1

Chapter 4
Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

Sec 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry

Define Stoichiometry
It is the relationship between chemical amounts in a balanced chemical equation.
Stoichiometry allows us to predict the amounts of products or reactants that will form in a chemical
reaction based on the amounts of reactants given. It also allows us to determine the amount of
reactants necessary to form a given amount of product.

Role of coefficients in Stoichiometry

The coefficients in a chemical equation specify the relative amounts in moles of each of the
substances involved in the reaction.

Example 1:
1. In photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (C6H12O6) according to the
reaction:

6 moles 6 moles 6 moles 1 mole

6×44.01g 6×18.016g 6×32g 1×180.2g
264.04g 108.096g 192g 180.2g
372g 372g
Mass is conserved

2. In photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (C6H12O6) according to the
reaction:

Suppose you determine that a particular plant consumes 37.8g of CO2 in one week. Assuming that
there is more than enough water present to react with all of the CO2, what mass of glucose (in grams)
can the plant synthesize from the CO2?

Given: mass CO2 = 37.8 g RTF: mass of glucose = ???

6 CO2 C6H12O6
6 moles 1 mole
6×44.01g 1×180.2g
37.8g ??? m C6H12O6 = 25.8 g

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 2
Application 1

1. Magnesium hydroxide, the active ingredient in milk of magnesia, neutralizes stomach acid, primarily
HCl, according to the reaction:

What mass of HCl, in grams, is neutralized by a dose of milk of magnesia containing 3.26 g
Mg(OH)2?

2. Manganese (IV) oxide reacts with aluminium to form elemental manganese and aluminium oxide:
3 MnO2 + 4 A 3 M + 2 A 2O3
What mass of Al is required to completely react with 25.0 g MnO2?
a) 7.76 g Al
b) 5.82 g Al
c) 33.3 g Al
d) 10.3 g Al

3. Consider the unbalanced equation for the combustion of hexane:

C6H14 (g) + O2 ( ) CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
Balance the equation and determine how many moles of O2 are required to react completely with 7.2
moles of C6H14.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 3
4. How many moles of CO2 are produced when 3 moles of pentane react with excess oxygen
C5H12(l) + 8O2(g) 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
a) 5 moles
b) 3/5 moles
c) 15 moles
d) 3 moles

5. The overall equation involved in photosynthesis is 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2.

How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6, 180.1 g/mol) form when 4.40 g of CO2 react?
a) 18.0 g
b) 3.00 g
c) 108 g
d) 0.0167 g

6. The rapid decomposition of sodium azide, NaN3, to its elements is one of the reactions used to inflate
airbags: 2 NaN3 (s) 2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)
How many grams of N2 are produced from 6.00 g of NaN3?
a) 3.88 g
b) 1.72 g
c) 0.138 g
d) 2.59 g

Example 2:
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a component of acid rain that forms when SO2, a pollutant, reacts with
oxygen and water according to the simplified reaction:

The generation of the electricity used by a medium-sized home produces about 25 kg of SO2 per year.
Assuming that there is more than enough O2 and H2O, what mass of H2SO4, in kg, can form from this
much SO2?

Given: 25 kg SO2 (25×103 g )

RTF: mass H2SO4 in kg

2 SO2 2 H2SO4
2 moles 2 moles
2×64.06g 2×98.076g
25×103g ??? g m H2SO4 = 38275 g = 38 kg

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 4
Application 2:
1. Another component of acid rain is nitric acid, which forms when NO2, also a pollutant, reacts with
oxygen and water according to the simplified equation:

The generation of the electricity used by a medium-sized home produces about 16 kg of NO2 per
year. Assuming that there is adequate O2 and H2O, what mass of HNO3, in kg, can form from this
amount of NO2 pollutant?

2. Under certain conditions sodium can react with oxygen to form sodium oxide according to the
reaction:
4 Na(s) + O2 (g) 2 Na2O (s)
A flask contains the amount of oxygen represented by the following diagram.

Which image below best represents the amount of sodium required to completely react with all of
the oxygen in the flask according to the equation?

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 5
Sec 4.3 Limiting Reagent, Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield

- The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction and limits
the amount of product.

- The reactant in excess is any reactant that occurs in a quantity greater than is required to completely
react with the limiting reactant.

- The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be made in a chemical reaction based on the
amount of limiting reactant.

- The actual yield is the amount of product actually produced by a chemical reaction.

- The percent yield is calculated as 100

IMPORTANT NOTE

Consider the following reaction:

Fe2O3 ( ) + 3 CO (g) 2 Fe ( ) + 3 CO2 (g)
Initial amounts 1 mole 3 moles 0 moles 0 moles
Change -1 mole - 3 moles + 2 moles + 3 moles

Final 0 moles 0 moles 2 moles 3 moles

The stoichiometric coefficients do NOT tell us how much we have but they tell us the ratios in which
reactants are lost and products are formed.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 6
Example 3:
Ammonia, NH3, can be synthesized by the reaction:

Starting with 86.3 g NO and 25.6 g H2, find the theoretical yield of ammonia in grams.

Given: 86.3 g NO,25.6 g H2 RTF: Theoretical yield

Steps for solving the question

2 NO 5H2
86.3 g 25.6 g
25.
.3 n= = 2 1.00 = 12.7
calculate n n= = = 2.88 moles
30.01
moles
𝑛 2. 12.
= 1.44 = 2.54
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 2 5

Compare 1.44 < 2.54

Limiting reagent Excess reagent
(smaller value) (larger value)

After identifying the limiting reagent, reword the question as if you only have the limiting reagent
and solve the problem.

Given R.T.F
m NO = 86.3 g Theoretical yield? = ????

2 NO 2 NH3
2 moles 2 moles
2 × 30.01 g 2 × 17.034 g
86.3 g ??? Mass of NH3 = 25.0 g

Theoretical yield of ammonia is 50.0 g

Application 3:

1. We can obtain titanium metal from its oxide according to the following balanced equation:

When 28.6 kg of C reacts with 88.2 kg of TiO2, 42.8 kg of Ti is produced. Find the limiting reactant,
theoretical yield (in kg), and percent yield.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 7
2. Ammonia is produced using the Haber process: 3 H2 + N2 2 NH3
Calculate the mass of ammonia produced when 35.0 g of nitrogen react with 12.5 g of hydrogen.
a) 47.5 g
b) 42.6 g
c) 35.0 g
d) 63.8 g
e) 70.5 g

3. Ammonia is produced using the Haber process: 3 H2 + N2 2 NH3

What percent yield of ammonia is produced from 15.0 kg of each of H2 and N2, if 13.7 kg of product
are recovered? Assume the reaction goes to completion.
a) 7.53 × 10 2 %
b) 1.50 × 10 1 %
c) 75.3%
d) 15.0%
e) 16.2%

4. What mass of TiCl4 is needed to produce 25.0 g of Ti if the reaction proceeds with an 82% yield?
TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + 2 MgCl2
a) 30.5 g
b) 121 g
c) 99.1 g
d) 81.2 g

5. Consider the reaction: 2 NO(g) + 5 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) + 2 H2O(g)

A reaction mixture initially contains 5 moles of NO and 10 moles of H2. Without doing any
calculations, determine which set of amounts best represents the mixture after the reactants have
reacted as completely as possible. Explain your reasoning.
a) l mole NO, 0 mol H2, 4 mol NH3, 4 mol H2O
b) 0 mole NO, 1 mol H2, 5 mol NH3, 5 mol H2O
c) 3 mole NO, 5 mol H2, 2 mol NH3, 2 mol H2O
d) 0 mole NO, 0 mol H2, 4 mol NH3, 4 mol H2O

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 8
6. Nitrogen and hydrogen gas react to form ammonia according to the
reaction: 3 H2 + N2 2 NH3
If a flask contains a mixture of reactants represented by the image at right,
Which image below best represents the mixture in the flask after the
reactants have reacted as completely as possible? What is the limiting
reactant? Which reactant is in excess?

7. Consider the reaction: 2 N2H4(g) + N2O4(g) 3 N2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

Consider also this representation of an initial mixture of N2H4 and N2O4:

Which diagram best represents the reaction mixtures after the reactants have reacted as completely as
possible?

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 9
8. Consider the reaction: 4 HCl (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (g) + 2 Cl2 (g)

Each molecular diagram represents an initial mixture of the reactants. How many molecules of Cl2
would be formed from the reaction mixture that produces the largest amount of products?

9. Urea (CH4N2O) is a common fertilizer that is synthesized by the reaction of ammonia (NH3) with
carbon dioxide: 2 NH3(aq) + CO2 (a ) CH4N2O(aq) + H2O (l)
In an industrial synthesis of urea, a chemist combines 136.4 kg of ammonia with 211.4 kg of carbon
dioxide and obtains 168.4 kg of urea. Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yield of urea, and
percent yield for the reaction.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 10
Example 4
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitric acid and nitrogen monoxide according to the
equation:
3 NO2 (g) + H2O ( ) 2 HNO3 (l) + NO (g)
Suppose that 5 moles NO2 and 1 mole H2O combine and react completely. How many moles of the
reactant in excess are present after the reaction has completed?

The limiting reactant is the 1 mole H2O, which is completely consumed. The l mole of H2O requires
3 moles of NO2 to completely react; therefore, 2 moles NO2 remain after the reaction is complete.

Application 4
Zinc (II) sulfide reacts with oxygen according to the reaction: 2 ZnS(s) + 3O2( ) 2 Z O( ) + 2
SO2(g)
A reaction mixture initially contains 4.2 moles ZnS and 6.8 moles O2. Once the reaction has occurred
as completely as possible, what amount (in moles) of the excess reactant is left?

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 11
More Applications
1. How many moles of KBrO3 are required to 4. Calculate the mass of hydrogen formed when
prepare 0.0700 moles of Br2 according to the 25 grams of aluminum reacts with excess
reaction: hydrochloric acid.
KBrO3+5KBr+6HNO3 6KNO3+3Br2+3H2O 2Al + 6HCl Al2Cl6 + 3H2
a) 0.0732 a) 0.41 g
b) 0.0704 b) 1.2 g
c) 0.220 c) 1.8 g
d) 0.0233 d) 2.8 g

2. Which of the following statements is 5. When 12 g of methanol (CH3OH) was

FALSE for the chemical equation given treated with excess oxidizing agent (MnO4 ),
below in which nitrogen gas reacts with 14 g of formic acid (HCOOH) was obtained.
hydrogen gas to form ammonia gas assuming Using the following chemical equation,
the reaction goes to completion? calculate the percent yield. (The reaction is
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 much more complex than this; please ignore
a) One mole of N2 will produce two moles of the fact that the charges do not balance.)
NH3. 3CH3OH+4MnO4 3HCOOH+4MnO2
b) One molecule of nitrogen requires three a) 100%
molecules of hydrogen for complete b) 92%
reaction. c) 82%
c) The reaction of 14 g of nitrogen produces d) 70%
17 g of ammonia.
d) The reaction of three moles of hydrogen 6. A commercially valuable paint and adhesive
gas will produce 17 g of ammonia. material, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO),
(CH3)2SO, can be prepared by the reaction of
3. Calcium carbide, CaC2, is an important oxygen with dimethyl sulfide, (CH3)2S,
preliminary chemical for industries using a ratio of one mole oxygen to two
producing synthetic fabrics and plastics. moles of the sulfide:
CaC2 may be produced by heating calcium O2 + 2(CH3)2S 2(CH3)2SO
oxide with coke: If this process is 83% efficient, how many
CaO + 3C CaC2 + CO grams of DMSO could be produced from 65
What is the amount of CaC2 which can be g of dimethyl sulfide and excess O2?
produced from the reaction of excess a) 68 g
calcium oxide and 10.2g b) 75 g
of carbon? (Assume 100% efficiency of c) 83 g
reaction for purposes of this problem.) d) 51 g
a) 18.1 g
b) 28.4 g
c) 20.8 g
d) 19.8 g

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 12
7. The formation of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) by d) Hg2Cl2
the fermentation of glucose (C6H12O6) may
be represented by: 10. What mass of ZnCl2 can be prepared from
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 the reaction of 3.27 grams of zinc with 3.30
If a particular glucose fermentation process grams of HCl?
is 87.0% efficient, how many grams of Zn +2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
glucose would be required for the production a) 6.89 g
of 51.0 g of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)? b) 6.82 g
a) 68.3 g c) 6.46 g
b) 75.1 g d) 6.17 g
c) 115 g
d) 229 g 11. How many grams of NH3 can be prepared
from 77.3 grams of N2 and 14.2 grams of
8. The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is H2? (Hint: Write and balance the equation
one that: first.)
a) has the largest molar mass (formula a) 93.9 g
weight). b) 79.7 g
b) has the smallest molar mass (formula c) 47.0 g
weight). d) 120.0 g
c) has the smallest coefficient.
d) is consumed completely. 12. Silicon carbide, an abrasive, is made by the
reaction of silicon dioxide with graphite.
9. If 5.0 g of each reactant were used for the SiO2 +3C SiC + 2CO
following process, the limiting reactant If 100 g of SiO2 and 100 g of C are reacted
would be: as far as possible, which one of the following
2KMnO4+5Hg2Cl2+16HCl statements will be correct?
10HgCl2+2MnCl2+2KCl+8H2O a) 111 g of SiO2 will be left over.
a) KMnO4 b) 44 g of SiO2 will be left over.
b) HCl c) 82 g of C will be left over.
c) H2O d) 40 g of C will be left over.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 13
Sec 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry

Introduction

- Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.

- The component of the solution that changes state is called the solute.
- Solute is the substance being dissolved.
- The component that keeps its state is called the solvent.
- Solvent is the substance doing the dissolving, and in water solutions, the solvent is the water.
- An aqueous solution is one in which water acts as the solvent.

Solution Concentration

- A dilute solution is one containing only a few solute particles in a large amount of solvent.
- A concentrated solution has much more solute than a dilute solution.
- The solubility limit depends on several factors and is different for different substances; there is no
standard rule.

A concentrated solution contains a

relatively large amount of solute
relative to solvent.
A dilute solution contains a relatively
small amount of solute relative to
solvent.

- Molarity (M) is used to indicate the concentration of a solution in moles solute per liter of solution.
(It is the amount of solute (in moles) divided by the volume of solution (in liters))

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 14
Preparing a Solution of Specified Concentration (IMPORTANT LAB SKILL)

- To make an aqueous solution of a specified molarity, we usually put the solute into a flask and then
add water to reach the desired volume of solution.

Example: Preparing a 1 Molar NaCl solution

Calculations:
Mass of NaCl required = n × M = C × V × M = 1 × 1 × (22.99 + 35.45) = 58.44 g

Steps:
1. Measure the solute in grams. Dissolve the solute in a small amount of water (solvent) in a beaker.
2. Pour the solute in the appropriate volumetric flask.
3. Add water (solvent) to the mark in the flask.

Example 1:
If you dissolve 25.5 g KBr in enough water to make 1.75 L of solution, what is the molarity of the
solution?

25.5
𝐶 0.122 𝑀
11 1. 5

Check
The units of the answer (M) are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since common solutions range
in concentration from 0 to about 18 M. Concentrations significantly above 18 M are suspect and
should be double-checked.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 15
Application 5:

1. Calculate the molarity of a solution made by adding 45.4 g of NaNO3 to a flask and dissolving it with
water to create a total volume of 2.50 L.

2. What mass of KBr (in grams) do you need to make 250.0 mL of a 1.50 M KBr solution?

3. What is the molarity of a solution containing 55.8 g of MgC12 dissolved in 1.00 L of solution?
a) 55.8 M
b) 1.71 M
c) 0.586 M
d) 0.558 M

Example 6:
How many liters of a 0.125 M NaOH solution contain 0.255 mol of NaOH?

n 0.255
V 2.04 𝐿
C 0.125

Application 6
1. How many grams of sucrose (C12H22O11) are in 1.55 L of 0.758 M sucrose solution?

2. How many mL of a 0.155 M KCl solution contain 2.55 g KCl?

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 16
3. If we dissolve 25 grams of salt in 251 grams of water, what is the mass of the sresulting solution?
a) 251 g
b) 276 g
c) 226 g

4. What mass (in grams) of Mg(NO3)2 is present in 145 mL of a 0.150 M solution of Mg(NO3)2?
a) 3.23 g
b) 0.022 g
c) 1.88 g
d) 143 g

Solution Dilution

- The concentrated solution is called a stock solution.

- The equation for dilution is

Number of moles of concentrated solution = Number of moles of dilute solution
M1V1 = M2V2

Solution dilution steps :

1. Measure out the specific volume of stock solution.
2. Pour into the appropriate volumetric flask which already contains ½ or 2/3 of the needed solvent
to be added.
3. Add water to the mark.

IMPORTANT NOTES

If you are diluting an acid solution, pour ½ or 2/3 of the water needed in the appropriate flask. Then
SLOWLY add the acid while swirling it. Finish by adding the last amount of water to the mark. This
is considered a safety issue.

When diluting acids, always add the concentrated acid to the water. Never add water to concentrated
acid solutions, as the heat generated may cause the concentrated acid to splatter and burn your skin.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 17
Example: Preparing 3.00 L of 0.500 M CaCl2 from a 10.0 M Stock Solution

Calculations:
M1V1 = M2V2
10.0 × V1 = 0.500 × 3.00 L
V2 = 0.150 L

We make the solution by diluting 0.150 L of the stock solution to a total volume of 3.00 L (V2).
The resulting solution will be 0.500 M in CaC12.

Example 7:
To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of a 15.0 M NaOH solution to obtain a 3.00 M NaOH
solution? What is the volume of water needed?
M1V1 = M2V2
15.0 × 0.200 L = 3.00 × V2
V2 = 1.00 L

Volume of water = V2 V1 = 1.00 0.200 = 0.80 L = 800 mL

Check
The final units (L) are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable because the solution is diluted
from 15.0 M to 3.00 M, a factor of five. Therefore the volume should increase by a factor of five.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 18
Application 7:

1. To what volume (in mL) should you dilute 100.0 mL of a 5.00 M CaCl2 solution to obtain a 0.750 M
CaCl2 solution?

2. What volume of a 6.00 M NaNO3 solution should you use to make 0.525 L of a 1.20 M NaNO3
solution?

3. The image below represents a small volume within 500 mL of aqueous ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
solution. (The water molecules have been omitted for clarity)

Which image below best represents the same volume of the solution after we add an additional 500
mL of water?

4. What volume of a 1.50 M HCl solution should you use to prepare 2.00 L of a 0.100 M HCl solution?
a) 0.300 L
b) 0.133 L
c) 30.0 L
d) 2.00 L

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 19
Solution Stoichiometry
Because molarity relates the moles of solute to the liters of solution, it can be used to convert between
amount of reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction.
The general conceptual plan for these kinds of calculations begins with the volume of a reactant or
product.

Example 8:
What volume (in L) of 0.150 M KCl solution will completely react with 0.150 L of a 0.175 M
Pb(NO3)2 solution according to the following balanced chemical equation?

Given: 0.150 M KCl, 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2

RTF: V KCl = ???

Steps:
1. Find number of moles Pb(NO3)2 = C × V = 0.175 × 0.150 = 0.0263 moles

2. Compare number of moles of each

2 KCl Pb(NO3)2
2 moles 1 mole
???? 0.0263 moles
Number of moles of KCl = 0.0526 moles
0.052
3. Find V of KCl 𝑉 0.351 𝐿
0.150

Application 8
1.
a) What volume (in mL) of a 0.150 M HNO3 solution will completely react with 35.7 mL of a 0.108
M Na2CO3 solution according to the following balanced chemical equation?

b) In the previous reaction, what mass (in grams) of carbon dioxide forms?

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 20
2. Potassium iodide reacts with lead(II) nitrate in the following precipitation reaction:
2 Kl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + Pbl2(s)
What minimum volume of 0.200 M potassium iodide solution is required to completely precipitate all
of the lead in 155.0 mL of a 0.112 M lead (ll) nitrate solution?
a) 348 mL
b) 86.8 mL
c) 174 mL
d) 43.4 mL

Sec 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Introduction
- Consider two familiar aqueous solutions: salt water and sugar water.
Salt water is a homogeneous mixture of NaCl and H2O.
Sugar water is a homogeneous mixture of C12H22O11 and H2O.
- As you stir either of these two substances into the water, it seems to disappear.
How do solids such as salt and sugar dissolve in water?

What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?

- There are attractive forces between the solute particles holding them together.
- There are also attractive forces between the solvent molecules.
- When we mix the solute with the solvent, there are attractive forces between the solute particles and
the solvent molecules.
- If the attractions between solute and solvent are strong enough, the solute will dissolve.

When a solid is put into a solvent, the

interactions between solvent and
solute particles compete with the
interactions between the solute
particles themselves.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 21
Charge Distribution in a Water Molecule
There is an uneven distribution of electrons within the water molecule.
This causes the oxygen side of the molecule to have a partial negative charge (𝛿 ) and the hydrogen
side to have a partial positive charge (𝛿 +).

An uneven distribution of electrons

within the water molecule causes the
oxygen side of the molecule to have a
partial negative charge and the
hydrogen side to have a partial
positive charge.

Interactions in a Sodium Chloride Solution

- For example, when sodium chloride is put into water, there is a competition between the attraction of
Na+ cations and Cl - anions to each other (due to their opposite charges) and the attraction of Na+ and
Cl- to water molecules.
- The attraction of Na+ and Cl - to water is based on the polar nature of the water molecule.
- The oxygen atom in water is electron-rich, giving it a partial negative charge (𝛿-). The hydrogen
atoms, in contrast, are electron-poor, giving them a partial positive charge (𝛿+).
- As a result, the positively charged sodium ions are strongly attracted to the oxygen side of the water
molecule (which has a partial negative charge), and the negatively charged chloride ions are attracted
to the hydrogen side of the water molecule (which has a partial positive charge).

The attraction between water

molecules and the ions of sodium
chloride causes NaCl to dissolve in the
water.

- In the case of NaCl, the attraction between the separated ions and the water molecules overcomes the
attraction of sodium and chloride ions to each other, and the sodium chloride dissolves in the water

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 22

When sodium chloride is put into

water, the attraction of Na+ and Cl-
ions to water molecules competes with
the attraction between the oppositely
charged ions themselves.

Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions

- Electrolytes are materials that dissolve in water to form a solution that will conduct electricity
- Nonelectrolytes are materials that dissolve in water to form a solution that will NOT conduct
electricity.

A solution of salt (an electrolyte)

conducts electrical current.

A solution of sugar (a nonelectrolyte)

does not

- Ionic substances such as sodium chloride that completely dissociate into ions
when they dissolve in water are strong electrolytes.

- In contrast to sodium chloride, sugar is a molecular compound.

- Most molecular compounds (except for acids), dissolve in water as intact
molecules.

- Compounds such as sugar that do NOT dissociate into ions when dissolved in water are called
nonelectrolytes, and the resulting solutions-called nonelectrolyte solutions-do not conduct
electricity.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 23
Interactions between Sugar and Water Molecules

- In contrast to sodium chloride, sugar is a molecular compound.

- Most molecular compounds-with the important exception of acids, which we discuss shortly-dissolve
in water as intact molecules.
- Sugar dissolves because the attraction between sugar molecules and water molecules overcomes the
attraction of sugar molecules to each other.
- So unlike a sodium chloride solution (which is composed of dissociated ions), a sugar solution is
composed of intact C12H22O11 molecules homogeneously mixed with the water molecules.

Partial charges on sugar molecules and

water molecules result in attractions
between the sugar molecules and
water molecules.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 24
Binary Acids

- Acids are molecular compounds that ionize when they dissolve in water.
The molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the water.
When acids ionize, they form H+ cations and also anions.

- The percentage of molecules that ionize varies from one acid to another.

- Acids that ionize virtually 100% are called strong acids.

HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl (aq)

- Acids that only ionize a small percentage are called weak acids.
HF(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + F (aq)

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

- Strong electrolytes are materials that dissolve completely as ions.

Examples: Ionic compounds and strong acids where their solutions conduct electricity well

- Weak electrolytes are materials that dissolve mostly as molecules, but partially as ions.
Examples: Weak acids where their solutions conduct electricity, but not well

- When compounds containing a polyatomic ion dissolve, the polyatomic ion stays together.
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + C2H3O2 (aq)

Unlike soluble ionic compounds,

which contain ions and therefore
dissociate in water, acids are
molecular compounds that ionize in
water

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 25
Classes of Dissolved Materials

Dissociation and Ionization

- When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the anions and cations are separated from each other. This
is called dissociation.
Na2S(aq) 2 Na+(aq) + S2 (aq)

- When compounds containing polyatomic ions dissociate, the polyatomic group stays together as one
ion.
Na2SO4(aq) 2 Na+(aq) + SO42 (aq)

- When strong acids dissolve in water, the molecule ionizes into H+ and anions.
H2SO4(aq) 2 H+(aq) + SO42 (aq)

The Solubility of Ionic Compounds

- When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the resulting solution contains not the intact ionic
compound itself, but its component ions dissolved in water.
- However, not all ionic compounds dissolve in water.
If we add AgCl to water, for example, it remains solid and appears as a white powder at the bottom of
the water.
- In general, a compound is termed soluble if it dissolves in water and insoluble if it does not.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 26
Solubility of Salts

- If we mix solid AgNO3 with water, it dissolves and forms a strong electrolyte solution.
- Silver chloride, on the other hand, is almost completely insoluble.
- If we mix solid AgCl with water, virtually all of it remains as a solid within the liquid water.

AgCl does not dissolve in water; it

remains as a white powder at the
bottom of the beaker

When Will a Salt Dissolve?

Whether a particular compound is soluble or insoluble depends on several factors. We can follow a
set of empirical rules that chemists have inferred from observations on many ionic compounds. These
solubility rules are summarized in the table below.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 27
The solubility rules state that:
1. Compounds containing the sodium ion are soluble. That means that compounds such as NaBr,
NaNO3, Na2SO4, NaOH, and Na2CO3 all dissolve in water to form strong electrolyte solutions.
2. Compounds containing the N03- ion are soluble. That means that compounds such as AgNO3,
Pb(NO3)2, NaNO3, Ca(NO3)2, and Sr(NO3)2 all dissolve in water to form strong electrolyte solutions.
When compounds containing polyatomic ions such as NO3- dissolve, the polyatomic ions dissolve as
intact units.
3. Compounds containing the CO32- ion are insoluble. Therefore, compounds such as CuCO3, CaCO3,
SrCO3, and FeCO3 do not dissolve in water.
Exceptions: compounds containing CO3 2- are soluble when paired with Li +, Na+, K+, or NH4+.
Thus Li2CO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, and (NH4)2CO3 are all soluble.

Example 9
Predict whether each compound is soluble or insoluble.

Compound Solubility Explanation

Compounds containing Cl are normally soluble, but Pb2+ is an
a) PbCl2 Insoluble
exception.
Compounds containing Cl are normally soluble and Cu2+ is not an
b) CuCl2 Soluble
exception.
c) Ca(NO3)2 Soluble Compounds containing NO3 are always soluble
Compounds containing SO42 are normally soluble, but Ba2+ is an
d) BaSO4 Insoluble
exception.

Application 9

1. Predict whether each compound is soluble or insoluble.

a) NiS
b) Mg3(PO4)2
c) Li2CO3
d) NH4Cl

2. For each compound (all water soluble), would you expect the resulting aqueous solution to conduct
electrical current?

a) CsCl
b) CH3OH
c) Ca(NO2)2
d) C6H12O6

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 28
3. Classify each compound as a strong electrolyte or nonelectrolyte.

a) MgBr2
b) C12H22O11
c) Na2CO3
d) KOH

4. Determine whether each compound is soluble or insoluble. If the compound is soluble, list the ions
present in solution.

a) AgNO3

b) Pb(C2H3O2)2

c) KNO3

d) (NH4)2S

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 29
Sec 4.6 - Precipitation Reactions

- Precipitation reactions are reactions in which a solid forms when we mix two solutions.
- Reactions between aqueous solutions of ionic compounds produce an ionic compound that is
insoluble in water.
The insoluble product is called a precipitate.

Example: Precipitation of Lead(II) Iodide

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 30
No Precipitation Means No Reaction

- Precipitation reactions do not always occur when two aqueous solutions are mixed.
- Combine solutions of KI and NaCl and nothing happens.
KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) No Reaction

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 31
Predicting Precipitation Reactions

1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has.

2. Determine formulas of possible products.

Exchange ions: (+) ion from one reactant with ( ) ion from other
Balance charges of combined ions to get the formula of each product.

3. Determine solubility of each product in water.

Use the solubility rules.
If product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will precipitate.

4. If neither product will precipitate, write no reaction after the arrow

5. If any of the possible products are insoluble, write their formulas as the products of the reaction using
(s) after the formula to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq) after the formula to
indicate aqueous.

6. Balance the equation. Remember to only change coefficients, not subscripts.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 32
Example 10

a) Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when solutions of potassium
carbonate and nickel (II) chloride are mixed

Step 1 Write the formulas of the two compounds being mixed as reactants in a chemical equation.

Step 2 Below the equation, write the formulas of the products that could form from the reactants. Obtain
these by combining the cation from each reactant with the anion from the other. Make sure to
write correct formulas for these ionic compounds.

Step 3 Refer to the solubility rules to determine whether any of the possible products are insoluble.
KCl is soluble. (Compounds containing Cl are usually soluble and K+ is not an exception.)
NiCO3 is insoluble. (Compounds containing CO32 are usually insoluble and Ni2+ is not an
exception.

Step 4 I a b d c a b , b c a .W NO REACTION
after the arrow. Since this example has an insoluble product, we proceed to the next step.

Step 5 If any of the possible products are insoluble, write their formulas as the products of the reaction,
using (s) to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq) to indicate aqueous.

Step 6 Balance the equation. Remember to adjust only coefficients, not subscripts.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 33
b) Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when solutions of sodium nitrate
and lithium sulfate are mixed.

Step 1 Write the formulas of the two compounds being mixed as reactants in a chemical equation.

Step 2 Below the equation, write the formulas of the products that could form from the reactants. Obtain
these by combining the cation from each reactant with the anion from the other. Make sure to
write correct formulas for these ionic compounds.

Step 3 Refer to the solubility rules to determine whether any of the possible products are insoluble
LiNO3 is soluble. (Compounds containing NO3 are soluble and Li+ is not an exception.)
Na2SO4 is soluble. (Compounds containing SO42 are generally soluble and Na+ is not an
exception.)

Step 4 I a b d c a b , b c a .W NO REACTION
after the arrow.
Since this example has no insoluble product, there is no reaction.

Step 5 If any of the possible products are insoluble, write their formulas as the products of the reaction,
using (s) to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq) to indicate aqueous.

Step 6 Balance the equation. Remember to adjust only coefficients, not subscripts.

Application 10

1. Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when solutions of ammonium
chloride and iron (III) nitrate are mixed.

2. Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when solutions of sodium
hydroxide and copper(II) bromide are mixed

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 34
3. Complete and balance each equation. If no reaction occurs, write "NO REACTION."

a) Lil(aq) + BaS(aq)

b) KCl(aq) + CaS(aq)

c) CrBr2(aq) + Na2CO3(a )

d) NaOH(aq) + FeC13(aq)

4. Write a molecular equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when each pair of
aqueous solutions is mixed. If no reaction occurs, write "NO REACTION."

a) potassium carbonate and lead(II) nitrate

b) lithium sulfate and lead(II) acetate

c) copper(II) nitrate and magnesium sulfide

d) strontium nitrate and potassium iodide

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 35
Hard Water

- Have you ever taken a bath in hard water?

- Hard water contains dissolved ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ that diminish the effectiveness of soap.
These ions react with soap to form a gray curd that may appear as "bathtub ring" after you drain the
tub.
- Hard water is particularly troublesome when washing clothes. Consider how your white shirt would
look covered with the gray curd from the bathtub and you can understand the problem.
- Consequently, most laundry detergents include substances designed to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ from
the laundry mixture.
- The most common substance used for this purpose is sodium carbonate, which dissolves in water to
form sodium cations (Na+) and carbonate (C032- ) anions:
Na2CO3(a ) 2 Na+(aq) + CO32- (aq)
- Sodium carbonate is soluble, but calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are not.
- Consequently, the carbonate anions react with dissolved Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water to form
solids that precipitate from (or come out of) solution:
Mg2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) MgCO3(s)
Ca2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3(s)
- The precipitation of these ions prevents their reaction with the soap, eliminating curd and preventing
white shirts from turning gray.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 36
Sec 4.7 - Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic
Equations

1. Molecular Equation

An equation showing the complete neutral formulas for each compound in the aqueous reaction as if
they existed as molecules is called a molecular equation.
2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

2. Complete Ionic Equation

In actual solutions of soluble ionic compounds, dissolved substances are present as ions. Equations
a d c b a a c d d a ca d complete ionic equations.

Rules of writing the complete ionic equation:

- Aqueous strong electrolytes are written as ions (Soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases)
- Insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes are written in molecule form. (Solids,
liquids, and gases are not dissolved, hence molecule form)
2 K+(aq) + 2 OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

Spectator Ions

- Notice that in the complete ionic equation, some of the ions in solution appear unchanged on both
sides of the equation.
- These ions are called spectator ions because they do not participate in the reaction.

3. Net Ionic Equation

2 K+(aq) + 2 OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

An ionic equation in which the spectator ions are removed is called a net ionic equation.
Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH (aq) M (OH)2(s)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 37
Summarizing Aqueous Equations

- A molecular equation is a chemical equation showing the complete, neutral formulas for every
compound in a reaction.

- A complete ionic equation is a chemical equation showing all of the species as they are actually
present in solution.

- A net ionic equation is an equation showing only the species that actually change during the
reaction.

Example 11:

1) Consider the reaction between HCl (aq) and KOH (aq), write the following equations

1. Molecular Equation: HC (a ) + KOH (a ) H2O (l) + KCl (aq)

2. Complete ionic Equation:

3. Net ionic Equation; H + (aq) + OH-(a ) H2O (l)

2) Write the ionic and net ionic equation for each of the following:

a) K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(a ) 2 KNO3(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

2 K+(aq) + SO42 (aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3 (a ) 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

2 Ag+(aq) + SO42 (a ) Ag2SO4(s)

b) Na2CO3(a ) + 2 HC (a ) 2 NaC (a ) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

2 Na+(aq) + CO32 (aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 Cl (a ) 2 Na+(aq) + 2 Cl (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CO32 (aq) + 2 H+(a ) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 38
3) Write complete ionic and net ionic equations for each reaction.

a)

b)

Application 11:

1) Consider the following reaction occurring in aqueous solution:

Write the complete ionic equation and net ionic equation for this reaction.

2) Mercury (I) ions (Hg2 2+) can be removed from solution by precipitation with Cl-. Suppose that a
solution contains aqueous Hg2(NO3)2. Write complete ionic and net ionic equations to show the
reaction of aqueous Hg2(NO3)2 with aqueous sodium chloride to form solid Hg2Cl2 and aqueous
sodium nitrate.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 39
Sec 4.8 Acid-Base and Gas Evolution Reactions
Two other important classes of reactions that occur in aqueous solution are

1. Gas-evolution reactions.
In a gas-evolution reaction, a gas forms, resulting in bubbling

2. Acid base Reaction.

It is also called a neutralization reaction.
An acid reacts with a base and the two neutralize each other, producing water (or in some cases a
weak electrolyte).

In both acid base and gas-evolution reactions, as in precipitation reactions, the reactions occur when
the anion from one reactant combines with the cation of the other.
Many gas-evolution reactions are also acid base reactions.

Acid-Base Reactions

Arrhenius Definitions:

1. Acid: Substance that produces H+

Example: HC (a ) H+(aq) + Cl (aq)

- Some acids called polyprotic acids

These acids contain more than one ionizable proton and release them sequentially.
For example, sulfuric acid, H2SO4 is a diprotic acid.
It is strong in its first ionizable proton, but weak in its second.

H2SO4 (a ) H+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

HSO4- (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

2. Base: Substance that produces OH ions in aqueous solution

Examples:
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH (aq)
Sr(OH)2 (a ) S 2+(aq) + 2 OH- (aq)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 40
Relation between Hydrogen ion and Hydronium ion

- An H+ ion is a bare proton.

- In solution, bare protons normally associate with water molecules to form hydronium ions
H+(aq) + H2O( ) H3O +(aq)

The Hydronium ion

Protons normally associate with water

molecules in solution to form H3O+
ions, which in turn interact with other
water molecules.

- Chemists use H+(aq) and H3O +(aq) interchangeably to mean the same thing-a hydronium ion.
- The chemical equation for the ionization of HCl and other acids is often written to show the
association of the proton with a water molecule to form the hydronium ion:
HCl(aq) + H2O (l) H3O +(aq) + Cl (aq)

Examples of Acids and Bases

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 41
Acids and Bases in Solution

Acids ionize in water to form H+ ions.

More precisely, the H from the acid molecule is donated to a water molecule to form hydronium
ion, H3O+.
Most chemists use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably.

Bases dissociate in water to form OH ions.

Bases, such as NH3, that do not contain OH ions, produce OH by pulling H off water molecules.
NH3 (aq) + H2O ( ) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

In the reaction of an acid with a base, the H+ from the acid combines with the OH from the base to
make water.
The cation from the base combines with the anion from the acid to make the salt.

Acid Base Reactions

- Also called neutralization reactions b ca ac d a d ba a ac

- Acid- base reactions generally form water and an ionic compound-called a salt that usually remains
dissolved in the solution. The net ionic equation for many acid-base is H+(aq) + OH (a ) H2O(l)
(as long as the salt that forms is soluble in water).
- Examples:
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
H2SO4 (a ) + 2 KOH (a ) K2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 42

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 43
Example 12

Write a molecular and net ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous HI and aqueous Ba(OH)2

2 HI(aq) + Ba(OH)2(a ) 2 H2O(l) + BaI2 (aq)

+ -
2 H (aq) + 2 OH 2 H2O (l) or simply H+ (aq) + OH- H2O (l)

Application 12

1. Write a molecular and a net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs between aqueous H2SO4 and
aqueous LiOH.

2. Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction between hydrobromic acid and
potassium hydroxide.

3. Complete and balance each acid-base equation.

a) H2SO4 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)

b) HClO4 (aq) + KOH(a )

c) H2SO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 44
Acid Base Titrations
In a titration, a substance in a solution of known concentration (titrant) is reacted with another
substance in a solution of unknown concentration (analyte).
At this point, called the endpoint, the reactants are in their stoichiometric ratio.
The unknown solution (titrant) is added slowly from an instrument called a burette.

In acid base titrations, because both the reactant and product solutions are colorless, a chemical is
added that changes color when the solution undergoes large changes in acidity/alkalinity.
This chemical is called an indicator.

At the endpoint of an acid base titration, the number of moles of H+ equals the number of moles of
OH . This is also known as the equivalence point.

In most laboratory titrations, the concentration of one of the reactant solutions is unknown, and the
concentration of the other is precisely known. By carefully measuring the volume of each solution
required to reach the equivalence point, we can determine the concentration of the unknown
solution.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 45

In this titration, NaOH is added to a dilute HCl solution.

When the NaOH and HCl reach stoichiometric proportions (the

equivalence point), the phenolphthalein indicator changes color
to pink.

Acid-Base Indicators and their Colors

Color in Neutral Color in Basic

Indicator Color in Acidic medium
Medium Medium
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink (fuschia)
Methyl orange Red orange Yellow
Red litmus paper stays the same stays the same turns blue
Blue litmus paper turns red stays blue stays blue
pH paper red green blue or purple

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 46

IMPORTANT NOTE

Different Acid-Base Reaction

Case 1 Case 4

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaC (a ) + H2O (l) 2 HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaC 2(aq)+2H2O(l)
1 : 1 2 : 1
na : nb na : nb

na = n b na = 2 n b
CaVa = Cb Vb CaVa = 2 Cb Vb

Case 2 Case 5

H2SO4 (aq) + 2 NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) +Ca(OH)2(aq) CaSO4(s) + 2H2O (l)
1 : 2 1 : 1
na : nb na : nb

2 na = n b na = n b
2CaVa = CbVb C aV a = C b V b

Case 3 Steps to solve these type of questions

H3PO4 (aq) + 3 NaOH (aq) Na3PO4 (aq) + 3 H2O(l) 1. Write balanced equation.
1 : 3 2. Write relation between acid and base in
na : nb terms of moles.
3. Write given and required to find.
4. Find the unknown.
3 na = n b
3 CaVa = CbVb

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 47
Example 13
The titration of a 10.00 mL sample of an HCl solution of unknown concentration requires 12.54 mL
of a 0.100 M NaOH solution to reach the equivalence point. What is the concentration of the
unknown HCl solution in M?

Given: 12.54 mL of NaOH solution, 0.100 M NaOH solution, 10.00 mL of HCl solution
RTF: concentration of HCl solution
HC (a ) + NaOH (a ) NaC (a ) + H2O (l)

Number of moles of acid = number of moles of base

C1V1 = C2 V2
10.00 12.54
C1 × = 0.100 ×
1000 1000
C1 = 0.125 M
Concentration of HCl = 0.125 M

Application 13

1. The titration of a 20.0 mL sample of an H2SO4 solution of unknown concentration requires 22.87 mL
of a 0.158 M KOH solution to reach the equivalence point. What is the concentration of the
unknown H2SO4 solution?

2. What volume (in mL) of 0.200 M NaOH do we need to titrate 35.00 mL of 0.140 M HBr to the
equivalence point?

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 48
3. A 30.00 mL sample of an unknown H3PO4 solution is titrated with a 0.100 M NaOH solution. The
equivalence point is reached when 26.38 mL of NaOH solution is added. What is the concentration
of the unknown H3P04 solution? The neutralization reaction is
H3PO4 (a ) + 3 NaOH (a ) 3 H2O (l) + Na3PO4(aq)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 49
Gas-Evolution Reactions

- In a gas-evolution reaction, two aqueous solutions mix to form a gaseous product that bubbles out of
solution.

- Some gas-evolution reactions form a gaseous product directly when the cation of one reactant
combines with the anion of the other.

- Examples:

1. When sulfuric acid reacts with lithium sulfide, dihydrogen sulfide gas forms:
H2SO4(aq) + Li2S(a ) H2S(g) + Li2SO4(aq)

2. When sulfuric acid reacts with potassium sulfide, dihydrogen sulfide gas forms:
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)

- Other gas-evolution reactions often form an intermediate product that then decomposes (breaks down
into simpler substances) to form a gas.
For example, when aqueous hydrochloric acid is mixed with aqueous sodium bicarbonate, gaseous
CO2 bubbles out of the reaction mixture.
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

The intermediate product, H2CO3, is not stable and decomposes into H2O and gaseous CO2.
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The equation becomes: NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 50

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 51

Other important gas-evolution reactions form either H2SO3 or NH4OH as intermediate products:

HCl(aq) + NaHSO3(aq) H2SO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) H2O (l) + SO2(g) + NaCl(aq)

Intermediate product gas

NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NH4OH(aq) + NaCl(aq) H2O (l) + NH3(g) + NaCl(aq)

Intermediate product gas

Types of Compounds that Undergo Gas-Evolution Reactions

Example 14
Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous nitric
acid and aqueous sodium carbonate

Application 14

1. Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous
hydrobromic acid and aqueous potassium sulfite.

2. Write a net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when you mix hydroiodic acid with calcium
sulfide.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 52

3. Complete and balance each gas-evolution equation. Write the net-ionic equation for each reaction.

a) HNO3(aq) + Na2SO3(aq)

b) HCl(aq) + KHCO3(aq)

c) HC2H3O2(aq) + NaHSO3(aq)

d) (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 53
Sec 4.9 - Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Introduction

- To convert a free element into an ion, the atoms must gain or lose electrons. Of course, if one atom
loses electrons, another must accept them.
- Reactions where electrons are transferred from one atom to another are redox reactions.
- Atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized, while atoms that gain electrons are being reduced.

2 Na(s) + Cl2( ) 2 NaC ( ) (Redox reaction)

0 0 +1 -1
Na Na+ + 1 e (oxidation)

Cl2 + 2 e 2C (reduction)

- Oxidation is loss of electrons, while reduction is gain of electrons (OIL RIG)

- Oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions are reactions in which electrons transfer from one
reactant to the other

- Many redox reactions involve the reaction of a substance with oxygen.

a) 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Fe2O3(s) (rusting)
b) 2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2( ) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g) (combustion of octane)
c) 2 H2(g) + O2( ) 2 H2O(g) (combustion of hydrogen)

Combustion as Redox

The hydrogen in the balloon reacts

with oxygen upon ignition to form
gaseous water (which is dispersed in
the flame).

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 54
Redox without Combustion
- Consider the following reactions:
2 Na(s) + O2( ) 2 Na2O(s)
2 Na(s) + Cl2( ) 2 NaC ( )

- The reactions involve a metal reacting with a nonmetal.

The metal (which has a tendency to lose electrons) reacts with a nonmetal (which has a tendency to
gain electrons) where metal atoms lose electrons to non-metal atoms

Redox Reaction
- The transfer of electrons does not need to be a complete transfer (as occurs in the formation of an
ionic compound) for the reaction to qualify as oxidation reduction.

- For example, consider the reaction between hydrogen gas and chlorine gas:
H2(g) + Cl2( ) 2 HC ( )

- When hydrogen bonds to chlorine, the electrons are unevenly shared, resulting in
a) an increase of electron density (reduction) for chlorine
b) a decrease in electron density (oxidation) for hydrogen.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 55
Oxidation States

For reactions that are not metal and nonmetal, or do not involve O2, we need a method for
determining how the electrons are transferred.
Chemists assign a number to each element in a reaction called an oxidation state that allows them to
determine the electron flow in the reaction.

Even though they look like them, oxidation states are not ion charges!
Oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based on a set of rules.
Ion charges are real, measurable charges.

Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

These rules are hierarchical. If any two rules conflict, follow the rule that is higher on the list.

The following rules are in order of priority:

Rule Example
1. The oxidation state of an atom in a free Cu 0
element is 0 Na 0
Cl2 0

2. The oxidation state of a monoatomic ion is Ca2+ +2

equal to its charge Cl-1 -1
Al3+ +3
3.
a) The sum of the oxidation states of all atoms H2O
in a neutral molecule is 0.
2(+1) -2 2(+1) + (-2) = 0

b) The sum of the oxidation states of all the NO3-

atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the charge
on the ion.
1 (x) + 3 (-2) = -1 x=+5

4. In their compounds, metals have positive

oxidation states.
a) Group 1 A metals always have an NaCl Na +1
oxidation state of +1.

b) Group 1 A metals always have an CaF2 Ca +2

oxidation state of +2.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 56
5. In their compounds, nonmetals are assigned
oxidation states according to the table shown.
Entries at the top of the table take
precedence over entries at the bottom of the
table.

Exceptions:

1) Oxidation state of O in peroxides is 1 Na2O2

2 (+1) + 2x = 0 x=-1

2) Oxidation state of H in metal hydrides is - 1 NaH

+1+x=0 x = -1

Example 15
Assign an oxidation state to each atom in each element, ion, or compound.

a) Cl2 0

b) Na+1 +1

c) KF K +1 F -1

d) CO2

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 57

e) SO42-

f) K2O2

Application 15
1. Assign an oxidation state to each atom in each element, ion, or compound.
a) Cr d) SrBr2

b) Cr3+ e) SO3

c) CCl4 f) NO3

2. Assign oxidation states to each atom in each element, ion or compound.

a) Ag d) H2S

b) Ag+ e) CO32-

c) CaF2 f) CrO42-

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 58

3. What is the oxidation state of Cr in each compound?

a) CrO b) CrO3 c) Cr2O3

4. Which statement best describes the difference between the charge of a polyatomic ion and the
oxidation states of its constituent atoms? (For example, the charge of NO3- is 1- , and the oxidation
states of its atoms are +5 for the nitrogen atom and -2 for each oxygen atom.)
a) The charge of a polyatomic ion is a property of the entire ion, while the oxidation states are
assigned to each individual atom.
b) The oxidation state of the ion is the same as its charge.
c) The charge of a polyatomic ion is not a real physical property, while the oxidation states of atoms
are actual physical properties.

Ch 4 Notes ASP Chemistry

 59

Identifying Redox Reactions

Oxidation: An increase in oxidation state

Reduction: A decrease in oxidation state

Carbon changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an oxidation state of +4.

Carbon loses electrons and is oxidized.
Sulfur changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an oxidation state of 2.
Sulfur gains electrons and is reduced.

Redox Reactions

Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously.

If an atom loses electrons another atom must take them.
The reactant that reduces an element in another reactant is called the reducing agent.
The reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized.
The reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant is called the oxidizing agent.
The oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced.

2 Na(s) + Cl2( ) 2 Na+Cl (s)

Na is oxidized, while Cl is reduced.

Na is the reducing agent, and Cl2 is the oxidizing agent.

Example 16

1. Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized and the element that is reduced in the
following redox reaction.

Since Mg increased in oxidation state, it was oxidized. Since H decreased in oxidation state, it was
reduced.

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 60

Application 16

1. Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized and the element that is reduced in the
following redox reaction

2. Determine whether or not each reaction is a redox reaction. If the reaction is a redox reaction, identify
which element is oxidized and which is reduced.

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 61

Example 17
Determine whether each reaction is an oxidation reduction reaction. For each oxidation reduction
reaction, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent

a)

This is a redox reaction because magnesium increases in oxidation number (oxidation) and oxygen
decreases in oxidation number (reduction).

b)

This is not a redox reaction because none of the atoms undergo a change in oxidation number

c)

This is a redox reaction because zinc increases in oxidation number (oxidation) and iron (II) ion
decreases in oxidation number (reduction).

IMPORTANT NOTE

Acid- base Reactions are NOT REDOX REACTIONS

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 62

Application 17

1. Determine whether or not each reaction is a redox reaction. For all redox reactions, identify the
oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.

a)

b)

c)

d)

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 63

3. Determine whether each reaction is a redox reaction. For each redox reaction, identify the oxidizing
agent and the reducing agent.

a) 4 Li(s) + O2(g) 2 Li2O (s)

b) Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s)

c) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)

d) HBr(aq) + KOH(aq) H2O (l) + KBr(aq)

4. Which statement is true?

a) A redox reaction involves either the transfer of an electron or a change in the oxidation state of an
element.
b) If any of the reactants or products in a reaction contains oxygen, the reaction is a redox reaction.
c) In a reaction, oxidation can occur independently of reduction.
d) In a redox reaction, any increase in the oxidation state of a reactant must be accompanied by a
decrease in the oxidation state of a reactant.

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 64

Combustion Reactions

Combustion reactions are characterized by the reaction of a substance with oxygen to form one or more
oxygen-containing compounds, often including water.
Combustion reactions are Exothermic (they emit heat).

Examples:
1. Write the balanced equation for the combustion of natural gas (CH4). It reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water. Assign the oxidation state to each element.

2. Write the balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol, the alcohol in alcoholic beverages. It reacts
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

Oxidation state: +4 +1 -2 +1 0 +4 -2 +1 -2

Example 18
Assign an oxidation state to each atom in each element, ion, or compound.

Steps:
1. Balance the equation

2. Assign the oxidation number to each element

Oxidation state + 4 + 1 - 2 + 1 0 +4 -2 +1 -2

Application 18

1. Write a balanced equation for the complete combustion of liquid C2H5SH

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 65

2. Complete and balance each combustion reaction equation.

a) S(s) + O2( )

b) C3H6(g) + O2(g)

c) Ca(s) + O2(g)

d) C5H12S(l) + O2(g)

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 66

Types of Salts

Neutral Salt Acidic Salt Basic Salt

Made up of strong acid and strong Made up of strong acid and Made up of strong base and
base. weak base. weak acid.

Example Example Example

NaCl CuSO4 CH3COONa

NaOH HCl Cu(OH)2 H2SO4 NaOH CH3COOH

strong base strong acid weak base strong acid strong base weak acid

The resulting solution is neutral. The resulting solution is acidic. The resulting solution is basic.

Does not change the color of red Turns blue litmus paper into Turns red litmus paper into
or blue litmus paper red. blue.

The resulting solution contains The resulting solution contains The resulting solution contains
equal moles of H+ (aq) than OH- more H+ (aq) than OH- (aq) less H+ (aq) than OH- (aq)
(aq)

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 67

Example:
1. Classify the salts below as acidic, basic or neutral:

NaCl Neutral salt KNO3 Neutral salt NH4Cl Acidic salt

NaCl KNO3 NH4Cl

NaOH HCl KOH HNO3 NH3 HCl

strong base strong acid strong base strong acid weak base strong acid

CH3COONa Basic salt AlCl3 Acidic salt

CH3COONa AlCl3

NaOH CH3COOH Al(OH)3 HCl

strong base weak acid weak base strong acid

2. Classify the salts below as acidic, basic or neutral:

KCl Neutral salt CH3COOK Basic salt Mg(NO3)2 Acidic salt

KCl CH3COOK Mg(NO3)2

KOH HCl KOH CH3COOH Mg(OH)2 HNO3

strong base strong acid strong base weak acid weak base strong acid

Na2CO3 Basic salt CuCl2 Acidic salt KNO3 Neutral salt

Na2CO3 CuCl2 KNO3

NaOH H2CO3 Cu(OH)2 HCl KOH HNO3

strong base weak acid weak base strong acid strong base strong acid

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 68

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Synthesis Reaction (Combination reaction)

Generally: A+B AB

Examples:
2 Al (s) + 3 Br2 ( ) 2 A B 3 (s)
2 Na (s) + Cl2( ) 2 NaC ( )
2 Zn (s) + O2 ( ) 2Z O( )
2 K (s) + 2 H2O ( ) 2 KOH (a ) + H2 (g)

2. Single Replacement Reaction (Displacement Reaction)

Generally: AB + C AC + B

Examples:
2 Al (s) + Fe2O3 ( ) A 2O3(s) +2 Fe (l)
C O ( ) + C ( ) C ( ) +CO2 (g)
Cu (s) + 2 AgNO3 (a ) C (NO3)2 (aq) + 2 Ag (s)
Zn (s) + SnCl2 (a ) Z C 2(aq) + Sn (s)

3. Double Replacement Reaction

Generally: AB + CD AC + BD

Examples:
CaCO3 (s) + H2SO3 (a ) CaSO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2 KI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (a ) PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3(a ) NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)

4. Decomposition Reaction

Generally: AB A+B

Examples:
2 H2O ( ) 2 H2(g) + O2 (g)
2 NI3 ( ) N2(g) + 3 I2 (g)

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 69

5. Combustion Reaction
In a combustion reaction, a substance combines with oxygen, releasing a large amount of energy in the
form of light and heat.
For organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons, the products of the combustion reaction are carbon
dioxide and water.

Examples:
CH4 (g) + O2 ( ) CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2 Mg (s) + O2 ( ) 2M O( )
S (s) + O2 ( ) SO2 (g)
P4 (s) + 5 O2 ( ) P4O10 (s)

Applications 19:

Classify each of the following reactions as:

(a) Synthesis reaction
(b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Single replacement reaction
(d) Double replacement reaction
(e) Combustion reaction

1. 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2 9. Cu(OH)2 + 2HC2H3O2 C (C2H3O2)2 +

2H2O
2. C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
10. BaCO3 BaO + CO2
3. 3 AgNO3 + K3PO4 A 3PO4 + 3 KNO3
11. 2 NaClO3 2 NaC + 3O2
4. P4 + 5 O2 2 P2O5
12. 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 4 CO2 + 2 H2O
5. 2 C6H14 + 19 O2 12 CO2 + 14 H2O
13. 2 AgNO3 + N N (NO3)2 + 2 Ag
6. 4 Cr + 3 O2 2 C 2O3
14. H2CO3 H2O + CO2
7. Ca + 2 HC CaC 2 + H2
15. 8 Cu + S8 8C S
8. Ca(C2H3O2)2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2
Na2C2H3O2

Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry

 70
Different Types of Reactions that will Produce Gas
Reaction Example
Acid + Me a Sa + h d ge 2 HCl (aq) + M ( ) M C 2 (aq) + H2(g)
Metal is not an alkali metal as Na, K or Li or Ca because the Mg (s)+2H+ (aq) →Mg2+(aq)+H2(g)
reaction is highly explosive
Metal is not Cu or Ag because they are highly Unreactive
2HCl(aq)+MgCO3(a ) M C 2(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)
Acid+ Metal carbonate salt+ water+ carbon dioxide
(or bicarbonate)
2 H+ (aq) + CO32- (a ) H2O(l)+CO2(g)
HCl(aq)+NaHCO3(a ) NaC (a )+H2O(l)+CO2(g)
Acid+ Metal bicarbonate salt+ water+ carbon dioxide
H+ (aq) + HCO3- (a ) H2O(l)+CO2(g)
2HCl(aq)+Na2SO3(a ) 2NaC (a )+H2O(l)+SO2(g)
Acid + Me a fi e Sa + Wa e + Sulfur dioxide
2 H+ (aq) + SO32- (a ) H2O(l)+SO2(g)
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
Acid + Me a fide Sa + h d ge fide
S2-(aq) + 2 H+(a ) H2S (g)
NH4Cl(aq)+NaOH(a ) NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)+NH3(g)
Base + ammoniu a Sa + a e + a ia
NH4+(aq)+OH-(a ) H2O(l)+NH3(g)
Prepared by : Jailan Elosta Ch 4 Notes G11 ASP Chemistry