existing table. It specifies the rows to be changed using WHERE
clause and the new values to be updated using SET keyword.

Syntax: UPDATE <Table Name> SET column=<new value>

WHERE <condition>

E.g. To change the salary to 70000 of the employee having Eid

204.

UPDATE employee SET salary=70000 WHERE Eid=204.

To change the Department of an employee

UPDATE employee SET Dept=“Marketing” where Ename=“Kunal”;

Delete Command :

Delete is a DML command used to delete rows of an existing

table. It specifies the rows to be deleted using WHERE clause.

Syntax: DELETE FROM <Table Name> WHERE <condition;

To delete the record/row of the employee having Eid 204.

DELETE FROM employee WHERE Eid=204;

To delete the records of all the employee working in Sales

Department.

DELETE FROM employee WHERE Dept=“salary”;

To delete all rows of employee table

DELETE FROM employee;

Aggregate Functions :
MySql supports the following aggregate/multiple row functions:

•count( ): returns the number of rows in the given column or

expression.

•min( ): returns the minimum value in the given column or

expression.

•max( ): returns the maximum value in the given column or

expression.

•sum( ): returns the sum of values in the given column or

expression.

•avg( ): returns the average of values in the given column or

expression.

Let us Consider the employee table:

SELECT sum(salary) FROM

employee;

Result: 80000

SELECT avg(salary) FROM

employee;

Result: 26666.6666

SELECT max(salary) FROM employee;

Result: 32000

SELECT min(salary) FROM employee;

Result: 23000

SELECT count(salary) FROM employee;

Result: 3

SELECT count(*) FROM employee;

Result: 5

GROUP BY:
•GROUP BY clause combines all those records that have identical
values in a particular field or a group of fields.

•It is used in SELECT statement to divide the table into groups.

Grouping can be done by a column name or with aggregate
functions.

For Example let up consider the cs_students table,

To find the number of students in each skill, we can use the
command.

SELECT skill, count(*) from cs_students GROUP BY skill;

Let us now consider the Employee Table

To find the average salary of employees of each department, we

can use the command.

SELECT dept, avg(salary) from employee GROUP BY dept;

HAVING Clause:
HAVING clause is used to apply conditions on groups in contrast to
WHERE clause which is used to apply conditions on individual
rows.

Let us consider the cs_students table,

To find the average marks of the group of students having a

particular skill , where the skill group must have at least 5
students.

SELECT skill, avg(smark) FROM cs_students GROUP BY skill

HAVING count(*)>=5;

Let us consider the employee table,

To find the average salary of employees of each department,
where the average age of all the employees working in the
department is less then 32.

SELECT dept,avg(salary) FROM employee GROUP BY dept HAVING

avg(age)>32;

JOIN:
A JOIN clause combines rows from two or more tables. In a join
query, more then one table are listed in FORM clause.

Types of Join Operation:

•Cartesian product on two tables,

•Equi-join

•Natural join

Cartesian Product (X):

The Cartesian Product operation of two tables produces all

possible concatenations of all the rows of both tables.
The Cartesian product(also known as Cross Join) multiplies all
rows present in the first table with all the rows present in the
second table

Syntax: SELECT * FROM Table1,Table2;

Or

SELECT * FROM Table1 CROSS JOIN Table2;

The Cardinality of cartesian product of two relations R1 and R2 is

equal to the multiplication of cardinalities of R1 and R2. Whereas
The Degree of cartesian Product is equal to addition of degrees of
R1 and R2.

Cartesian Product (X) Example:

Let us Consider the Cartesian Product/Cross Join the of following

Customer and Order Tables
Equi Join :

To perform Equi/Inner Join on two relations R1 and R2, we have to

specify a equality condition using the common attribute in both
the relations R1 and R2. Syntax: SELECT * FROM R1 Inner Join
R2.
Natural Join :

The Join in which only one of the identical columns(coming from

joined tables) exists, is called as Natural Join.

The Equi Join and Natural join are equivalent except that duplicate
columns are eliminated in the Natural Join that would otherwise
appear in Equi Join.

Syntax: SELECT * FROM Table1 Natural Join Table2