Requirements for

Buckling and Ultimate Strength Assessment

for Offshore Structures

July 2022
REQUIREMENTS FOR

BUCKLING AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT

FOR OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
JULY 2022

American Bureau of Shipping

Incorporated by Act of Legislature of
the State of New York 1862

© 2022 American Bureau of Shipping. All rights reserved.

ABS Plaza
1701 City Plaza Drive
Spring, TX 77389 USA
Foreword (1 July 2022)
These Requirements for the Buckling and Ultimate Strength Assessment of Offshore Structures, referred to
herein as “this document”, provide criteria that can be used in association with specific Rules and Guides
issued by ABS for the classification of specific types of Offshore Structures. The specific Rules and
Guides that this document supplements are the latest editions of the following.

● Rules for Building and Classing Offshore Installations [for steel structure only]
● Rules for Building and Classing Mobile Offshore Units (MOUs)
● Rules for Building and Classing Single Point Moorings (SPMs)
● Rules for Building and Classing Floating Production Installations (FPIs) [for non ship-type hulls].

In case of conflict between the criteria contained in this document and the above-mentioned Rules, the
latter will have precedence.

These criteria are not to be applied to ship-type FPIs which are being reviewed to receive a SafeHull-
related Classification Notation. (This includes ship-type FPIs receiving the SafeHull-Dynamic Load
Approach Classification Notation) In these vessel-related cases, the criteria based on the contents of Part
5C of the ABS Rules for Building and Classing Marine Vessels (MVR) apply.

The criteria presented in this document may also apply in other situations such as the certification or
verification of a structural design for compliance with the Regulations of a Governmental Authority.
However, in such a case, the criteria specified by the Governmental Authority should be used, but they
may not produce a design that is equivalent to one obtained from the application of the criteria contained in
this document. Where the mandated technical criteria of the cognizant Governmental Authority for
certification differ from those contained herein, ABS will consider the acceptance of such criteria as an
alternative to those given herein so that, at the Owner or Operator’s request, both certification and
classification may be granted to the Offshore Structure.

The July 2022 version changes the document type from “Guide” to “Requirements”. “Requirements”
documents contain mandatory criteria for Classification and issuance of Class Certificates, while Guides
contain only requirements for optional Notations (see 1-1-4/1.5 of the ABS Rules for Conditions of
Classification (Part 1)). The title is changed from "Guide for Buckling and Ultimate Strength Assessment
for Offshore Structures" to "Requirements for Buckling and Ultimate Strength Assessment for Offshore
Structures". Accordingly, editorial changes are made throughout this document.

ABS welcomes questions on the applicability of the criteria contained herein as they may apply to a
specific situation and project.

ABS also appreciates the receipt of comments, suggestions and technical and application questions for the
improvement of this document. For this purpose, enquiries can be sent electronically to [email protected].

ABS REQUIREMENTS FOR BUCKLING AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT FOR OFFSHORE ii
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REQUIREMENTS FOR

BUCKLING AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT

FOR OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

CONTENTS

SECTION 1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 8
1 General .......................................................................................... 8
3 Scope of this Document..................................................................8
5 Tolerances and Imperfections.........................................................8
7 Gross Scantlings.............................................................................9
9 Loadings......................................................................................... 9
11 Maximum Allowable Strength Utilization Factors............................9

SECTION 2 Individual Structural Members..........................................................11

1 General......................................................................................... 11
1.1 Geometries and Properties of Structural Members..........11
1.3 Load Application.............................................................. 11
1.5 Failure Modes.................................................................. 12
1.7 Cross Section Classification............................................ 16
1.9 Adjustment Factor............................................................16
3 Members Subjected to a Single Action.........................................16
3.1 Axial Tension....................................................................16
3.3 Axial Compression...........................................................17
3.5 Bending Moment..............................................................20
5 Members Subjected to Combined Loads......................................21
5.1 Axial Tension and Bending Moment................................ 21
5.3 Axial Compression and Bending Moment........................22
7 Tubular Members Subjected to Combined Loads with
Hydrostatic Pressure.................................................................... 23
7.1 Axial Tension, Bending Moment and Hydrostatic
Pressure.......................................................................... 23
7.3 Axial Compression, Bending Moment and
Hydrostatic Pressure....................................................... 24
9 Local Buckling...............................................................................26
9.1 Tubular Members Subjected to Axial Compression.........26
9.3 Tubular Members Subjected to Bending Moment............26

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 9.5 Tubular Members Subjected to Hydrostatic Pressure..... 27
9.7 Plate Elements Subjected to Compression and
Bending Moment..............................................................28

TABLE 1 Geometries, Properties and Compact Limits of

Structural Members..............................................................13
TABLE 2 Effective Length Factor........................................................ 18
TABLE 3 Minimum Buckling Coefficients under Compression and
Bending Moment, ks*........................................................... 29

FIGURE 1 Load Application on a Tubular Member............................... 12

FIGURE 2 Effective Length Factor........................................................ 19
FIGURE 3 Definition of Edge Stresses..................................................29

SECTION 3 Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels............................ 30

1 General......................................................................................... 30
1.1 Geometry of Plate, Stiffened Panel and Corrugated
Panels..............................................................................30
1.3 Load Application.............................................................. 32
1.5 Buckling Control Concepts (1 February 2012).................33
1.7 Adjustment Factor............................................................34
3 Plate Panels..................................................................................34
3.1 Buckling State Limit......................................................... 34
3.3 Ultimate Strength under Combined In-plane Stresses.... 37
3.5 Uniform Lateral Pressure.................................................38
5 Stiffened Panels............................................................................38
5.1 Beam-Column Buckling State Limit................................. 38
5.3 Flexural-Torsional Buckling State Limit............................42
5.5 Local Buckling of Web, Flange and Face Plate............... 44
5.7 Overall Buckling State Limit (1 November 2011)............. 44
7 Girders and Webs.........................................................................46
7.1 Web Plate........................................................................ 46
7.3 Face Plate and Flange.....................................................46
7.5 Large Brackets and Sloping Webs.................................. 46
7.7 Tripping Brackets............................................................. 46
7.9 Effects of Cutouts............................................................ 47
9 Stiffness and Proportions..............................................................48
9.1 Stiffness of Stiffeners....................................................... 48
9.3 Stiffness of Web Stiffeners...............................................48
9.5 Stiffness of Supporting Girders........................................48
9.7 Proportions of Flanges and Faceplates........................... 49
9.9 Proportions of Webs of Stiffeners.................................... 49
11 Corrugated Panels........................................................................49
11.1 Local Plate Panels........................................................... 49

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 11.3 Unit Corrugation...............................................................50
11.5 Overall Buckling...............................................................51
13 Geometric Properties....................................................................52
13.1 Stiffened Panels...............................................................53
13.3 Corrugated Panels...........................................................53

FIGURE 1 Typical Stiffened Panel.........................................................31

FIGURE 2 Sectional Dimensions of a Stiffened Panel.......................... 31
FIGURE 3 Typical Corrugated Panel.....................................................32
FIGURE 4 Sectional Dimensions of a Corrugated Panel...................... 32
FIGURE 5 Primary Loads and Load Effects on Plate and Stiffened
Panel.................................................................................... 33
FIGURE 6 Failure Modes (‘Levels’) of Stiffened Panel..........................34
FIGURE 7 Unsupported Span of Longitudinal.......................................41
FIGURE 8 Effective Breadth of Plating Sw.............................................42
FIGURE 9 Large Brackets and Sloping Webs.......................................46
FIGURE 10 Tripping Brackets................................................................. 47

SECTION 4 Cylindrical Shells............................................................................... 55

1 General......................................................................................... 55
1.1 Geometry of Cylindrical Shells.........................................55
1.3 Load Application.............................................................. 56
1.5 Buckling Control Concepts.............................................. 56
1.7 Adjustment Factor............................................................57
3 Unstiffened or Ring-stiffened Cylinders........................................ 58
3.1 Bay Buckling Limit State.................................................. 58
3.3 Critical Buckling Stress for Axial Compression or
Bending Moment..............................................................59
3.5 Critical Buckling Stress for External Pressure................. 59
3.7 General Buckling............................................................. 60
5 Curved Panels.............................................................................. 61
5.1 Buckling State Limit......................................................... 61
5.3 Critical Buckling Stress for Axial Compression or
Bending Moment..............................................................61
5.5 Critical Buckling Stress under External Pressure............ 62
7 Ring and Stringer-stiffened Shells................................................ 63
7.1 Bay Buckling Limit State.................................................. 63
7.3 Critical Buckling Stress for Axial Compression or
Bending Moment..............................................................64
7.5 Critical Buckling Stress for External Pressure................. 65
7.7 General Buckling............................................................. 66
9 Local Buckling Limit State for Ring and Stringer Stiffeners.......... 66
9.1 Flexural-Torsional Buckling..............................................66
9.3 Web Plate Buckling..........................................................68

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 9.5 Faceplate and Flange Buckling....................................... 68
11 Beam-Column Buckling................................................................ 68
13 Stress Calculations....................................................................... 69
13.1 Longitudinal Stress.......................................................... 69
13.3 Hoop Stress..................................................................... 69
15 Stiffness and Proportions..............................................................70
15.1 Stiffness of Ring Stiffeners...............................................71
15.3 Stiffness of Stringer Stiffeners......................................... 71
15.5 Proportions of Webs of Stiffeners.................................... 72
15.7 Proportions of Flanges and Faceplates........................... 72

FIGURE 1 Ring and Stringer-stiffened Cylindrical Shell........................55

FIGURE 2 Dimensions of Stiffeners...................................................... 56
FIGURE 3 Typical Buckling Modes of Ring and Stringer Cylindrical
Shells................................................................................... 57

SECTION 5 Tubular Joints.....................................................................................73

1 General......................................................................................... 73
1.1 Geometry of Tubular Joints..............................................73
1.3 Loading Application......................................................... 74
1.5 Failure Modes.................................................................. 74
1.7 Classfication of Tubular Joints......................................... 75
1.9 Adjustment Factor............................................................76
3 Simple Tubular Joints................................................................... 77
3.1 Joint Capacity.................................................................. 77
3.3 Joint Cans........................................................................78
3.5 Strength State Limit......................................................... 79
5 Other Joints.................................................................................. 80
5.1 Multiplanar Joints.............................................................80
5.3 Overlapping Joints........................................................... 80
5.5 Grouted Joints................................................................. 81
5.7 Ring-Stiffened Joints........................................................82
5.9 Cast Joints....................................................................... 82

TABLE 1 Strength Factor, Qu...............................................................78

FIGURE 1 Geometry of Tubular Joints..................................................73

FIGURE 2 Examples of Tubular Joint Categorization........................... 76
FIGURE 3 Examples of Effective Can Length....................................... 79
FIGURE 4 Multiplanar Joints................................................................. 80
FIGURE 5 Grouted Joints......................................................................82

APPENDIX 1 Review of Buckling Analysis by Finite Element Method (FEM).....83

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 1 General......................................................................................... 83
3 Engineering Model........................................................................83
5 FEM Analysis Model..................................................................... 84
7 Solution Procedures..................................................................... 84
9 Verification and Validation.............................................................84

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 SECTION 1
Introduction

1 General (2018)
The criteria in this document are primarily based on existing methodologies and their attendant safety
factors. These methods and factors are deemed to provide an equivalent level of safety, reflecting what is
considered to be appropriate current practice.

It is acknowledged that new methods and criteria for design are constantly evolving. For this reason, ABS
does not seek to inhibit the use of an alternative technological approach that is demonstrated to produce an
acceptable level of safety.

The criteria in this document is presented in the Working Stress Design (WSD) format, also known as the
Allowable Stress (or Strength) Design (ASD) format. Alternative structural design criteria in a Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) format are provided in the ABS Guide for Buckling and Ultimate
Strength Assessment of Offshore Structures (LRFD Version).

3 Scope of this Document

This document provides criteria that should be used on the following structural steel components or
assemblages:

● Individual structural members (i.e., discrete beams and columns) [see Section 2]
● Plates, stiffened panels and corrugated panels [see Section 3]
● Stiffened cylindrical shells [see Section 4]
● Tubular joints [see Section 5]

Additionally, Appendix A1 contains guidance on the review of buckling analysis using the finite element
method (FEM) to establish buckling capacities.

5 Tolerances and Imperfections

The buckling and ultimate strength of structural components are highly dependent on the amplitude and
shape of the imperfections introduced during manufacture, storage, transportation and installation.

Typical imperfections causing strength deterioration are:

● Initial distortion due to welding and/or other fabrication-related process

● Misalignments of joined components

In general, the effects of imperfections in the form of initial distortions, misalignments and weld-induced
residual stresses are implicitly incorporated in the buckling and ultimate strength formulations. Because of

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Section 1 Introduction 1

their effect on strength, it is important that imperfections be monitored and repaired, as necessary, not only
during construction, but also in the completed structure to ensure that the structural components satisfy
tolerance limits. The tolerances on imperfections to which the strength criteria given in this document are
considered valid are listed, for example, in IACS Recommendation No. 47 “Shipbuilding and Repair
Quality Standard”. Imperfections exceeding such published tolerances are not acceptable unless it is shown
using a recognized method that the strength capacity and utilization factor of the imperfect structural
component are within proper target safety levels.

7 Gross Scantlings (2018)

The buckling and ultimate strength formulations provided in this document are intended to be used along
with the gross scantlings of structural components.

9 Loadings
Conditions representing all modes of operation of the Offshore Structure are to be considered to establish
the most critical loading cases. The ABS Rules and Guides for the classification of various types of
Offshore Structures typically define two primary loading conditions. In the ABS Rules for Building and
Classing Mobile Offshore Units (MOU Rules), they are ‘Static Loadings’ and ‘Combined Loadings’, and in
the ABS Rules for Building and Classing Offshore Installations (Offshore Installations Rules), the ABS
Rules for Building and Classing Single Point Moorings (SPM Rules) and the ABS Rules for Building and
Classing Floating Production Installations (FPI Rules) they are ‘Normal Operation’ and ‘Severe Storm’.
The component loads of these loading conditions are discussed below. The determination of the
magnitudes of each load component and each load effect (i.e., stress, deflection, internal boundary
condition, etc.) are to be performed using recognized calculation methods and/or test results and are to be
fully documented and referenced. As appropriate, the effects of stress concentrations, secondary stress
arising from eccentrically applied loads and member displacements (i.e.,P-Δ effects) and additional shear
displacements and shear stress in beam elements are to be suitably accounted for in the analysis.

The primary loading conditions to be considered in the MOU Rules are:

i) Static Loadings. Stresses due to static loads only, where the static loads include operational gravity
loads and the weight of the unit, with the unit afloat or resting on the seabed in calm water.
ii) Combined Loadings. Stresses due to combined loadings, where the applicable static loads, as
described above, are combined with relevant environmental loadings, including acceleration and
heeling forces.

The primary loading conditions to be considered in the ABS Offshore Installations Rules, SPM Rules and
FPI Rules are:

i) Normal Operations. Stresses due to operating environmental loading combined with dead and
maximum live loads appropriate to the function and operations of the structure
ii) Severe Storm. Stresses due to design environmental loading combined with dead and live loads
appropriate to the function and operations of the structure during design environmental condition

The buckling and ultimate strength formulations in this document are applicable to static/quasi-static loads,
Dynamic (e.g., impulsive) loads, such as may result from impact and fluid sloshing, can induce ‘dynamic
buckling’, which, in general, is to be dealt with using an appropriate nonlinear analysis.

11 Maximum Allowable Strength Utilization Factors

The buckling and ultimate strength equations in this document provide an estimate of the average strength
of the considered components while achieving the lowest standard deviation when compared with
nonlinear analyses and mechanical tests. To ensure the safety of the structural components, maximum
allowable strength utilization factors, which are the inverse of safety factors, are applied to the predicted

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Section 1 Introduction 1

strength. The maximum allowable strength utilization factors will, in general, depend on the given loading
condition, the type of structural component and the failure consequence.

The maximum allowable strength utilization factors, η, are based on the factors of safety given in the ABS
Offshore Installations Rules, MOU Rules, SPM Rules and FPI Rules, as applicable. The maximum
allowable strength utilization factors have the following values.

i) For a loading condition that is characterized as a static loading of a Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit
or normal operation of an Offshore Installation, Floating Production Installation and Single Point
Mooring:

η = 0.60 ψ
ii) For a loading condition that is characterized as a combined loading of a Mobile Offshore Drilling
Unit or severe storm of an Offshore Installation, Floating Production Installation and Single Point
Mooring:

η = 0.80 ψ

where

ψ = adjustment factor, as given in subsequent sections of this document.

Under the above-mentioned Rules and Guides, it is required that both of the characteristic types of loading
conditions (i.e., static and combined, or normal operation and severe storm) are to be applied in the design
and assessment of a structure. The loading condition producing the most severe requirement governs the
design.

In the Sections that follow concerning specific structural components, different adjustment factors may
apply to different types of loading (i.e., tension or bending versus pure compression). To represent the
values of η applicable to the different types of load components, subscripts are sometimes added to the
symbol η (e.g., in Section 2, η1 and η2, apply, respectively, to axial compression or tension/bending in the
individual structural member.).

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 SECTION 2
Individual Structural Members

1 General
This Section provides strength criteria for individual structural members. The types of members considered
in this Section are tubular and non-tubular members with uniform geometric properties along their entire
length and made of a single material. The criteria provided in this Section are for tubular and non-tubular
elements, but other recognized standards are also acceptable.

The behavior of structural members is influenced by a variety of factors, including sectional shape,
material characteristics, boundary conditions, loading types and parameters and fabrication methods.

1.1 Geometries and Properties of Structural Members

A structural member with a cross section having at least one axis of symmetry is considered. The
geometries and properties of some typical cross sections are illustrated in 2/1.5 TABLE 1. For sections
which are not listed in 2/1.5 TABLE 1, the required geometric properties are to be calculated based on
acceptable formulations.

1.3 Load Application

This Section includes the strength criteria for any of the following loads and load effects:

● Axial force in longitudinal direction, P

● Bending moment, M
● Hydrostatic pressure, q
● Combined axial tension and bending moment
● Combined axial compression and bending moment
● Combined axial tension, bending moment and hydrostatic pressure
● Combined axial compression, bending moment and hydrostatic pressure

The load directions depicted in 2/1.3 FIGURE 1 are positive.

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

FIGURE 1
Load Application on a Tubular Member

1.5 Failure Modes

Failure modes for a structural member are categorized as follows:

● Flexural buckling. Bending about the axis of the least resistance.

● Torsional buckling. Twisting about the longitudinal (x) axis. It may occur if the torsional rigidity of the
section is low, as for a member with a thin-walled open cross section.
● Lateral-torsional buckling. Synchronized bending and twisting. A member which is bent about its
major axis may buckle laterally.
● Local buckling. Buckling of a plate or shell element that is a local part of a member

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 Section

TABLE 1
2

Geometries, Properties and Compact Limits of Structural Members

STRUCTURES • 2022
Geometry Sectional Shape Geometrical Parameters Axis Properties* Compact Limits

A = π[D2 – (D – 2t)2]/4

1. Tubular
N/A
Iy, Iz = π[D4 – (D – 2t)4]/64

member
D = Outer diameter 3 D E
t = Thickness K = π D − t t/4 t ≤ 9σ0
4
I0 = π D4 − D − 2t /32
Individual Structural Members

Γ=0

A=2 b+d t
Iy = d2t 3b + d /6

2. Square or
Major y-y
rectangular
Iz = b2t b + 3d /6

Minor z-z
b = Flange width

hollow section
2d2t b d E
d = Web depth K = 2b t , t ≤ 1 . 5 σ0
t = Thickness b+d
3
Io = t b + d /6
2d2t d − b 2
Γ = b 24 b+d

A = 2 btf + dtw
Iy = d2 3btf + dtw /6
d = Web depth

3. Welded box Major y-y

Iz = b2 btf + 3dtw /6
tw = Web thickness a d E

shape Minor z-z

2a2d2 tf , tw ≤ 1 . 5 σ0
b = Flange width K=
a + d b2 E

ABS REQUIREMENTS FOR BUCKLING AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT FOR OFFSHORE
tf = Flange thickness tf tw tf ≤ 0 . 4 σ0
b2 = Outstand Io = Iy + Iz
2
b3d2tf − a2d3tw
Γ=
24 b3d2tf + a2d3tw

13
2
 Section

Geometry Sectional Shape Geometrical Parameters Axis Properties* Compact Limits

2

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A = 2btf + dtw

Major y-y
Iy = d2 6btf + dtw /12

4. W-shape
d = Web depth d E

Minor z-z
tw = Web thickness Iz = b3tf /6 tw ≤ 1 . 5 σ0
b = Flange width K = 2btf3 + dtw
3 /3 b E
tf ≤ 0 . 8 σ0
tf = Flange thickness
Io = Iy + Iz
Γ = d2b3tf /24

A = 2btf + dtw
Individual Structural Members

d = Web depth Iy = d2 6btf + dtw /12

Major y-y
tw = Web thickness

5. Channel
Iz = d3tw btf + 2dtw /3A d E

Minor z-z
b = Flange width tw ≤ 1 . 5 σ0
K = 2btf3 + dtw 3 /3
tf = Flange thickness b E
2

centroid
tf ≤ 0 . 4 σ0
dcs = Distance of shear center to Io = Iy + Iz + Adcs
d2b3tf 3btf + 2dtw
Γ=
12 6btf + dtw

ABS REQUIREMENTS FOR BUCKLING AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT FOR OFFSHORE
14
2
 Section

Geometry Sectional Shape Geometrical Parameters Axis Properties* Compact Limits

2

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A = btf + dtw
d = Web depth
Iy = d3tw 4btf + dtw /12A

Major y-y
tw = Web thickness

6. T-bar
d E

Minor z-z
b = Flange width Iz = b3tf /12 tw ≤ 0 . 4 σ0
tf = Flange thickness K = btf3 + dtw
3 /3 b E

centroid
tf ≤ 0 . 8 σ0
dcs = Distance of shear center to 2
Io = Iy + Iz + Adcs
Γ = b3tf3 + 4d3tw
3 /144
Individual Structural Members

A = 2 btf + dtw
d = Web depth
Iy = d3tw 4btf + dtw /3A

7. Double Major y-y

tw = Web thickness
d E

angles Minor z-z

b = Flange width Iz = 2b3tf /3 tw ≤ 0 . 4 σ0
tf = Flange thickness K = 2 btf3 + dtw
3 /3 b E

centroid
tf ≤ 0 . 4 σ0
dcs = Distance of shear center to 2
Io = Iy + Iz + Adcs
Γ = b3tf3 + 4d3tw
3 /18

* The formulations for the properties are derived assuming that the section is thin-walled (i.e., thickness is relatively small) where:

= cross sectional area, cm2 (in2)

= moment of inertia about y-axis, cm4 (in4)

A

= moment of inertia about z-axis, cm4 (in4)

Iy

= St. Venant torsion constant for the member, cm4 (in4)

Iz

= polar moment of inertia of the member, cm4 (in4)

K

= warping constant, cm6 (in6)

I0

ABS REQUIREMENTS FOR BUCKLING AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT FOR OFFSHORE
Γ

15
2
Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

1.7 Cross Section Classification

The cross section may be classified as:

i) Compact. A cross section is compact if all compressed components comply with the limits in 2/1.5
TABLE 1. For a compact section, the local buckling (plate buckling and shell buckling) can be
disregarded because yielding precedes buckling.
ii) Non-Compact. A cross section is non-compact if any compressed component does not comply
with the limits in 2/1.5 TABLE 1. For a non-compact section, the local buckling (plate or shell
buckling) is to be taken into account.

1.9 Adjustment Factor

For the maximum allowable strength utilization factors, η, defined in Subsection 1/11, the adjustment
factor is to take the following values:

For axial tension and bending [to establish η2 below]:

ψ = 1.0

For axial compression (column buckling or torsional buckling) [to establish η1 below]:

ψ = 0.87 if σEA ≤ Prσ0

= 1 − 0 . 13 Prσ0 /σEA if σEA > Prσ0

where

σEA = elastic buckling stress, as defined in 2/3.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

For compression (local buckling of tubular members) [to establish ηx and ηθ below]:

ψ = 0.833 if σCi ≤ 0 . 55σ0

= 0 . 629 + 0 . 371σCi /σ0 if σCi > 0 . 55σ0

where

σCi = critical local buckling stress, representing σCi for axial compression, as specified in 2/9.1, and
σCθ for hydrostatic pressure, as specified in 2/9.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

3 Members Subjected to a Single Action

3.1 Axial Tension

Members subjected to axial tensile forces are to satisfy the following equation:

σt /η2σ0 ≤ 1

where

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

σt = axial tensile stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= P/A
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
P = axial force, N (kgf, lbf)
A = cross sectional area, cm2 (in2)
η2 = allowable strength utilization factor for tension and bending, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and
2/1.9

3.3 Axial Compression

Members subjected to axial compressive forces may fail by flexural or torsional buckling. The buckling
limit state is defined by the following equation:

σA /η1σCA ≤ 1

where

σA = axial compressive stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= –P/A
P = axial force, N (kgf, lbf)
σCA = critical buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σEA if σEA ≤ PrσF
= σ
σF 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σ F if σEA > PrσF
EA

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σF = σ0 specified minimum yield point for a compact section
= σCx local buckling stress for a non-compact section from Subsection 2/9
σEA = elastic buckling stress, which is the lesser of the solutions of the following quadratic equation,
N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
I0 2 d2 = 0
A σEA − σEη σEA − σET − σEA cs

σEη = Euler buckling stress about minor axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= 2
π2E/ kL/rη
σET = ideal elastic torsional buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= EK π 2 EΓ
2 . 6I0 + kL I0

rη = radius of gyration about minor axis, cm (in.)

= Iη /A
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
A = cross sectional area, cm2 (in2)
Iη = moment of inertia about minor axis, cm4 (in4)
K = St. Venant torsion constant for the member, cm4 (in4)

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

I0 = polar moment of inertia of the member, cm4 (in4)

Γ = warping constant, cm6 (in6)
dcs = difference of centroid and shear center coordinates along major axis, cm (in.)
L = member’s length, cm (in.)
k = effective length factor, as specified in 2/3.3 TABLE 2. When it is difficult to clarify the end
conditions, the nomograph shown in 2/3.3 FIGURE 2 may be used. The values of G for each
end (A and B) of the column are determined:
I Ig
G = Σ Lc /Σ L
c g
I Ig
Σ Lc is the total for columns meeting at the joint considered and Σ L is the total for restraining
c g
beams meeting at the joint considered. For a column end that is supported, but not fixed, the
moment of inertia of the support is zero, and the resulting value of G for this end of the column
would be ∞. However, in practice, unless the footing was designed as a frictionless pin, this
value of G would be taken as 10. If the column end is fixed, the moment of inertia of the
support would be ∞, and the resulting value of G of this end of the column would be zero.
However, in practice, there is some movement and G may be taken as 1.0. If the restraining
beam is either pinned (G = ∞) or fixed (G = 0) at its far end, refinements may be made by
multiplying the stiffness (Ig /Lg) of the beam by the following factors:
Sidesway prevented
Far end of beam pinned = 1.5
Sidesway permitted
Far end of beam pinned = 0.5
Far end of beam fixed = 2.0
η1 = allowable strength utilization factor for axial compression (column buckling), as defined in
Subsection 1/11 and 2/1.9

TABLE 2
Effective Length Factor

Buckled shape of column

shown by dashed line

Theoretical value 0.50 0.70 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

Recommended k value 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 2.1 2.0

when ideal conditions are
approximated

Rotation fixed. Translation fixed

Rotation free. Translation fixed

End condition notation

Rotation fixed. Translation free

Rotation free. Translation free

FIGURE 2
Effective Length Factor

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

Notes:
These alignment charts or nomographs are based on the following assumptions:
1 Behavior is purely elastic.
2 All members have constant cross section.
3 All joints are rigid.
4 For columns in frames with sidesway prevented, rotations at opposite ends of the restraining beams are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, producing single curvature bending.
5 For columns in frames with sidesway permitted, rotations at opposite ends of the restraining beams are equal in
magnitude and direction, producing reverse curvature bending
6 1/2
The stiffness parameter L P/EI of all columns is equal.
7 Joint restraint is distributed to the column above and below the joint in proportion to EI/L for the two columns.
8 All columns buckle simultaneously.
9 No significant axial compression force exists in the restraining beams.
Adjustments are required when these assumptions are violated and the alignment charts are still to be used. Reference is
made to ANSI/AISC 360-05, Commentary C2.

3.5 Bending Moment

A member subjected to bending moment may fail by local buckling or lateral-torsional buckling. The
buckling state limit is defined by the following equation:

σb /η2σCB ≤ 1

where

σb = stress due to bending moment

= M/SMe
M = bending moment, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-in)
SMe = elastic section modulus, cm3 (in3)

η2 = allowable strength utilization factor for tension and bending

σCB = critical bending strength, as follows:
i) For a tubular member, the critical bending strength is to be obtained from the equation
given in 2/9.3.
ii) For a rolled or fabricated-plate section, the critical bending strength is determined by
the critical lateral-torsional buckling stress.

The critical lateral-torsional buckling stress is to be obtained from the following equation:

σE LT if σE LT ≤ PrσF
σC LT = σF
σF 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σE LT if σE LT > PrσF

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σE LT = elastic lateral-torsional buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

π2EIη
= C 2
SMc kL

Iη = moment of inertia about minor axis, as defined in 2/1.5 TABLE 1, cm4(in4)

SMe = section modulus of compressive flange, cm3(in3)
= Iξ
ξc

Iξ = moment of inertia about major axis, as defined in 2/1.5 TABLE 1, cm4(in4)

ξc = distance from major neutral axis to compressed flange, cm (in.)
2
C = Γ K kL
Iη + Iη 2 . 6π2

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
σF = σ0 , specified minimum yield point for a compact section
= σCx , local buckling stress for a non-compact section, as specified in 2/9.7
K = St. Venant torsion constant for the member, cm4 (in4)
Γ = warping constant, cm6 (in6)
L = member’s length, cm (in.)
k = effective length factor, as defined in 2/3.3

5 Members Subjected to Combined Loads

5.1 Axial Tension and Bending Moment

Members subjected to combined axial tension and bending moment are to satisfy the following equations
at all cross-sections along their length:

For tubular members:

σby 2 0.5
σt 1 σbz 2
η2σ0 + η2 σCBy + σCBz ≤1

For rolled or fabricated-plate sections:

σt σby σbz
η2σ0 + η2σCBy + η2σCBz ≤1

where

σt = axial tensile stress from 2/3.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σby = bending stress from 2/3.5 about member y-axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σbz = bending stress from 2/3.5 about member z-axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCBy = critical bending strength corresponding to member’s y-axis from 2/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

σCBz = critical bending strength corresponding to member’s z-axis from 2/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
η2 = allowable strength utilization factor for tension and bending, as defined in 1/11 and 2/1.9

5.3 Axial Compression and Bending Moment

Members subjected to combined axial compression and bending moment are to satisfy the following
equation at all cross sections along their length:

For tubular members:

When σa /σCA > 0 . 15:

2 0.5
σa Cmyσby Cmzσbz 2
1 1 1
η1σCA + η2 σCBy 1 − σ / η σ + σCBz 1 − σa / η1σEz ≤1
a 1 Ey

When σa /σCA ≤ 0 . 15:

σby 2 0.5
σa 1 σbz 2
η1σCA + η2 σCBy + σCBz ≤1

For rolled or fabricated-plate sections:

When σa /σCA > 0 . 15:

σa 1 Cmyσby 1 Cmzσbz
η1σCA + η2σCBy 1 − σ / η σ + η2σCBz 1 − σa / η1σEz ≤1
a 1 Ey

When σa /σCA ≤ 0 . 15:

σa σby σbz
η1σCA + η2σCBy + η2σCBz ≤1

where

σa = axial compressive stress from 2/3.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σby = bending stress from 2/3.5 about member y-axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σbz = bending stress from 2/3.5 about member z-axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCA = critical axial compressive strength from 2/3.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCBy = critical bending strength corresponding to member y-axis from 2/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
σCBz = critical bending strength corresponding to member z-axis from 2/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
σEy = Euler buckling stress corresponding to member y-axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= 2
π2E/ kyL/ry
σEz = Euler buckling stress corresponding to member z-axis, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

= 2
π2E/ kzL/rz
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
ry, rz = radius of gyration corresponding to the member y- and z-axes, cm (in.)
ky, kz = effective length factors corresponding to member y- and z-axes from 2/3.3
Cmy, Cmz = moment factors corresponding to the member y- and z-axes, as follows:
i) For compression members in frames subjected to joint translation (sidesway):
Cm = 0 . 85
ii) For restrained compression members in frames braced against joint translation
(sidesway) and with no transverse loading between their supports:
Cm = 0 . 6 − 0 . 4M1 /M2
but not less than 0.4 and limited to 0.85, where M1 /M2 is the ratio of smaller to
larger moments at the ends of that portion of the member unbraced in the plane
of bending under consideration. M1 /M2 is positive when the member is bent in
reverse curvature, negative when bent in single curvature.
iii) For compression members in frames braced against joint translation in the plane
of loading and subject to transverse loading between their supports, the value of
Cm may be determined by rational analysis. However, in lieu of such analysis,
the following values may be used.
For members whose ends are restrained:
Cm = 0 . 85
For members whose ends are unrestrained:
Cm = 1 . 0
η1 = allowable strength utilization factor for axial compression (column buckling), as defined
in Subsection 1/11 and 2/1.9
η2 = allowable strength utilization factor for tension and bending, as defined in Subsection
1/11 and 2/1.9

7 Tubular Members Subjected to Combined Loads with Hydrostatic

Pressure
Appropriate consideration is to be given to the capped-end actions on a structural member subjected to
hydrostatic pressure. It should be noted that the equations in this Subsection do not apply unless the criteria
of 2/9.5 are satisfied first.

7.1 Axial Tension, Bending Moment and Hydrostatic Pressure

The following equation is to be satisfied for tubular members subjected to combined axial tension, bending
moment and hydrostatic pressure:

2 + σ2
σby
σtc bz
η2σTθ + η2σCBθ ≤1

where

σtc = calculated axial tensile stress due to forces from actions that include the capped-end
actions due to hydrostatic pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σTθ = axial tensile strength in the presence of hydrostatic pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

= Cqσ0
σCBθ = bending strength in the presence of hydrostatic pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= CqσCB
σCB = critical bending strength excluding hydrostatic pressure from 2/3.5
Cq = 1 + 0 . 09B2 − B2ξ − 0 . 3B

B = σθ / ηθσCθ
ξ = 5 − 4σcθ /σ0
σθ = hoop stress due to hydrostatic pressure from 2/9.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCθ = critical hoop buckling strength from 2/9.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η2 = allowable strength utilization factor for tension and bending, as defined in Subsection
1/11 and 2/1.9
ηθ = allowable strength utilization factor for local buckling in the presence of hydrostatic
pressure, as defined in Subsection1/11 and 2/1.9

7.3 Axial Compression, Bending Moment and Hydrostatic Pressure

Tubular members subjected to combined compression, bending moment and external pressure are to satisfy
the following equations at all cross sections along their length.

When σac /σCAθ > 0 . 15 and σac > 0 . 5σθ:

2 2 0.5
σac − 0 . 5σθ 1 Cmyσby Cmzσbz
η1σCAθ + η2σCBθ σac − 0 . 5σθ + σac − 0 . 5σθ ≤1
1− 1−
η1σEy η1σEz

When σac /σCAθ ≤ 0 . 15:

σby 2 0.5
σa 1 σbz 2
η1σCAθ + η2 σCBθ + σCBθ ≤1

where

σac = calculated compressive axial stress due to axial compression that includes the capped-end
actions due to hydrostatic pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σθ = hoop stress due to hydrostatic pressure from 2/9.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCBθ = critical bending strength in the presence of hydrostatic pressure from 2/7.1, N/
cm2(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCAθ = axial compressive strength in the presence of hydrostatic pressure
= σEA if σEA ≤ PrσF 1 − σθ /σF
σFΛ if σEA > PrσF 1 − σθ /σF

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

σEA = elastic buckling stress in the absence of hydrostatic pressure from 2/3.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
Λ = ζ + ζ2 + 4ω /2

ζ = 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σF /σEA − σθ /σF
ω = 0 . 5 σθ /σF 1 − 0 . 5σθ /σF
σEy = Euler buckling stress corresponding to member y-axis from 2/5.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/
in2)
σEz = Euler buckling stress corresponding to member z-axis from 2/5.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/
in2)
Cmy, Cmz = moment factors corresponding to the member y- and z-axes from 2/5.3
Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
σF = σ0 , specified minimum yield point for the compact section
= σCx , local buckling stress for the non-compact section from 2/9.7
η1 = allowable strength utilization factor for axial compression (column buckling), as defined
in Subsection 1/11 and 2/1.9
η2 = allowable strength utilization factor for tension and bending, as defined in Subsection
1/11 and 2/1.9

When σx > 0 . 5ηθσCθ and ηxσx > 0 . 5ηθσCθ, the following equation is to also be satisfied:

σx − 0 . 5ηθσCθ σθ 2
ηxσCx − 0 . 5ηθσCθ + ηθσCθ ≤1

where

σx = maximum compressive axial stress from axial compression and bending moment, which
includes the capped-end actions due to the hydrostatic pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= σac + σb
σac = calculated compressive axial stress due to axial compression from actions that include the
capped-end actions due to hydrostatic pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σb = stress due to bending moment from 2/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCx = critical axial buckling stress from 2/9.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCθ = critical hoop buckling stress from 2/9.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
Cmy, Cmz = moment factors corresponding to the member y- and z-axes, as defined in 2/5.3
ηx = maximum allowable strength utilization factor for axial compression (local buckling), as
defined in Subsection 1/11 and 2/1.9
ηθ = maximum allowable strength utilization factor for hydrodynamic pressure (local
buckling), as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 2/1.9

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

9 Local Buckling
For a member with a non-compact section, local buckling may occur before the member as a whole
becomes unstable or before the yield point of the material is reached. Such behavior is characterized by
local distortion of the cross section of the member. When a detailed analysis is not available, the equations
given below may be used to evaluate the local buckling stress of a member with a non-compact section.

9.1 Tubular Members Subjected to Axial Compression

Local buckling stress of tubular members with D/t ≤ E/ 4 . 5σ0 subjected to axial compression may be
obtained from the following equation:

σEx if σEx ≤ Prσ0

σCx = σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σEx if σEx > Prσ0

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σEx = elastic buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= 0 . 6Et/D
D = outer diameter, cm (in.)
t = thickness, cm (in.)

For tubular members with D/t > E/ 4 . 5σ0 , the local buckling stress is to be determined from 4/3.3.

9.3 Tubular Members Subjected to Bending Moment

Critical bending strength of tubular members with D/t ≤ E/ 4 . 5σ0 subjected to bending moment may
be obtained from the following equation:

SMp /SMe σ0 for σ0D/ Et ≤ 0 . 02

σCB = 1 . 038 − 0 . 90σ0D/ Et SMp /SMe σ0 for 0 . 02 < σ0D/ Et ≤ 0 . 10
0 . 921 − 0 . 73σ0D/ Et SMp /SMe σ0 for σ0D/ Et > 0 . 10

where

SMe = elastic section modulus, cm3 (in3)

= 4
π/64 D4 − D − 2t / D/2
SMp = plastic section modulus, cm3 (in3)

= 3
1/6 D3 − D − 2t
D = outer diameter, cm (in.)
t = thickness, cm (in.)

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point

For tubular members with D/t > E/ 4 . 5σ0 , the local buckling stress is to be determined from 4/3.3.

9.5 Tubular Members Subjected to Hydrostatic Pressure

Tubular members with D/t ≤ E/ 4 . 5σ0 subjected to external pressure are to satisfy the following
equation:

σθ /ηθσCθ ≤ 1

where,

σθ = hoop stress due to hydrostatic pressure

= qD/ 2t
q = external pressure
σCθ = critical hoop buckling strength, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= ΦσBθ
Φ = plasticity reduction factor
= 1 for Δ ≤ 0 . 55
= 0 . 45
+ 0 . 18 for 0 . 55 < Δ ≤ 1 . 6
Δ

= 1 . 31 for 1 . 6 < Δ < 6 . 25

1 + 1 . 15Δ

= 1/Δ for Δ ≥ 6 . 25
Δ = σEθ /σ0
σEθ = elastic hoop buckling stress
= 2CθEt/D
Cθ = buckling coefficient
= 0 . 44t/D for μ ≥ 1 . 6D/t
= 3
0 . 44t/D + 0 . 21 D/t /μ4 for 0 . 825D/t ≤ μ < 1 . 6D/t

= 0 . 737/ μ − 0 . 579 for 1 . 5 ≤ μ < 0 . 825D/t

= 0.80 for μ < 1 . 5
μ = geometric parameter
= ℓ/D 2D/t
ℓ = length of tubular member between stiffening rings, diaphragms or end connections
D = outer diameter
t = thickness
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

σ0 = specified minimum yield point

ηθ = maximum allowable strength utilization factor for local buckling in the presence of hydrostatic
pressure, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 2/1.9

For tubular members with D/t > E/ 4 . 5σ0 , the state limit in 4/3.3 is to be applied.

9.7 Plate Elements Subjected to Compression and Bending Moment

The critical local buckling of a member with rolled or fabricated plate section may be taken as the smallest
local buckling stress of the plate elements comprising the section. The local buckling stress of an element
is to be obtained from the following equation with respect to uniaxial compression and in-plane bending
moment:

σEx if σEx ≤ Prσ0

σCx = σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σEx if σEx > Prσ0

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σEx = elastic buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= π2E t 2
ks s
12 1 − v2

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
ν = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
s = depth of unsupported plate element
t = thickness of plate element
ks = buckling coefficient, as follows:
i) For a plate element with all four edges simply supported, the buckling coefficient is to
be obtained from following equation:
8.4
κ + 1.1 for 0 ≤κ≤ 1
ks =
7 . 6 − 6 . 4κ + 10κ2 for −1 ≤ κ < 0
where
κ = ratio of edge stresses, as defined in 2/9.7 FIGURE 3
= σamin /σamax

ii) For a plate element with other boundary conditions, the buckling coefficient is
obtained from 2/9.7 TABLE 3

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Section 2 Individual Structural Members 2

FIGURE 3
Definition of Edge Stresses

TABLE 3
Minimum Buckling Coefficients under Compression and Bending Moment, ks*

Loading Top Edge Free Bottom Edge Free

Bottom Edge Simply Bottom Edge Fixed Top Edge Simply Top Edge Fixed
Supported Supported

σamin /σamax = 1 0.42 1.33 0.42 1.33

(Uniform
compression)

σamin /σamax = − 1 ¯ ¯ 0.85 2.15

(Pure Bending)

σamin /σamax = 0 0.57 1.61 1.70 5.93

Note:
*ks for intermediate value of σamin /σamax may be obtained by linear interpolation.

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 SECTION 3
Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels

1 General
The formulations provided in this Section are to be used to assess the Buckling and Ultimate Strength
Limits of plates, stiffened panels and corrugated panels. Two State Limits for Buckling and Ultimate
Strength are normally considered in structural design. The former is based on buckling and the latter is
related to collapse.

The criteria provided in this Section apply to Offshore Structures, SPMs, SEDUs, CSDUs and FPIs of the
TLP and SPAR types, and it is not in the scope of this document to use the criteria with ship-type FPIs. In
this latter case, see Section 5A-3-4 of the FPI Rules.

The design criteria apply also to stiffened panels for which the moment of inertia for the transverse girders
is greater than the moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffeners. It is not in the scope of this document to
use the criteria for orthotropically stiffened plate panels.

Alternatively, the buckling and ultimate strength of plates, stiffened panels or corrugated panels may be
determined based on either appropriate, well-documented experimental data or on a calibrated analytical
approach. When a detailed analysis is not available, the equations provided in this section shall be used to
assess the buckling strength.

1.1 Geometry of Plate, Stiffened Panel and Corrugated Panels

Flat rectangular plates and stiffened panels are depicted in 3/1.1 FIGURE 1. Stiffeners in the stiffened
panels are usually installed equally spaced, parallel or perpendicular to panel edges in the direction of
dominant load and are supported by heavier and more widely-spaced ‘deep supporting members’ (i.e.,
girders). The given criteria apply to a variety of stiffener profiles, such as flat-bar, built up T-profiles, built
up inverted angle profiles and symmetric and non-symmetric bulb profiles. The section dimensions of a
stiffener are defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 2. The stiffeners may have strength properties different from those
of the plate.

Corrugated panels, as depicted in 3/1.1 FIGURE 3, are self-stiffened and are usually corrugated in one
direction, supported by stools at the two ends across the corrugation direction. They may act as watertight
bulkheads or, when connected with fasteners, they are employed as corrugated shear diaphragms. The
dimensions of corrugated panels are defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 4. The buckling strength criteria for
corrugated panels given in Subsection 3/11 are applicable to corrugated panels with corrugation angle, ϕ,
between 57 and 90 degrees.

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Section 3 Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels 3

FIGURE 1
Typical Stiffened Panel

FIGURE 2
Sectional Dimensions of a Stiffened Panel

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Section 3 Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels 3

FIGURE 3
Typical Corrugated Panel

FIGURE 4
Sectional Dimensions of a Corrugated Panel

1.3 Load Application

The plate and stiffened panel criteria account for the following load and load effects. The symbols for each
of these loads are shown in 3/1.3 FIGURE 5.

● Uniform in-plane compression, σax, σay *

● In-plane bending, σbx, σby
● Edge shear, τ
● Lateral loads, q
● Combinations of the above
Note:

* If uniform stress σax or σay is tensile rather than compressive, it may be set equal to zero.

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Section 3 Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels 3

FIGURE 5
Primary Loads and Load Effects on Plate and Stiffened Panel

1.5 Buckling Control Concepts (1 February 2012)

The failure of plates and stiffened panels can be sorted into three levels, namely, the plate level, the
stiffened panel level and the entire grillage level, which are depicted in 3/1.5 FIGURE 6. An offshore
structure is to be designed in such a way that the buckling and ultimate strength of each level is greater
than its preceding level (i.e., a well designed structure does not collapse when a plate fails as long as the
stiffeners can resist the extra load they experience from the plate failure). Even if the stiffeners collapse,
the structure may not fail immediately as long as the girders can support the extra load shed from the
stiffeners.

The buckling strength criteria for plates and stiffened panels are based on the following assumptions and
limits with respect to buckling control in the design of stiffened panels, which are in compliance with ABS
recommended practices.

● The buckling strength of each stiffener is generally greater than that of the plate panel it supports.
● Stiffeners with their associated effective plating are to have moments of inertia not less than i0, given
in 3/9.1. If not satisfied, the overall buckling of stiffened panel is to be assessed, as specified in 3/5.7.
● The deep supporting members (i.e., girders) with their associated effective plating are to have
moments of inertia not less than Is, given in 3/9.5. If not satisfied, the overall buckling of stiffened
panel is also necessary, as given in 3/5.7. In addition, tripping (e.g., torsional/flexural instability) is to
be prevented if tripping brackets are provided, as specified in 3/7.7.
● Faceplates and flanges of girders and stiffeners are proportioned such that local instability is prevented
(see 3/9.7).
● Webs of girders and stiffeners are proportioned such that local instability is prevented (see 3/9.9).

For plates and stiffened panels that do not satisfy these limits, a detailed analysis of buckling strength using
an acceptable method should be submitted for review.

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FIGURE 6
Failure Modes (‘Levels’) of Stiffened Panel

3/1.5 FIGURE 6 illustrates the collapse shape for each level of failure mode. From a reliability point of
view, no individual collapse mode can be 100 percent prevented. Therefore, the buckling control concept
used in this Subsection is that the buckling and ultimate strength of each level is greater than its preceding
level in order to avoid the collapse of the entire structure.

The failure (‘levels’) modes of a corrugated panel can be categorized as the face/web plate buckling level,
the unit corrugation buckling level and the entire corrugation buckling level. In contrast to stiffened panels,
corrugated panels will collapse immediately upon reaching any one of these three buckling levels.

1.7 Adjustment Factor

For the maximum allowable strength utilization factors, η, defined in Subsection 1/11, the adjustment
factor is to take the following value:

ψ = 1.0

3 Plate Panels
For rectangular plate panels between stiffeners, buckling is acceptable, provided that the ultimate strength
given in 3/3.3 and 3/3.5 of the structure satisfies the specified criteria. Offshore practice demonstrates that
only an ultimate strength check is required for plate panels. A buckling check of plate panels is necessary
when establishing the attached plating width for stiffened panels. If the plating does not buckle, the full
width is to be used. Otherwise, the effective width is to be applied if the plating buckles but does not fail.

3.1 Buckling State Limit

For the Buckling State Limit of plates subjected to in-plane and lateral pressure loads, the following
strength criterion is to be satisfied:

σxmax 2 σymax 2 τ 2
ησCx + ησCy + ητC ≤1

where

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σxmax = maximum compressive stress in the longitudinal direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σymax = maximum compressive stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τ = edge shear stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCx = critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the longitudinal direction, N/cm2
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCy = critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the transverse direction,N/cm2
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τC = critical buckling stress for edge shear, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

The critical buckling stresses are specified below.

3.1.1 Critical Buckling Stress for Edge Shear

The critical buckling stress for edge shear, τC, may be taken as:

τE for τE ≤ Prτ0
τC = τ
τ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr τ0 for τE > Prτ0
E

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
τ0 = shear strength of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= σ0
3

σ0 = specified minimum yield point of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

τE = elastic shear buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
π2E t 2
= ks s
12 1 − v2

ks = boundary dependent constant

= s 2
4.0 ℓ + 5 . 34 C1

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’ s ratio, 0.3 for steel
ℓ = length of long plate edge, cm (in.)
s = length of short plate edge, cm (in.)
t = thickness of plating, cm (in.)
C1 = 1.1 for plate panels between angles or tee stiffeners; 1.0 for plate panels between flat
bars or bulb plates; 1.0 for plate elements, web plate of stiffeners and local plate of
corrugated panels

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3.1.2 Critical Buckling Stress for Uniaxial Compression and In-plane Bending
The critical buckling stress, σCi i = xory , for plates subjected to combined uniaxial compression
and in-plane bending may be taken as:

σEi for σEi ≤ Prσ0

σCi = σ
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σ 0 for σEi > Prσ0
Ei

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σEi = elastic buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= π2E t 2
ks s
12 1 − v2

For loading applied along the short edge of the plating (long plate):
8.4
κ + 1.1 for 0 ≤ κ ≤ 1
ks = C1
7 . 6 − 6 . 4κ + 10κ2 for − 1 ≤ κ < 0

For loading applied along the long edge of the plating (wide plate):

1 2
1 . 0875 · 1 + − 18 12 · 1 + κ + 24 1
for κ < 1
and 1 ≤ α ≤ 2
α2 α α2 3

1 2
ks = C2 1 . 0875 · 1 + − 9 α1 · 1 + κ + 12 α1 for κ < 1
and α > 2
α2 3

1 2 1
1+ 1 . 675 − 0 . 675κ for κ ≥
α2 3

where

α = aspect ratio
= ℓ/s
κ = ratio of edge stresses, as defined in 3/1.3 FIGURE 5*
= σimin /σimax
Notes:
* There are several cases in the calculation of ratio of edge stresses, κ:
● If uniform stress σai i = x, y < 0 (tensile) and in-plane stress σbi i = x, y = 0, buckling check
is not necessary, provided edge shear is zero;
● If uniform stress σai i = x, y < 0 (tensile) and in-plane bending stress σbi i = x, y ≠ 0, then
σimax = σbi and σimin = − σbi, so that κ = − 1;

● If uniform stress σai i = x, y > 0 (compressive) and in-plane bending stress σbi i = x, y = 0,
σimax = σimin = σi, then κ = 1;

● If uniform stress σai i = x, y > 0 (compressive) and in-plane bending stress σbi i = x, y ≠ 0,
σimax = σai + σbi, σimin = σai − σbi then −1 < κ < 1.

σ0 = specified minimum yield point of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel

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v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel

ℓ = length of long plate edge, cm (in.)
s = length of short plate edge, cm (in.)
t = thickness of plating, cm (in.)
C1 = 1.1 for plate panels between angles or tee stiffeners; 1.0 for plate panels between flat
bars or bulb plates; 1.0 for plate elements, web plate of stiffeners and local plate of
corrugated panels
C2 = 1.2 for plate panels between angles or tee stiffeners; 1.1 for plate panels between flat
bars or bulb plates; 1.0 for plate elements and web plates

3.3 Ultimate Strength under Combined In-plane Stresses

The ultimate strength for a plate between stiffeners subjected to combined in-plane stresses is to satisfy the
following equation:

σxmax 2 σxmax σymax σymax 2 τ 2

ησUx − φ ησ ησUy + ησUy + ητU ≤1
Ux

where

σxmax = maximum compressive stress in the longitudinal direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σymax = maximum compressive stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τ = edge shear stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
φ = coefficient to reflect interaction between longitudinal and transverse stresses (negative
values are acceptable)
= 1 . 0 − β/2
σUx = ultimate strength with respect to uniaxial stress in the longitudinal direction, N/cm2
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= Cxσo ≥ σCx

2/β − 1/β2 for β > 1

Cx =
1.0 for β ≤ 1
σUy = ultimate strength with respect to uniaxial stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/
cm2, lbf/in2)
= Cyσ0 ≥ σCy
Cy = Cx · s
+ 0.1 1 − s
1 + 1/β2
2
≤1
ℓ ℓ

τU = ultimate strength with respect to edge shear, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

1/2
= τC + 0 . 5 σ0 − 3τC / 1 + α + α2 ≥ τC
σCx = critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the longitudinal direction, specified in
3/3.1.2, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCy = critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the transverse direction, specified in
3/3.1.2, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τC = critical buckling stress for edge shear, as specified in 3/3.1.1

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β = slenderness ratio
= s σ0
t E

E = modulus of elasticity, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

ℓ = length of long plate edge, cm (in.)
s = length of short plate edge, cm (in.)
t = thickness of plating, cm (in.)
σ0 = yield point of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7.

β , se and ℓe are as defined in 3/3.3. σCx, σCy, σ0, τC and α are as defined in 3/3.1.

3.5 Uniform Lateral Pressure

In addition to the buckling/ultimate strength criteria in 3/3.1 through 3/3.3, the ultimate strength of a panel
between stiffeners subjected to uniform lateral pressure alone or combined with in-plane stresses is to also
satisfy the following equation:

t 2 1 σe 2
qu ≤ η4 . 0σ0 s 1+ 1− σ0
α2

where

t = plate thickness, cm (in.)

α = aspect ratio
= ℓ/s
ℓ = length of long plate edge, cm (in.)
s = length of short plate edge, cm (in.)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σe = equivalent stress according to von Mises, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= 2
σxmax 2
− σxmaxσymax + σymax + 3τ2
σxmax = maximum compressive stress in the longitudinal direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σymax = maximum compressive stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τ = edge shear
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

5 Stiffened Panels
(1 February 2012) The failure modes of stiffened panels include beam-column buckling, torsion and
flexural buckling of stiffeners, local buckling of stiffener web and faceplate, and overall buckling of the
entire stiffened panel. The stiffened panel strength against these failure modes is to be checked with the
criteria provided in 3/5.1 through 3/5.7. Buckling state limits for a stiffened panel are considered its
ultimate state limits.

5.1 Beam-Column Buckling State Limit

The beam-column buckling state limit may be determined as follows:

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σa Cmσb
ησCA Ae /A
+ ≤1
ησ0 1 − σa / ησE C

where

σa = nominal calculated compressive stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= P/A
P = total compressive load on stiffener using full width of associated plating, N (kgf, lbf)
σCA = critical buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= σE C for σE C ≤ Prσ0
= σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr
σ0 for σE C > Prσ0
σE C

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σE C = Euler’ s buckling stress
= π2Ere2
ℓ2

A = total sectional area, cm2 (in2)

= As + st
As = sectional area of the longitudinal, excluding the associated plating, cm2 (in2)
Ae = effective sectional area, cm2 (in2)
= As + set
se = effective width, cm (in.)
= s when the buckling state limit of the
associated plating from 3/3.1 is satisfied
= CxCyCxys when the buckling state limit of the
associated plating from 3/3.1 is not
satisfied

2/β − 1/β2 for β > 1

Cx =
1.0 for β ≤ 1
σymax σymax 2
Cy = 0 . 5φ + 1 − 1 − 0 . 25φ2 *
σUy σUy

σymax = maximum compressive stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σUy = ultimate strength with respect to uniaxial stress in the transverse direction, as specified in
3/3.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

Cxy τ 2
= 1− τ0

φ = 1 . 0 − β/2
s σ0
β = t E

re = radius of gyration of area, Ae, cm (in.)

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= Ie
Ae

Ie = moment of inertia of longitudinal or stiffener, accounting for the effective width, se, cm4
(in4)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the longitudinal or stiffener under consideration. If
there is a large difference between the yield points of a longitudinal or stiffener and the
plating, the yield point resulting from the weighting of areas is to be used. N/cm2 (kgf/
cm2, lbf/in2)
σb = bending stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= M/SMw
M = maximum bending moment induced by lateral loads, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-in)
= qsℓ2 /12
Cm = moment adjustment coefficient, which may be taken as 0.75
q = lateral pressure for the region considered, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
s = spacing of the longitudinal, cm (in.)
ℓ = unsupported span of the longitudinal or stiffener, cm (in.), as defined in 3/5.1 FIGURE 7
SMw = effective section modulus of the longitudinal at flange, accounting for the effective
breadth, sw, cm3 (in3)
sw = effective breadth, as specified in 3/5.1 FIGURE 8, cm (in.)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

Note:
*

A limit for Cy is that the transverse loading should be less than the transverse ultimate strength of the plate panels. The
buckling check for stiffeners is not to be performed until the attached plate panels satisfy the ultimate strength criteria.

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FIGURE 7
Unsupported Span of Longitudinal

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FIGURE 8
Effective Breadth of Plating Sw

cℓ/s 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 and greater

sw /s 0.58 0.73 0.83 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.0

5.3 Flexural-Torsional Buckling State Limit

In general, the flexural-torsional buckling state limit of stiffeners or longitudinals is to satisfy the ultimate
state limit given below:
σa
ησCT ≤1

where

σa = nominal axial compressive stress of stiffener and its associated plating, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
σCT = critical torsional/flexural buckling stress with respect to axial compression of a stiffener,
including its associated plating, which may be obtained from the following equations:
σET if σET ≤ Prσ0
= σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σET if σET > Prσ0

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σET = elastic flexural-torsional-buckling stress with respect to the axial compression of a stiffener,
including its associated plating, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
K + nπ 2Γ + C0 ℓ 2
2.6 ℓ E nπ
= C0 ℓ 2 E
I0 +
σcL nπ

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K = St. Venant torsion constant for the stiffener cross section, excluding the associated plating,
cm4 (in4)
= 3 + d t3
bftf ww
3

I0 = polar moment of inertia of the stiffener, excluding the associated plating (considered at the
intersection of the web and plate), cm4 (in4)
= Iy + mIz + As y02 + z02
Iy, Iz = moment of inertia of the stiffener about the y- and z-axis, respectively, through the centroid
of the longitudinal, excluding the plating (x-axis perpendicular to the y-z plane shown in
3/1.1 FIGURE 2), cm4 (in4)
d
m = 1 . 0 − u 0 . 7 − 0 . 1 bw
f
b
u = 1 − 2 b1 , unsymmetrical factor
f

y0 = horizontal distance between centroid of stiffener, As, and web plate centerline (see 3/1.1
FIGURE 2), cm (in.)
z0 = vertical distance between centroid of stiffener, As, and its toe (see 3/1.1 FIGURE 2), cm (in.)
dw = depth of the web, cm (in.)
tw = thickness of the web, cm (in.)
bf = total width of the flange/face plate, cm (in.)
b1 = smaller outstand dimension of flange/face plate with respect to web’s centerline, cm (in.)
tf = thickness of the flange/face, cm (in.)

C0 = Et3
3s

Γ ≅ warping constant, cm6 (in6)

≅ 2
3 t3
dw w
mIzfdw + 36

Ixf = 3
tfbf u2dwtw
12 1.0 + 3.0 As , cm4 in4

σcL = critical buckling stress for associated plating corresponding to n-half waves, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
n+α 2 t 2
π2E α
= n s
12 1 − v2

α = ℓ
s

n = number of half-waves that yield the smallest σET

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’ s ratio, 0.3 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the material, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
s = spacing of longitudinal/stiffeners, cm (in.)

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As = sectional area of the longitudinal or stiffener, excluding the associated plating, cm2 (in2)
t = thickness of the plating, cm (in.)
ℓ = unsupported span of the longitudinal or stiffener, cm (in.)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

5.5 Local Buckling of Web, Flange and Face Plate

The local buckling of stiffeners is to be assessed if the proportions of stiffeners specified in Subsection 3/9
are not satisfied.

5.5.1 Web
Critical buckling stress can be obtained from 3/3.1 by replacing s with the web depth and ℓ with
the unsupported span, and taking:

ks = 4Cs

where

Cs = 1.0 for angle or tee bar

= 0.33 for bulb plates
= 0.11 for flat bar
5.5.2 Flange and Face Plate
Critical buckling stress can be obtained from 3/3.1 by replacing s with the larger outstanding
dimension of flange,b2 (see 3/1.1 FIGURE 2), and ℓ with the unsupported span, and taking:

ks = 0 . 44

5.7 Overall Buckling State Limit (1 November 2011)

The overall buckling strength of the entire stiffened panels is to satisfy the following equation with respect
to the biaxial compression:

σx 2 σy 2
ησGx + ησGy ≤1

where

σx calculated average compressive stress in the longitudinal direction, in N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,

=
lbf/in2)

σy calculated average compressive stress in the transverse direction, in N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,

=
lbf/in2)

σGx critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the longitudinal direction, in N/cm2
=
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σEx if σEx ≤ Prσ0
= σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σEx if σEx > Prσ0

σGy critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the transverse direction, in N/cm2
=
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

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σEy if σEy ≤ Prσ0

= σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σEy if σEy > Prσ0

σEx = elastic buckling stress in the longitudinal direction, in N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
1/2
= kxπ2 DxDy / txb2
σEy = elastic buckling stress in the transverse direction, in N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= 1/2
kyπ2 DxDy / tyℓ2
kx = 4 for ℓ/b ≥ 1
= 1
+ 2ρ + ϕ2x for ℓ/b < 1
ϕ2
x

ky = 4 for b/ℓ ≥ 1
= 1
+ 2ρ + ϕ2y for b/ℓ < 1
ϕ2y

ϕx = ℓ/b Dy /Dx
1/4

ϕy = b/ℓ Dx /Dy
1/4

Dx = EIx /sx 1 − v2
Dy = EIy /sy 1 − v2
= Et3 /12 1 − v2 if no stiffener in the transverse direction

ρ = IpxIpy / IxIy
1/2

t = thickness of the plate, in cm (in.)

ℓ, b = length and width of stiffened panel, respectively, in cm (in.)
tx, ty = equivalent thickness of the plate and stiffener in the longitudinal and transverse
direction, respectively, in cm (in.)
= sxt + Asx /sx or syt + Asy /sy
sx, sy = spacing of stiffeners and girders, respectively, in cm (in.)
Asx, Asy = sectional area of stiffeners and girders, excluding the associated plate , respectively, in
cm (in.)
Ipx, Ipy = moment of inertia of the effective plate alone about the neutral axis of the combined
cross section, including stiffener and plate, in cm4 (in4)
Ix, Iy = moment of inertia of the stiffener with effective plate in the longitudinal or transverse
direction, respectively, in cm4 (in4). If no stiffener, the moment of inertia is calculated
for the plate only.
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 x 107 N/cm2 (2.1 x 106 kgf/cm2, 30 x 106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the material, in N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

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7 Girders and Webs

In general, the stiffness of web stiffeners fitted to the depth of web plating is to be in compliance with
3/9.3. Web stiffeners that are oriented parallel to the face plate, and thus subject to axial compression, are
to also satisfy 3/3.1, considering the combined effects of the compressive and bending stresses in the web.
In this case, the unsupported span of these parallel stiffeners may be taken as the distance between tripping
brackets, as applicable.

The buckling strength of the web plate between stiffeners and flange/face plate is to satisfy the limits
specified in 3/3.1 through 3/3.5. When cutouts are present in the web plate, the effects of the cutouts on the
reduction of the critical buckling stresses should be considered (See 3/7.9).

In general, girders are to be designed as stocky so that lateral buckling may be disregarded and torsional
buckling also may be disregarded if tripping brackets are provided (See 3/7.7). If this is not the case, the
girder is to be checked according to Subsection 3/5.

7.1 Web Plate

The buckling limit state for a web plate is considered as the ultimate state limit and is given in 3/3.1.

7.3 Face Plate and Flange

The breadth to thickness ratio of faceplate and flange is to satisfy the limits given in 3/9.7.

7.5 Large Brackets and Sloping Webs

The buckling strength is to satisfy the limits specified in 3/3.1 for the web plate.

FIGURE 9
Large Brackets and Sloping Webs

7.7 Tripping Brackets

To prevent tripping of deep girders and webs with wide flanges, tripping brackets are to be installed with
spacing generally not greater than 3 meters (9.84 ft).

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FIGURE 10
Tripping Brackets

The design of tripping brackets may be based on the force, P, acting on the flange, as given by the
following equation:

P = 0 . 02σcℓ bftf + 13 dwbw

where

σcℓ = critical lateral buckling stress with respect to axial compression between tripping brackets,
N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= σce for σce ≤ Prσ0
= σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σ0 /σce for σce > Prσ0
σce = 0 . 6E bf /tf tw /dw
3
, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the material, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

bf , tf , dw , tw are defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 2.

7.9 Effects of Cutouts

The depth of a cutout, in general, is to be not greater than dw /3, and the calculated stresses in the area are
to account for the local increase due to the cutout.

7.9.1 Reinforced by Stiffeners around Boundaries of Cut-outs

When reinforcement is made by installing straight stiffeners along boundaries of a cutout, the
critical buckling stresses of the web plate between stiffeners with respect to compression, in-plane
bending and shear may be obtained from 3/3.1.

7.9.2 Reinforced by Face Plates around Contour of Cut-outs

When reinforcement is made by adding face plates along the contour of a cut-out, the critical
buckling stresses with respect to compression, bending and shear may be obtained from 3/3.1,
2
without reduction, provided that the cross sectional area of the face plate is not less than 8tw ,
where tw is the thickness of the web plate, and the depth of the cut-out is not greater than dw /3,
where dw is the depth of the web.

7.9.3 No Reinforcement Provided

When reinforcement is not provided, the buckling strength of the web plate surrounding the cutout
may be treated as a strip of plate with one edge free and the other edge simply supported.

ks = 0 . 44

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Section 3 Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels 3

9 Stiffness and Proportions

To fully develop the intended buckling strength of assemblies of structural members and panels, supporting
elements of plate panels and stiffeners are to satisfy the following requirements for stiffness and proportion
in highly stressed regions.

9.1 Stiffness of Stiffeners

In the plane perpendicular to the plating, the moment of inertia of a stiffener, i0, with an effective breadth
of plating, is not to be less than that given by the following equation:

st3
i0 = γ0
12 1 − v2

where

γ0 = 2 . 6 + 4 . 0δ α2 + 12 . 4α − 13 . 2α1/2
δ = As / st
α = ℓ/s
s = spacing of longitudinal, cm (in.)
t = thickness of plating supported by the longitudinal, cm (in.)
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
As = cross sectional area of the stiffener (excluding plating), cm2 (in2)
ℓ = unsupported span of the stiffener, cm (in)

9.3 Stiffness of Web Stiffeners

The moment of inertia, Ie , of a web stiffener, with the effective breadth of plating not exceeding s or 0.33
ℓ, whichever is less, is not to be less than the value obtained from the following equations:
3
Ie = 0 . 17ℓt3 ℓ/s for ℓ/s ≤ 2 . 0

2
Ie = 0 . 34ℓt3 ℓ/s for ℓ/s > 2 . 0

where

ℓ = length of stiffener between effective supports, cm (in.)

t = required thickness of web plating, cm (in.)
s = spacing of stiffeners, cm (in.)

9.5 Stiffness of Supporting Girders

The moment of inertia of a supporting member is not to be less than that obtained from the following
equation:
3
IG /i0 ≥ 0 . 2 B/ℓ B/s

where

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IG = moment of inertia of the supporting girders, including the effective plating, cm4 (in4)
i0 = moment of inertia of the stiffeners, including the effective plating, cm4 (in4)
B = unsupported span of the supporting girders, cm (in.)
ℓ = unsupported span of the stiffener, cm (in.), as defined in 3/5.1 FIGURE 7

9.7 Proportions of Flanges and Faceplates

The breadth to thickness ratio of flanges and faceplates of stiffeners and girders is to satisfy the limits
given below.
1/2
b2 /tf ≤ 0 . 4 E/σ0

where

b2 = larger outstand dimension of flange (See 3/1.1 FIGURE 2), cm (in.)

tf = thickness of flange/face plate, cm (in.)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel

9.9 Proportions of Webs of Stiffeners

The depth to thickness ratio of webs of stiffeners is to satisfy the limits given below.

1/2 for angles and tee bars

dw /tw ≤ 1 . 5 E/σ0
1/2 for bulb plates
dw /tw ≤ 0 . 85 E/σ0
1/2 for flat bars
dw /tw ≤ 0 . 4 E/σ0

where

σ0 = specified minimum yield point of plate, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2(2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel

dw and tw are as defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 2.

11 Corrugated Panels
This Subsection includes criteria for the buckling and ultimate strength for corrugated panels.

11.1 Local Plate Panels

The buckling strength of the flange and web plate panels is to satisfy the following state limit:

σxmax 2 σymax 2 τ 2
ησCx + ησCy + ητC ≤1

where

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σxmax = maximum compressive stress in corrugation direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σymax = maximum compressive stress in transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τ = in-plane shear stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCx = critical buckling stress in corrugation direction from 3/3.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCy = critical buckling stress in transverse direction from 3/3.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τC = critical buckling stress for edge shear from 3/3.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

11.3 Unit Corrugation

Any unit corrugation of the corrugated panel may be treated as a beam column and is to satisfy the
following state limit:
σa Cmσb
ησCA + ≤1
ησCB 1 − σa / ησE C

where

σa = maximum compressive stress in the corrugation direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σb = maximum bending stress along the length due to lateral pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= Mb /SM
Mb = maximum bending moment induced by lateral pressure, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-in)
qu + qℓ
= 2 sL2 /12

σCa = critical buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= σE C for σE C ≤ Prσ0
σ0
= σo 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σE C
for σE C > Prσ0

σE C = elastic buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= π2Er2
L2

r = radius of gyration of area A, cm (in.)

Iy
=
A

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
σCB = critical bending buckling stress
= σE B for σE B ≤ Prσ0
σ0
= σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σE B for σE B > Prσ0

σE B = elastic buckling stress of unit corrugation

E t 2
= kc a
12 1 − v2

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kc = coefficient
= 2 2
7 . 65 − 0 . 26 c/a
Cm = bending moment factor determined by rational analysis, which may be taken as 1.5 for a
panel whose ends are simply supported
A, Iy = area and moment of inertia of unit corrugation, as specified in 3/13.3
SM = sectional modulus of unit corrugation, as specified in 3/13.3, cm3 (in3)
s = width of unit corrugation, as defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 4 and specified in 3/13.3
a, c = width of the compressed flange and web plating, respectively, as defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE
4
t = thickness of the unit corrugation, cm (in.)
L = length of corrugated panel, cm (in.)
qu, qℓ = lateral pressure at the two ends of the corrugation, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in 1/11 and 3/1.7

11.5 Overall Buckling

The overall buckling strength of the entire corrugated panels is to satisfy the following equation with
respect to the biaxial compression and edge shear:

σx 2 σy 2 τ 2
ησGx + ησGy + ητG ≤1

where

σx = calculated average compressive stress in the corrugation direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σy = calculated average compressive stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
τ = in-plane shear stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σGx = critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the corrugation direction, N/cm2 (kgf/
cm2, lbf/in2)
σEx if σEx ≤ Prσ0
= σ
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σ 0 if σEx > Prσ0
Ex

σGy critical buckling stress for uniaxial compression in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
=
lbf/in2)
σEy if σEy ≤ Prσ0
= σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σEy if σEy > Prσ0

τG = critical buckling stress for shear stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

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τE if τE ≤ Prτ0
= τ0
τ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr τE if τE > Prτ0

σEx = elastic buckling stress in the corrugation direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
1/2
= kxπ2 DxDy / txB2
σEy = elastic buckling stress in the transverse direction, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
1/2
= kyπ2 DxDy / tL2
τE = elastic shear buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= kSπ2Dx3/4Dy1/4 / tL2
kx = 4 for L/B ≥ 0 . 5176 Dx /Dy
1/4

= 1
+ ϕ2x for L/B < 0 . 5176 Dx /Dy
1/4
ϕ2
x

ky = 4 for B/L ≥ 0 . 5176 Dy /Dx

1/4

= 1
+ ϕ2y for B/L < 0 . 5176 Dy /Dx
1/4
ϕ2y

kS = 3.65
L, B = length and width of corrugated panel
tx = equivalent thickness of the corrugation in the corrugation direction, as specified in 3/13.3,
cm (in.)
t = thickness of the corrugation, cm (in.)
ϕx = L/B Dy /Dx
1/4

ϕy = B/L Dx /Dy
1/4

Dx = EIy /s

Et3 s
Dy =
12 1 − v2 a + b + 2c

Iy = moment of inertia of a corrugation with spacing s

a, b, c = width of the flanges and web plating, respectively, as defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 4, cm (in.)
s = width of the unit corrugation, as defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 4, cm (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 × 107 N/cm2 (2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2, 30 × 106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the material, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 3/1.7

13 Geometric Properties
This Subsection includes the formulations for the geometric properties of stiffened panels and corrugated
panels. The effective width, se, and effective breadth, sw, can be obtained from 3/5.1 and 3/5.1 FIGURE 8,
respectively.

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Section 3 Plates, Stiffened Panels and Corrugated Panels 3

13.1 Stiffened Panels

13.1.1 Beam-Column Buckling
bf = 0 for flat-bar
tf = 0 for flat-bar
b1 = 0 . 5tw for angle bar
As = dwtw + bftf
Ae = set + As
zep = 0 . 5 t + dw dwtw + 0 . 5t + dw + 0 . 5tf bftf /Ae
3s 3t 3b
tf
Ie tp e dw f 2 2
= + w
+ + 0 . 25 t + dw dwtw + bftf 0 . 5t + dw + 0 . 5tf 2
− Aezep
12 12 12

re = Ie /Ae
Aw = swt + As
zwp
= 0 . 5 t + dw dwtw + 0 . 5t + dw + 0 . 5tf bftf /Aw

3s 3t 3b
tf
Iw tp e dw f 2 2
= + w
+ + 0 . 25 t + dw dwtw + bftf 0 . 5t + dw + tf 2
− Awzwp
12 12 12

SMw Iw
= 0 . 5t + dw + tf − zwp

t , bf, b1, tf, dw,tw are defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 2.

13.1.2 Torsional/Flexural Buckling

As = dwtw + bftf
y0 = b1 − 0 . 5bf bftf /As
z0 = 2
0 . 5dw tw + dw + 0 . 5tf bftf /As
3t 3b
tf
Iy = dw w f 3 2
12 + 12 + 0 . 25dw tw + bftf dw + 0 . 5tf − Asz02
3d 3
Iz tw bftf 2
= w
+ + bftf b1 − 0 . 5bf − Asz02
12 12

bf , b1, tf, dw, tw, y0 and z0 are defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 2.

13.3 Corrugated Panels

The following formulations of geometrical properties are derived, provided that the section is thin-walled
and the thickness is small.

s = a + b + 2ccosϕ
tx = st + Asx /s
A = a + b t + 2ct
Asx = 2ctsinϕ
zo = dt a + c /A

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Iy = a + b t3
12 + ad2t + 23 cd2t − Az02
SM = Iy /z0 or Iy / d − z0 , which is the less

a , b, c, d, t, ϕ and z0 are defined in 3/1.1 FIGURE 4.

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 SECTION 4
Cylindrical Shells

1 General
This Section presents criteria for calculating the buckling limit state of ring- and/or stringer-stiffened
cylindrical shells subjected to axial loading, bending moment, radial pressure or a combination of these
loads. The buckling limit state of a stiffened cylindrical shell is to be determined based on the formulations
provided below. Alternatively, either well-documented experimental data or a verified analytical approach
may be employed.

1.1 Geometry of Cylindrical Shells

The criteria given below apply to ring- and/or stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells, as depicted in Section 4,
Figure 1, where coordinates (x, r, θ) denote the longitudinal, radial and circumferential directions,
respectively. Stiffeners in a given direction are to be equally spaced, parallel and perpendiculars to panel
edges, and have identical material and geometric properties. General types of stiffener profiles, such as flat
bar, T-bar, angle and bulb plate, may be used. The dimensions and properties of a ring or stringer stiffener
are described in Section 4, Figure 2. The material properties of the stiffeners may be different from those
of the shell plating.

FIGURE 1
Ring and Stringer-stiffened Cylindrical Shell

The formulations given for ring- and/or stringer-stiffened shells are applicable for offshore structures with
the diameter to thickness ratio in the range of E/ 4 . 5σ0 to 1000.

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FIGURE 2
Dimensions of Stiffeners

1.3 Load Application

This Section includes the buckling state limit criteria for the following loads and load effects.

● Uniform compression in the longitudinal direction, σa *

● Bending of the overall cylinder, σb
● External pressure, p
● Combinations of the above
Note:

* If uniform stress, σa, is tensile rather than compressive, it may be set equal to zero.

1.5 Buckling Control Concepts

The probable buckling modes of ring- and/or stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells can be sorted as follows:

● Local shell or curved panel buckling (i.e., buckling of the shell between adjacent stiffeners). The
stringers remain straight and the ring stiffeners remain round.
● Bay buckling (i.e., buckling of the shell plating together with the stringers, if present, between
adjacent ring stiffeners). The ring stiffeners and the ends of the cylindrical shells remain round.
● General buckling, (i.e., buckling of one or more ring stiffeners together with the attached shell plus
stringers, if present).
● Local stiffener buckling (i.e., torsional/flexural buckling of stiffeners, ring or stringer, or local
buckling of the web and flange). The shell remains undeformed.
● Column buckling (i.e., buckling of cylindrical shell as a column).

The first three failure modes for ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells are illustrated in Section 4,
Figure 3.

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FIGURE 3
Typical Buckling Modes of Ring and Stringer Cylindrical Shells

A stiffened cylindrical shell is to be designed such that a general buckling failure is preceded by bay
instability, and local shell buckling precedes bay instability.

The buckling strength criteria presented below are based on the following assumptions and limitations:

● Ring stiffeners with their associated effective shell plating are to have moments of inertia not less than
ir, as given in 4/15.1.
● Stringer stiffeners with their associated effective shell plating are to have moments of inertia not less
than is, as given in 4/15.3.
● Faceplates and flanges of stiffener are proportioned such that local instability is prevented, as given in
4/15.7.
● Webs of stiffeners are proportioned such that local instability is prevented, as given in 4/15.5.

For stiffened cylindrical shells that do not satisfy these assumptions, a detailed analysis of buckling
strength using an acceptable method should be pursued.

1.7 Adjustment Factor

For the maximum allowable strength utilization factor, η, defined in Subsection 1/11, the adjustment factor
is to take the following value:

For shell buckling: *

ψ = 0.833 if σCij ≤ 0 . 55σ0

= 0 . 629 + 0 . 371σCij /σ0 if σCij > 0 . 55σ0

where

σCij = critical buckling stress of cylindrical shell, representing σCxR, σCθR, σCxP, σCθP, σCxB or σCθB, which are
specified in Subsections 4/3, 4/5 and 4/7, respectively, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

Note:

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* The maximum allowable strength factor for shell buckling should be based on the critical buckling stress, which implies
that it may be different for axial compression and external pressure in local shell or bay buckling. The smallest maximum
allowable strength factor should be used in the corresponding buckling state limit.

For column buckling:

ψ = 0.87 if σE C ≤ Prσ0
= 1 − 0 . 13 Prσ0 /σE C if σE C > Prσ0

where

σE C = Euler’s buckling stress, as specified in Subsection 4/11, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

For tripping of stringer stiffeners:

ψ = 1.0

3 Unstiffened or Ring-stiffened Cylinders

3.1 Bay Buckling Limit State

For the buckling limit state of unstiffened or ring-stiffened cylindrical shells between adjacent ring
stiffeners subjected to axial compression, bending moment and external pressure, the following strength
criterion is to be satisfied:

σx 2 σ σθ σθ 2
ησCxR − φR ησ x ησCθR + ησCθR ≤1
CxR

where

σx = compressive stress in longitudinal direction from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σθ = compressive hoop stress from 4/13.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCxR = critical buckling stress for axial compression or bending moment from 4/3.3, N/cm2
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCθR = critical buckling stress for external pressure from 4/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
φR = coefficient to reflect interaction between longitudinal and hoop stresses (negative values
are acceptable)
σCxR + σCθR
= σ0 − 1.0

σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor of shell buckling, as specified in
Subsection 1/11 and 4/1.7, for ring-stiffened cylindrical shells subjected to axial
compression or external pressure, whichever is less.

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3.3 Critical Buckling Stress for Axial Compression or Bending Moment

The critical buckling stress of unstiffened or ring-stiffened cylindrical shell subjected to axial compression
or bending moment may be taken as:

σExR for σExR ≤ Prσ0

σCxR = σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σExR for σExR > Prσ0

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel
σExR = elastic compressive buckling stress for an imperfect cylindrical shell, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
= ρxRCσCExR
σCExR = classical compressive buckling stress for a perfect cylindrical shell, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)
= 0 . 605 Et
r

C = length dependant coefficient

1.0 for z ≥ 2 . 85
=
1 . 425/z + 0 . 175z for z < 2 . 85
ρxR = nominal or lower bound knock-down factor to allow for shape imperfections
r
0 . 75 + 0 . 003z 1 − 300t for z < 1
0.4 r
= 0 . 75 − 0 . 142 z − 1 + 0 . 003z 1 − 300t for 1 ≤ z < 20

0 . 35 − 0 . 0002 rt for 20 ≤ z
z = Batdorf parameter
ℓ2
= rt 1 − v2
ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported)
r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

3.5 Critical Buckling Stress for External Pressure

The critical buckling stress for an unstiffened or ring-stiffened cylindrical shell subjected to external
pressure may be taken as:

σCθR = ΦσEθR

where

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Φ = plasticity reduction factor

= 1 for Δ ≤ 0 . 55
= 0 . 45
+ 0 . 18 for 0 . 55 < Δ ≤ 1 . 6
Δ

= 1 . 31 for 1 . 6 < Δ < 6 . 25

1 + 1 . 15Δ

= 1/Δ for Δ ≥ 6 . 25
Δ = σEθR /σ0
σEθR = elastic hoop buckling stress for an imperfect cylindrical shell, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
= qCEθR r + 0 . 5t
ρθR t Kθ
ρθR = nominal or lower bound knock-down factor to allow for shape imperfections
= 0.8
Kθ = coefficient to account for the effect of ring stiffener, as determined from 4/13.3
qCEθR = elastic buckling pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
1 . 27E t 2
1 . 18 + 0 . 5 r for AL ≤ 2 . 5
AL

0 . 92E t 2
AL r for 2 . 5 < AL ≤ 0 . 208 rt
=
t 3
0 . 836Cp−1 . 061E r for 0 . 208 rt < AL ≤ 2 . 85 rt
t 3
0 . 275E r for 2 . 85 rt < AL
z
AL = 1/4 − 1 . 17 + 1 . 068k
1 − v2

Cp = AL / r/t
k = 0 for lateral pressure
= 0.5 for hydrostatic pressure
z = Batdorf parameter
= ℓ2
rt 1 − v2
ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported)
r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

3.7 General Buckling

The general buckling of a ring-stiffened cylindrical shell involves the collapse of one or more ring
stiffeners together with the shell plating and is to be avoided due to its catastrophic consequences. The ring
stiffeners are to be proportioned in accordance with Subsection 4/15 to exclude the general buckling failure
mode.

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5 Curved Panels
Local curved panel buckling of ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells will not necessarily lead to
complete failure of the shell, as stresses can be redistributed to the remaining effective section associated
with the stringer. However, knowledge of local buckling behavior is necessary in order to control local
deflections, in accordance with serviceability requirements, and to determine the effective width to be
associated with the stringer when determining buckling strength of the stringer-stiffened shells.

5.1 Buckling State Limit

The buckling state limit of curved panels between adjacent stiffeners can be defined by the following
equation:
2 σ σθ σθ 2
σx
ησCxp − φP ησ x ησCθP + ησCθP ≤1
Cxp

where

σx = compressive stress in the longitudinal direction from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σθ = compressive hoop stress from 4/13.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCxP = critical buckling stress for axial compression or bending moment from 4/5.3, N/cm2
(kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCθP = critical buckling stress for external pressure from 4/5.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
φP = coefficient to reflect interaction between longitudinal and hoop stresses (negative values
are acceptable),
= 0 . 4 σCxP + σCθP
σ0 − 0.8

σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor of shell buckling, as specified in
Subsection 1/11 and 4/1.7 for curved panels in axial compression or external pressure,
whichever is the lesser

5.3 Critical Buckling Stress for Axial Compression or Bending Moment

The critical buckling stress for curved panels bounded by adjacent pairs of ring and stringer stiffeners
subjected to axial compression or bending moment may be taken as:

σExP for σExP ≤ Prσ0

σCxP = σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σExP for σExP > Prσ0

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel

σExP = elastic buckling stress for an imperfect curved panel, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= BxPρxPσCExP

σCExP = classical buckling stress for a perfect curved panel between adjacent stringer stiffeners, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2)

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π2E t 2
= KxP s
12 1 − v2

3zs2
KxP = 4+ for zs ≤ 11 . 4
π4

= 0 . 702zs for zs > 11 . 4

ρxP = nominal or lower bound knock-down factor to allow for shape imperfections

r
= 1 − 0 . 019zs1 . 25 + 0 . 0024zs 1 − 300t for zs ≤ 11 . 4

= 0 . 27 + 1z. 5 + 27 r
+ 0 . 008 zs 1 − 300t for zs > 11 . 4
s z2 s

Bxp = factor compensating for the lower bound nature of ρxP

1 . 15 for λn > 1
=
1 + 0 . 15λn for λn ≤ 1

σ0
λn = ρxPσCExP

2
zs = 1 − v2 srt

s = spacing of stringer stiffeners, cm (in.)

r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

5.5 Critical Buckling Stress under External Pressure

The critical buckling stress for curved panels bounded by adjacent pairs of ring and stringer stiffeners
subjected to external pressure may be taken as:

σCθP = ΦσEθP

where

Φ = plasticity reduction factor

= 1 for Δ ≤ 0 . 55

= 0 . 45 for 0 . 55 < Δ ≤ 1 . 6
Δ + 0 . 18

= 1 . 31
1 + 1 . 15Δ for 1 . 6 < Δ < 6 . 25

= 1/Δ for Δ ≥ 6 . 25
Δ = σEθP /σ0

σEθP = elastic hoop buckling stress of imperfect curved panel, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= qCEθP r + 0 . 5t
t Kθ

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Kθ = coefficient to account for the strengthening effect of ring stiffener from 4/13.3

qCEθP = elastic buckling pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

Et 2
r n 2 + α2 − 1 t 2 α4
r +
=
n2 + kα2 − 1 12 1 − v2 n + α2
2 2

n = Circumferential wave number starting at 0.5Ns and increasing until a minimum value of qCEθP is
attained
α = πr
ℓ

k = 0 for lateral pressure

= 0.5 for hydrostatic pressure

ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported)
r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
Ns = number of stringers

7 Ring and Stringer-stiffened Shells

7.1 Bay Buckling Limit State

For the buckling limit state of ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells between adjacent ring stiffeners
subjected to axial compression, bending moment and external pressure, the following strength criteria is to
be satisfied:

σx 2 σ σθ σθ 2
ησCxBAe /A − φB ησ xA /A ησCθB + ησCθB ≤1
CxB e

where

σx = compressive stress in longitudinal direction from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σθ = compressive hoop stress from 4/13.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σCxB = critical buckling stress for axial compression or bending moment from 4/7.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σCθB = critical buckling stress for external pressure from 4/7.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

φB = coefficient to reflect interaction between longitudinal and hoop stresses (negative values are acceptable)

= 1 . 5 σCxB + σCθB
σ0 − 2.0

Ae = effective cross sectional area, cm2 (in2)

= As + semt

A = total cross sectional area, cm2 (in2)

= As + st

As = cross sectional area of stringer stiffener, cm2 (in2)

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t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)

s = spacing of stringers
sem = modified effective shell plate width

1 . 05 0 . 28
= λm − λ2 s
for λm > 0 . 53
m

= s for λm ≤ 0 . 53

λm = modified reduced slenderness ratio

σCxB
= σExP

σExP = elastic buckling stress for imperfect curved panel between adjacent stringer stiffeners subjected to axial
compression from 4/5.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor of shell buckling, as specified in Subsection 1/11 and
4/1.7, for ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells in axial compression or external pressure,
whichever is the lesser

7.3 Critical Buckling Stress for Axial Compression or Bending Moment

The critical buckling stress of ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells subjected to axial compression
or bending may be taken as:

σExB for σExB ≤ Prσ0

σCxB = σ0
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σExB for σExB > Prσ0

where

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel

σExB = elastic compressive buckling stress of imperfect stringer-stiffened shell, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= σc + σs

σs = elastic compressive buckling stress of stringer-stiffened shell, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

0 . 605E rt
= ρxB A
1+ s
st

ρxB = 0.75

σc = elastic buckling stress of column, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

π2EIse
= 2
ℓ As + set

Ise = moment of inertia of stringer stiffener plus associated effective shell plate width, cm4 (in4)

set set 3
= 2
Is + Aszst As + set + 12

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Is = moment of inertia of stringer stiffener about its own centroid axis, cm4 (in4)

zst = distance from centerline of shell to the centroid of stringer stiffener, cm (in.)

As = cross sectional area of stringer stiffener, cm2 (in2)

se = reduced effective width of shell, cm (in.)

= 0 . 53 for λxP > 0 . 53

λxP s

= s for λxP ≤ 0 . 53

s = shell plate width between adjacent stringers, cm (in.)

λxP = reduced shell slenderness ratio

= σ0
σExP

σExP = elastic compressive buckling stress for imperfect curved panel between adjacent stringer stiffeners from
4/5.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported), cm (in.)
r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

7.5 Critical Buckling Stress for External Pressure

The critical buckling stress for ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shells subjected to external pressure
may be taken as

σCθB = σCθR + σsp Kp ≤ σo

where

σCθR = critical hoop buckling stress for the unstiffened shell from 4/3.5, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σsp = collapse hoop stress for a stringer stiffener plus its associated shell plating, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= qs r + 0 . 5t
t Kθ

Kθ = coefficient to account for the strengthening effect of ring stiffener from 4/13.3

qs = collapse pressure of a stringer stiffener plus its associated shell plating, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= 16
As zst σ0
sℓ2

zst = distance from centerline of shell to the centroid of stringer stiffener, cm (in.)

As = cross sectional area of stringer stiffener, cm2 (in2)

Kp = effective pressure correction factor

= 0 . 25 + 0500
. 85
g for g ≤ 500

= 1.10 for g > 500

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g = geometrical parameter
2
ℓ A
= 2π N I s
ss

Is = sectional moment area of inertia of stringer stiffener, cm4(in4)

Ns = number of stringer stiffeners

ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported), cm (in.)

r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

7.7 General Buckling

The general buckling of a ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shell involves the collapse of one or more
ring stiffeners together with shell plating plus stringer stiffeners and should be avoided due to its
catastrophic consequences. The ring and stringer stiffeners are to be proportioned, in accordance with
4/15.1 and 4/15.3, to exclude the general buckling failure mode.

9 Local Buckling Limit State for Ring and Stringer Stiffeners

9.1 Flexural-Torsional Buckling

When the torsional stiffness of the stiffeners is low and the slenderness ratio of the curved panels is
relatively high, the stiffeners can suffer torsional-flexural buckling (tripping) at a stress level lower than
that resulting in local or bay buckling. When the stiffener buckles, it loses a large part of its effectiveness
to maintain the initial shape of the shell. The buckled stiffener sheds load to the shell, and therefore, should
be suppressed.

The flexural-torsional buckling limit state of stringer stiffeners is to satisfy the ultimate state limit given
below:
σx
ησCT ≤1

where

σx = compressive stress in the longitudinal direction from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σCT = flexural-torsional buckling stress with respect to axial compression of a stiffener, including its associated
shell plating, may be obtained from the following equations:
σET if σET ≤ Prσ0
= σ
σ0 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σ 0 if σET > Prσ0
ET

σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the stringer under consideration, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

Pr = proportional linear elastic limit of the structure, which may be taken as 0.6 for steel

σET = ideal elastic flexural-torsional buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

K + nπ 2Γ + C0 ℓ 2
2.6 ℓ E nπ
= C0 ℓ 2 E
I0 +
σCL nπ

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K = St. Venant torsion constant for the stiffener cross-section, excluding the associated shell plating, cm4
(in4)

= 3 + d t3
bftf ww
3

I0 = polar moment of inertia of the stiffener, excluding the associated shell plating, cm4 (in4)

= Iy + mIz + As y02 + z02

Iy, Iz = moment of inertia of the stiffener about the y- and z-axis, respectively, through the centroid of the
longitudinal, excluding the shell plating (y-axis perpendicular to the web, see Section 4, Figure 2), cm4
(in4)
d
m = 1 . 0 − u 0 . 7 − 0 . 1 bw
f

u = non-symmetry factor
b
= 1 − 2 b1
f

y0 = horizontal distance between centroid of stiffener and web plate centerline (see Section 4, Figure 2), cm
(in.)
z0 = vertical distance between centroid of stiffener and its toe (see Section 4, Figure 2), cm (in.)

dw = depth of the web, cm (in.)

tw = thickness of the web, cm (in.)

bf = total width of the flange/face plate, cm (in.)

b1 = smaller outstanding dimension of flange or face plate with respect to web's centerline, cm (in.)

tf = thickness of the flange or face plate, cm (in.)

C0 = Et3
3s

Γ ≅ warping constant, cm6 (in6)

d tw 3 3
2
≅ mIzfdw + w
36

3
tfbf u2dwtw
Ixf =
12 1 . 0 + 3 . 0 As , cm4 in4

σCL = critical buckling stress for associated shell plating corresponding to n-half waves, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/
in2)

n+α 2 t 2
π2E α
= n s
12 1 − ν2

α = ℓ/s

n = number of half-waves which yields the smallest σE

σ0 = specified minimum yield point of the material, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
s = spacing of stringer stiffeners, cm (in.)
As = sectional area of stringer stiffener, excluding the associated shell plating, cm 2 (in2)

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t = thickness of shell plating, cm (in.)

ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported), cm (in.)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as specified in Subsection 1/11 and 4/1.7, for tripping of
stringer stiffeners

9.3 Web Plate Buckling

The depth to thickness ratio of the web plate is to satisfy the limit given in 4/15.5.

9.5 Faceplate and Flange Buckling

The breadth to thickness ratio of the faceplate or flange is to satisfy the limit given in 4/15.7.

11 Beam-Column Buckling
A cylindrical shell subjected to axial compression, or bending moment or both; with or without external
pressure, is to be designed to resist beam-column buckling. Beam-column buckling is to be assessed if:

λxE ≥ 0 . 50

where

λxE = slenderness ratio of cylindrical shell

= σ0 /σE C

σE C = Euler buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= 2
π2Eri2 / kL

ri = radius of gyration of the cross section of the cylindrical shell

= IT
AT

IT = moment of inertia of the cross section of the cylindrical shell; if the cross section is variable along the
length, the minimum value is to be used, cm4 (in4)
AT = cross sectional area of the cylindrical shell; if the cross section is variable along the length, the minimum
value is to be used, cm2 (in2)
kL = effective length of the cylinder, as defined in 2/3.3
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel

The beam-column buckling limit state of a cylindrical shell subjected to axial compresion, or bending or
both; with or without external pressure, is to satisfy the following criteria at all cross-sections along its
length:
σa σb
ησCa + ≤1
ησCx 1 − σa / ησE C

where

σa = calculated axial normal compressive stress from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σb = calculated bending stress from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σCa = critical compressive buckling stress, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

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σE C if σE C ≤ PrσCx
= σCx
σCx 1 − Pr 1 − Pr σE C if σE C > PrσCx

σCx = critical axial or bending buckling stress of bay

for ring-stiffened cylindrical shell
σθ σθ 2
σCxR 0 . 5φR σCθR + 1 − 1 − 0 . 25φR2 σCθR
=
for ring and stringer-stiffened cylindrical shell
Ae σθ σθ 2
= A σCxB 0 . 5φB σCθB + 1 − 1 − 0 . 25φR2 σCθB

σθ = calculated hoop stress from 4/13.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

A = cross sectional area as defined in 4/7.1
Ae = effective cross sectional area as defined in 4/7.1
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as specified in Subsection 1/11 and 4/1.7, for
column buckling

σCxR , σCθR, φR, σCxB, σCθB and φB are as defined in Subsections 4/3 and 4/7.

13 Stress Calculations

13.1 Longitudinal Stress

The longitudinal stress in accordance with beam theory may be taken as:

σx = σa + σb

where

σa = stress due to axial force, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

P
= 2πrt 1 + δ

σb = stress due to bending moment, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

= M
πr2t 1 + δ

P = axial force, N (kgf, lbf)

M = bending moment, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-in)
δ = Ast
st

Ast = cross sectional area of stringer stiffener, cm 2 (in2)

s = shell plate width between adjacent stringer stiffeners, cm (in.)

r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)

13.3 Hoop Stress

The hoop stress may be taken as

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At midway of shell between adjacent ring stiffeners:

q r + 0 . 5t
σθ = t Kθ

At inner face of ring flange, (i.e., radius rF in Section 4, Figure 2):

q r + 0 . 5t r
σθR = t rF KθR

where

1 − kv
Kθ = 1− G
1 + t tw + ℓω /AR α

1 − kv
KθR = 1 + AR / t tw + ℓω

r 2
AR = AR rR , cm2 in2

cosh2α − cos2α
ω = α sinh2α + sin2α
≥0

α = ℓ
1 . 56 rt

Gα = 2 sinhαcosα + coshαsinα
≥0
sinh2α + sin2α

k = Nx /Nθ for lateral pressure

= Nx /Nθ + 0 . 5 for hydrostatic pressure
AR = cross sectional area of ring stiffener, cm2 (in2)
q = external pressure, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
Nx = axial load per unit length, excluding the capped-end actions due to hydrostatic pressure,
N/cm (kg/cm, lbf/in)
Nθ = circumferential load per unit length, N/cm (kg/cm, lbf/in)
r = mean radius of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
rR = radius to centroid of ring stiffener, as defined in 1.1 FIGURE 2, cm (in.)
rF = radius to inner face of ring flange, as defined in 1.1 FIGURE 2, cm (in.)
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, cm (in.)
tw = stiffener web thickness, cm (in.)
ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported), cm (in.)
ν = Poisson’s ratio

r , rR and rF are described in Section 4, Figure 2.

15 Stiffness and Proportions

To fully develop the intended buckling strength of the assemblies of a stiffened cylindrical shell, ring and
stringer stiffeners are to satisfy the following requirements for stiffness and proportions.

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15.1 Stiffness of Ring Stiffeners

The moment of inertia of the ring stiffeners, ir, together with the effective length of shell plating, ℓeo,
should not be less than that given by the following equation:

σx 1 + δ tre4 σθre2ℓt ze E
ir = 500Eℓ + 2EKθ 1+ 100r ησ0 − σθR

where

σx = compressive stress in longitudinal direction from 4/13.1, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σθ = compressive hoop stress midway between adjacent ring stiffeners from 4/13.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σθR = compressive hoop stress at outer edge of ring flange from 4/13.3, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

δ = As /st

ir = moment of inertia of the ring stiffeners with associated effective shell length, ℓeo

ℓeo = 1 . 56 rt ≤ ℓ

re = radius to the centroid of ring stiffener, accounting for the effective length of shell plating, cm (in.)

ze = distance from inner face of ring flange to centroid of ring stiffener, accounting for the effective length of shell
plating, cm (in.)
Kθ = coefficient from 4/13.3

σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel
s = spacing of stringer stiffeners, cm (in.)
As = cross sectional area of stringer, cm2 (in2)

t = thickness of shell plating, cm (in.)

ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported), cm (in.)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor for stiffened cylindrical shells subjected to external pressure

15.3 Stiffness of Stringer Stiffeners

The moment of inertia of the stringer stiffeners, is, with effective breadth of shell plating, sem, is not to be
less than:

st3
io = γ0
12 1 − v2

where

γ0 = 2 . 6 + 4 . 0δ α2 + 12 . 4α − 13 . 2α1/2
δ = As / st
α = ℓ/s
s = spacing of stringer stiffeners, cm (in.)
t = thickness of shell plate, cm (in.)

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ν = Poisson’s ratio
As = cross sectional area of stringer stiffener, cm2 (in2)
ℓ = length between adjacent ring stiffeners (unsupported), cm (in.)

15.5 Proportions of Webs of Stiffeners

The depth to thickness ratio of webs of stiffeners is to satisfy the applicable limit given below.

1/2 for angles and tee bars

dw /tw ≤ 1 . 5 E/σ0
1/2 for bulb plates
dw /tw ≤ 0 . 85 E/σ0
1/2 for flat bars
dw /tw ≤ 0 . 4 E/σ0

where

σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel

dw and tw are as defined in Section 4, Figure 2.

15.7 Proportions of Flanges and Faceplates

The breadth to thickness ratio of flanges and faceplates of stiffeners is to satisfy the limit given below.
1/2
b2 /tf ≤ 0 . 4 E/σ0

where

b2 = larger outstanding dimension of the flange/faceplate, cm (in.)

tf = thickness of flange/face plate, cm (in.)
σ0 = specified minimum yield point, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
E = modulus of elasticity, 2.06 ×107 N/cm2 (2.1 ×106 kgf/cm2, 30 ×106 lbf/in2) for steel

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 SECTION 5
Tubular Joints

1 General
This Section provides ultimate strength criteria for tubular joints. Each joint should be considered as being
comprised of a number of independent chord/brace intersections, and the ultimate strength limit state of
each intersection is to be checked against the design requirement. For a multi-planar joint, each plane
should be subjected to separate consideration and categorization.

The formulations provided in this Section may be used to assess the ultimate strength limit of tubular
joints. Alternatively, the ultimate strength of a tubular joint may be determined based on either well-
documented experimental data or a verified analytical approach.

1.1 Geometry of Tubular Joints

The geometry of a simple joint is depicted in 5/1.1 FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1
Geometry of Tubular Joints

The formulations in this Section are applicable for the strength assessment of tubular joints in the
following geometric ranges:

τ ≤ 1 . 20

0 . 20 ≤ β ≤ 1 . 00

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10 ≤ γ ≤ 50

−0 . 5 ≤ g/D

where

τ = ratio of brace wall thickness to chord wall thickness

= t/T
β = ratio of brace outer diameter to chord outer diameter
= d/D
γ = ratio of chord outer diameter to two times of chord wall thickness
= D/ 2T
g = gap, cm (in.)

1.3 Loading Application

The ultimate strength criteria are provided for the following loads and load effects:

● Axial load in a brace member, PB

● In-plane bending moment in a brace member, MIPB
● Out-of-plane bending moment in a brace member, MOPB
● Axial load in a chord member, PC
● In-plane bending moment in a chord member, MIPC
● Out-of-plane bending moment in a chord member, MOPC
● Combinations of the above mentioned loads and load effects.

1.5 Failure Modes

The mode of failure of a tubular joint depends on the joint configuration, joint geometry and loading
condition. These modes include:

Local failure of the chord:

● Plastic failure of the chord wall in the vicinity of the brace.

● Cracking leading to rupture of the brace from the chord.
● Local buckling in compression areas of the chord.

Global failure of the chord:

● Ovalization of the chord cross-section.

● Beam bending failure.
● Beam shear failure between adjacent braces.

In addition, a member can fail away from the brace-chord joint due to chord or brace overloading. These
failure modes can be established following the approach described in Section 2 for tubular members.

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Section 5 Tubular Joints 5

1.7 Classfication of Tubular Joints

Each chord/brace intersection is to be classified as T/Y, K or X, according to their configuration and load
pattern for each load case. The following guidelines are to be used to classify tubular joints:

● For two or three brace members on one side of a chord, the classification is dependent on the
equilibrium of the axial load components in the brace members. If the resultant shear on the chord
member is balanced or algebraically around zero, the joint is to be categorized as a K. If the shear
balance check is not met, the joint is to be categorized (downgraded) as a T & Y, as shown in 5/1.7
FIGURE 2. However, for braces that carry part of their load as K joints and part as Y or X joints,
interpolation is to be used based on the proportion of each joint. The procedure for interpolation in
such cases is to be specially agreed upon with ABS.
● For multi-brace joints with braces on either side of the chord, as shown in 5/1.7 FIGURE 2, care is to
be taken in assigning the appropriate category. For example, a K classification would be valid if the
net shear across the chord is balanced or algebraically zero. In contrast, if the loads in all of the braces
are tensile, even an X classification may be too optimistic due to the increased ovalization effect.
Classification in these cases is to be specially agreed with ABS.

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FIGURE 2
Examples of Tubular Joint Categorization

1.9 Adjustment Factor

For the maximum allowable strength utilization factor, η, defined in Subsection 1/11, the adjustment factor
is to take the following value:

ψ = 1.0

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3 Simple Tubular Joints

3.1 Joint Capacity

The strength of a simple joint without overlap of braces and having no gussets, grout or stiffeners is to be
calculated based on the following:

σ0cT2
Pu = sinθ QuQf

σ0cT2d
Mu = sinθ QuQf

where

Pu = critical joint axial strength, N (kgf, lbf)

Mu = critical joint bending moment strength for in-plane and out-of plane bending, N-cm (kgf-
cm, lbf-in)
θ = brace angle measured from chord, as defined in 5/1.1 FIGURE 1
Qu = strength factor depending on the joint loading and classification, as determined in 5/3.1
TABLE 1
Qf = chord load factor
= 1 − λγA2
λ = chord slenderness parameter
= 0.030 for brace axial load
= 0.045 for brace in-plane bending moment
= 0.021 for brace out-of-plane bending moment
γ = ratio of chord outer radius to chord wall thickness
= D/ 2T
A = chord utilization ratio
σ2 2 2
AC + σIPC + σOPC
=
ησoc

σAC = nominal axial stress in the chord member, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σIPC = nominal in-plane bending stress in the chord member, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σOPC = nominal out-of-plane bending stress in the chord member, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
σ0c = specified minimum yield point of the chord member, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)
D = chord outer diameter, cm (in.)
T = chord thickness, cm (in.)
d = brace outer diameter, cm (in.)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as defined in Subsection 1/11 and 5/1.9

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Axially loaded braces based on a combination of K, X and Y joints should take a weighted average of Pu
depending on the proportion of each load.

TABLE 1
Strength Factor, Qu

Joint Brace Load Effects

Classification
Axial Axial In-plane Out-of-plane
Compression Tension Bending Bending
K 0 . 5 + 12β γ0 . 2Qβ0 . 5Qg 0 . 65 + 15 . 5β γ0 . 2Qβ0 . 5Qg 4 . 5βγ0 . 5 3 . 2γ 0 . 5β2

T/Y 0 . 5 + 12β γ0 . 2Qβ0 . 5 0 . 65 + 15 . 5β γ0 . 2Qβ0 . 5 4 . 5βγ0 . 5 3 . 2γ 0 . 5β2

X 3 . 0 + 14 . 5β Qβ 3 . 3 + 16β Qβ 5 . 0βγ0 . 5 0 . 5β2

3 . 2γ

where

Qβ = 0 . 3/ β 1 − 0 . 833β for β > 0 . 6

= 1.0 for β ≤ 0 . 6
Qg = 1 + 0 . 85exp −4g/D for g/D ≥ 0 . 0
g = gap, cm (in.)
β = ratio of brace outer diameter to chord outer diameter
= d/D
γ = ratio of chord outer diameter to two times of chord wall thickness
= D/ 2T

3.3 Joint Cans

The advantage of a thicker chord may be taken for axially-loaded T/Y and X joints. This only applies if the
effective can length of each brace is at least twice the distance from the brace toe to the nearest transition
from the can to the main member, plus the brace diameter (see 5/3.3 FIGURE 3).

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FIGURE 3
Examples of Effective Can Length

For K joints, the joint strength, Pu′ , considering the additional effect of the can is to be calculated based on
the following equation:
2
Pu′ = C + 1 − C T/Tc Pu

where

Pu = basic strength of the joint based on the can dimensions, N (kgf, lbf)
Tc = can thickness, cm (in.)
C = coefficient, which may not be taken greater than 1
= Lc / 2 . 5D for β ≤ 0 . 9
= 4β − 3 Lc / 1 . 5D for β > 0 . 9
β = ratio of brace outer diameter to chord outer diameter
= d/D
D = chord outer diameter, cm (in.)
T = chord wall thickness, cm (in.)
Lc = effective length of can, cm (in.)

3.5 Strength State Limit

The strength of a tubular joint subjected to combined axial and bending loads is to satisfy the following
state limit:

PD MIPB 2 M
ηPu + ηMuIPB + ηMOPB ≤1
uOPB

where

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PD = axial load in the brace member, N (kgf, lbf)

MIPB = in-plane bending moment in the brace member, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-in)
MOPB = out-of-plane bending moment in the brace member, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-in)
Pu = tubular joint strength for brace axial load from 5/3.1 or 5/3.3, N (kgf, lbf)
MuIPB = tubular joint strength for brace in-plane bending moment from 5/3.1, N-cm (kgf-cm, lbf-
in)
MuOPB = tubular joint strength for brace out-of-plane bending moment from 5/3.1, N-cm (kgf-cm,
lbf-in)
η = maximum allowable strength utilization factor, as specified in Subsection 1/11 and 5/1.9

5 Other Joints

5.1 Multiplanar Joints

The interaction between out-of-plane braces can be ignored, except for overlapping braces. It is recognized
that for some load cases, particularly where braces lying in two perpendicular planes are loaded in the
opposite sense (e.g., tension and compression), as shown in 5/5.1 FIGURE 4, joint strength can be
significantly reduced. This strength reduction is primarily due to the additional ovalization occurring in the
chord member. The design should account for this effect and is to consider applying a reduced allowable
utilization factor, especially for critical, highly stressed, non-redundant joints. As required, the design of
multiplanar joints loaded in opposite directions is to be based on suitable experimental data or nonlinear
finite element analysis. Nonlinear finite element analysis is well-suited to investigate the effects of
individual parameters such as load ratio, load sequence and interaction of out-of-plane braces.

FIGURE 4
Multiplanar Joints

5.3 Overlapping Joints

Joints with braces that overlap in plane are to be checked using the same formula as for non-overlapping
braces given in Subsection 5/3. However, an additional check is to be performed for the region of the
overlap by considering the through brace as the chord member and the overlapping brace as the brace
member.

The Qg term for overlapped joints is to be based on the following equation:

σ0b
Qg = 0 . 13 + 0 . 65 σ0c τγ0 . 5 − 0 . 50 ≤ g/D ≤ − 0 . 05

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where

σ0b = specified minimum yield point of the brace member, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

σ0c = specified minimum yield point of the chord member, N/cm2 (kgf/cm2, lbf/in2)

τ = ratio of brace thickness to chord thickness

= t/T

γ = ratio of chord outer radius to chord wall thickness

= D/ 2T

g = gap, cm (in.)
D = chord outer diameter, cm (in.)

For −0 . 5 < g/D < 0 . 0, the value of Qg should be estimated by linear interpolation between the value of
Qg calculated from the above expression and 1.85, the Qg factor at g/D = 0 . 0.

Joints that overlap out-of-plane should be treated as simple joints and checked in accordance with
Subsection 5/3. However, an additional check should be performed for the region of overlap by
considering the through brace as the chord member and the overlapping brace as the brace member. The
joint will be considered as a T/Y joint in this instance. The combined out-of-plane bending moment
between these offset members is equivalent to an in-plane bending moment as defined for a simple T/Y
joint. Similarly, the combined in-plane bending moment is equivalent to an out-of-plane bending moment,
as defined for a simple T/Y joint.

5.5 Grouted Joints

Grouted joints can be classified into two types:
i) Those with a fully grouted chord member and
ii) Those with an inner steel sleeve with a grout filling the annulus between the two concentric
tubular members. Under axial compression, significant increases in joint strength have been
recorded through test programs. Under axial tension, only modest strength enhancement is noted,
which results primarily from the reduction in chord ovalization that occurs for the grouted
specimen.

It is recommended that no benefit is taken from grouting or insertion of an inner sleeve under axial tension
and bending in the strength assessment of a grouted joint. However, under axial compression, an
enhancement in chord thickness may be available and an effective chord thickness may be obtained from
the following equation.

Te = T + Tp + Tg /18

where

T = chord thickness, cm (in.)

Tp = thickness of the inner tube, cm (in.)
Tg = thickness of the grout-filled section, cm (in.)
= D/2 − T + Tp , if fully grout-filled tube
D = outer diameter, cm (in.)

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Tp and Tg are depicted in 5/5.5 FIGURE 5.

FIGURE 5
Grouted Joints

5.7 Ring-Stiffened Joints

As in the case of grouted joints, rings enhance the joint stiffness substantially. A ring-stiffened joint should
be designed based on appropriate experimental or in-service evidence. In the absence of such evidence, an
appropriate analytical check is to be pursued. As recommended by API RP WSD 2A, this check is to be
performed by cutting sections that isolate groups of members, individual members and separate elements
of the joint (e.g., gussets, diaphragms, stiffeners, welds in shear and surfaces subjected to punching shear),
and verifying that realistic, assumed stress distributions satisfy equilibrium without exceeding the
allowable stress of the material (e.g., the strength of all elements is sufficient to resist the applied loading).

As needed, the design of a ring-stiffened tubular joint is also to be based on suitable experimental data or
nonlinear finite element analysis. Nonlinear finite element analysis is ideally suited for sensitivity studies,
which investigate the effects of individual parameters such as the geometry, location and number of
stiffeners.

5.9 Cast Joints

Where the use of cast joints is considered, assistance from qualified specialists is to be sought. This is
particularly relevant for optimized cast joints where unusually demanding design criteria are proposed.
Nonlinear finite element analysis is also to be performed, giving particular consideration to the geometric
and material characteristics of cast joints, including the effects of casting geometry, stress-strain
relationships and casting defects.

In addition, it should be recognized that the performance of cast joints beyond first yield may not be
similar to that achieved in welded joints. The post-yield behavior of cast joints should be investigated to
ensure that the reserve strength and ductility against total collapse are comparable to those of welded
joints.

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 APPENDIX 1
Review of Buckling Analysis by Finite Element Method (FEM)

1 General
This Appendix, in conjunction with API Bulletin 2V, provides guidance on the review of buckling analysis
using FEM. If appropriate documentation is presented, proven numerical methods to establish the buckling
strength of structural components subjected to various loads and their combinations are accepted as an
alternative to the formulations presented in the previous Sections of this document. In some cases,
especially those involving novel structural designs and loading situations, reliance on such analytical
methods is to be pursued to provide added assurance of a proposed design’s adequacy. One widely-
accepted method relies on the use of FEM analysis, which allows the designer to model the geometry;
material properties; imperfections (such as out-of-roundness), fabrication-induced residual stresses,
misalignment and corrosion defects; as well as boundary conditions.

Key issues in an FEM analysis include the selection of the computer program, the determination of the
loads and boundary conditions, development of the mathematical model, choice of element types, design
of the mesh, solution procedures and verification and validation. Numerous decisions are to be made
during this analysis process.

This Appendix emphasizes some important aspects that should be satisfied in determining the buckling
strength by FEM analysis.

3 Engineering Model
The engineering model for buckling analysis is a simplification and idealization of an actual physical
structural component. Hence, it is crucial that the modeling process is undertaken correctly, since the FEM
analysis cannot improve on a poor engineering model.

The rationale for the following aspects is to be appropriately described and justified:

● Extent of the model. The model should include the main features of the physical structure related to
buckling behavior and capture all relevant failure modes.
● Geometry. The use of a full model is preferred in the FEM buckling analysis. Symmetric conditions
may be utilized to reduce the size of finite element model, if appropriate.
● Material properties. Material nonlinearity may need to be considered in some circumstances,
particularly in order to account for the effects of residual stresses.
● Imperfections. Imperfections may remarkably reduce the buckling strength of structural components.
For this reason, the imperfections should be included.
● Loads. All possible loads and their combinations are to be considered.

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● Boundary conditions. Boundary conditions are the constraints applied to the model. The boundary
conditions should suitably reflect the constraint relationship between the structural component and its
surroundings.

5 FEM Analysis Model

The FEM analysis model is translated from the engineering model. The rationale for the following items
should be appropriately described and justified:

● Element types. Finite element types are specialized and can only simulate a limited number of response
types. The choice of element types should be best suited to the problem.
● Mesh design. The discretization of a structure into a number of finite elements is one of the most
critical tasks in finite element modeling and often a difficult one. The following parameters need to be
considered in designing the layout of elements: mesh density, mesh transitions and the stiffness ratio of
adjacent elements. As a general guidance, a finer mesh should be used in areas of high stress gradient.
The performance of elements degrades as they become more skewed. If the mesh is graded, rather than
uniform, the grading should be done in a way that minimizes the difference in size between adjacent
elements.
● Loads. Typical structural loads and load effects in finite element models are forces, pressure load,
gravity, body forces, prescribed displacements and temperatures. The loads and load effects may be
applied or translated to nodes (e.g., nodal forces and body forces), element edges or faces (e.g.,
distributed line loads, pressure) and the entire model (e.g., gravity loads).
● Boundary conditions. Generally, the support condition assumed for the degree of freedom concerned is
idealized as completely rigid or completely free. In reality, the support condition is usually somewhere
in between.

7 Solution Procedures
Two types of solution procedures are usually employed in buckling analysis (e.g., eigenvalue buckling
analysis and nonlinear buckling analysis).

Eigenvalue buckling analysis predicts the theoretical buckling strength (the bifurcation point) of an ideal
linear elastic structure. However, imperfections and nonlinearities prevent most real structures from
achieving their theoretical elastic buckling strength. Thus, eigenvalue buckling analysis often yields
unconservative results and should generally not be used in actual structural design.

The nonlinear buckling analysis employs a nonlinear static analysis with gradually increasing loads to seek
the load level at which the structure becomes unstable. The basic approach in a nonlinear buckling analysis
is to constantly apply incremental loads until the solution begins to diverge. The load increments should be
sufficiently fine to ensure the accuracy of the prediction.

The sequence of applied loads may influence the results. If the sequence is unknown, several tests should
be performed to make sure that the results represent the worst case scenario.

The analysis may be extended into the post-buckling range by activating, for example, the arc-length
method. Use this feature to trace the load-deflection curve through regions of “snap-through” and “snap-
back” response.

9 Verification and Validation

It is necessary to perform verification and validation for the FEM analysis results to ensure that the
loading, buckling strength and acceptance criteria are suitably considered.

● Results and acceptance criteria

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The results should be presented so that they can be easily compared with the design/acceptance criteria
and validated based on appropriate experimental or in-service evidence.

A statement confirming that all quality assessment checks, as required to confirm that a buckling
analysis has been executed satisfactorily, should be included.
● Analysis model

In case of discrepancies in the results, the model and loading applied to the model should be reviewed
as part of the investigation into the source of the problem. The appropriateness of the model, types of
loads and load combination, load sequence, boundary conditions, etc., should be reviewed.
● Strength assessment

In the modeling process, several assumptions are made which may or may not be conservative. An
assessment of the conservatism should be made particularly with regard to the underlying assumptions
implicit in the design criteria that are being applied.

In making an assessment of the buckling strength of a structural component based on the results of an
FEM analysis, appropriate allowances should also be made for factors that were not included or fully
considered.
● Accuracy assessment

In assessing the accuracy of the results, factors to be considered include model complexity and
behavior, mesh refinement, and solution options, etc. In reducing the model’s complexity, the analysts
would necessarily have omitted some elements of the structure. The effect of these factors on the
results should be assessed. The limitations of the element types used should also be assessed with
respect to their capacity to model the required behavior.

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