COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

UNIT-1
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data
and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert

3 Processing Data
them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such
4
Information as a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations
5
workflow are performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link
between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form understandable
by the computer.

AD

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It
stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −

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  ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This
unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form
understandable by the users.

Difference between Computer Architecture and Computer Organization:

S.
Computer Architecture Computer Organization
No.

1. Architecture describes what the computer does. The Organization describes how it does it.

Computer Architecture deals with the functional Computer Organization deals with a structural
2.
behavior of computer systems. relationship.

In the above figure, it’s clear that it deals with high- In the above figure, it’s also clear that it deals
3.
level design issues. with low-level design issues.

4. Architecture indicates its hardware. Where Organization indicates its performance.

As a programmer, you can view architecture as a series The implementation of the architecture is called
5.
of instructions, addressing modes, and registers. organization.

For designing a computer, an organization is

6. For designing a computer, its architecture is fixed first.
decided after its architecture.

Computer Architecture is also called Instruction Set Computer Organization is frequently called
7.
Architecture (ISA). microarchitecture.

Computer Architecture comprises logical functions Computer Organization consists of physical

8. such as instruction sets, registers, data types, and units like circuit designs, peripherals, and
addressing modes. adders.

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 The different architectural categories found in our
computer systems are as follows: CPU organization is classified into three categories
based on the number of address fields:
Von-Neumann Architecture

Harvard Architecture
9. Organization of a single Accumulator.
Instruction Set Architecture
Organization of general registers
Micro-architecture
Stack organization
System Design

It makes the computer’s hardware visible. It offers details on how well the computer performs.
10.

Architecture coordinates the hardware and software Computer Organization handles the segments of the
11. of the system. network in a system.

The software developer is aware of it. It escapes the software programmer’s detection.
12.

Examples- Intel and AMD created the x86 Organizational qualities include hardware elements that
processor. Sun Microsystems and others created are invisible to the programmer, such as interfacing of
13. the SPARC processor. Apple, IBM, and Motorola computer and peripherals, memory technologies, and
created the PowerPC. control signals.

Number Systems
The language we use to communicate with each other is comprised of words and characters. We understand
numbers, characters and words. But this type of data is not suitable for computers. Computers only
understand the numbers.

So, when we enter data, the data is converted into electronic pulse. Each pulse is identified as code and the
code is converted into numeric format by ASCII. It gives each number, character and symbol a numeric
value (number) that a computer understands. So to understand the language of computers, one must be
familiar with the number systems.

The Number Systems used in computers are:

o Binary number system

o Octal number system
o Decimal number system

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 o Hexadecimal number system

Binary number system

It has only two digits '0' and '1' so its base is 2. Accordingly, In this number system, there are only two types
of electronic pulses; absence of electronic pulse which represents '0'and presence of electronic pulse which
represents '1'. Each digit is called a bit. A group of four bits (1101) is called a nibble and group of eight bits
(11001010) is called a byte. The position of each digit in a binary number represents a specific power of the
base (2) of the number system.

Octal number system

It has eight digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) so its base is 8. Each digit in an octal number represents a specific
power of its base (8). As there are only eight digits, three bits (23=8) of binary number system can convert
any octal number into binary number. This number system is also used to shorten long binary numbers. The
three binary digits can be represented with a single octal digit.

Decimal number system

This number system has ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) so its base is 10. In this number system, the
maximum value of a digit is 9 and the minimum value of a digit is 0. The position of each digit in decimal
number represents a specific power of the base (10) of the number system. This number system is widely
used in our day to day life. It can represent any numeric value.

Hexadecimal number system

This number system has 16 digits that ranges from 0 to 9 and A to F. So, its base is 16. The A to F alphabets
represent 10 to 15 decimal numbers. The position of each digit in a hexadecimal number represents a
specific power of base (16) of the number system. As there are only sixteen digits, four bits (24=16) of
binary number system can convert any hexadecimal number into binary number. It is also known as
alphanumeric number system as it uses both numeric digits and alphabets.

Number Base Conversion

In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems such as binary, decimal, octal, and
hexadecimal. In this part of the tutorial, we will learn how we can change a number from one number
system to another number system.

As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted into the remaining three systems.
There are the following conversions possible in Number System

1. Binary to other Number Systems.

2. Decimal to other Number Systems.
3. Octal to other Number Systems.
4. Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

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Binary to other Number Systems
There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary to octal, and binary to
hexadecimal. The conversion process of a binary number to decimal differs from the remaining others. Let's
take a detailed discussion on Binary Number System conversion.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from multiplying the bits of
binary number with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.

Example 1: (10110.001)2

We multiplied each bit of (10110.001) 2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of
all the bits with its weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of three bits is
equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number into an octal number which are
as follows:

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 1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one
or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 110 101 011.001 1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete pair of three bits,
we added two zeros on the extreme side.

111 110 101 011.001 100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of four
bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to convert a binary number into a
hexadecimal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one,
two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair of four bits, add
one zero on the extreme side.

0111 1010 1011.0011

2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number is a floating-
point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal number in the isolated

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form(individually). There are the following steps that are used to convert the decimal number into a similar
number of any base 'r'.

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part with base 'r'. We will list
down all the remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we find out the remainders in reverse order for getting
the integer part of the equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most significant digits are denoted
by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional and successive fraction.
The carries are noted until the result is zero or when the required number of the equivalent digit is obtained.
For getting the fractional part of the equivalent number of base 'r', the normal sequence of carrying is
considered.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
binary(2).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of binary(2).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

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 1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

Operation Result carry

0.25×2 0.50 0

0.50×2 0 1

(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of octal(8).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0

19/8 2 3

2/8 0 2

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(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.

Operation Result carry

0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
hexadecimal (16).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of hexadecimal
(16).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8

9/16 0 9

(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.

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 Operation Result carry

0.25×16 0 4

(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number systems. The process of
converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start understanding how conversion is
done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts from
multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all
those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of all
the bits with its weight.

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We write the three bits
binary code of each octal number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

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Octal to hexadecimal conversion
For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one, two, or
three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the
hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0 0110 1010.0101 01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the last pair has
only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme sides.

0000 0110 1010.0101 0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other number systems. The
process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start understanding how
conversion is done.

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts from
multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add
all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to decimal.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

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Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of all
the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to hexadecimal. We write
the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25 is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one or two bits
left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the octal digits
corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25 is (0011010101010.010101)2

Step 2:

3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010

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4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

1's complement
In number representation techniques, the binary number system is the most used representation technique in
digital electronics. The complement is used for representing the negative decimal number in binary form.
Different types of complement are possible of the binary number, but 1's and 2's complements are mostly
used for binary numbers. We can find the 1's complement of the binary number by simply inverting the
given number. For example, 1's complement of binary number 1011001 is 0100110. We can find the 2's
complement of the binary number by changing each bit(0 to 1 and 1 to 0) and adding 1 to the least
significant bit. For example, 2's complement of binary number 1011001 is (0100110)+1=0100111.

For finding 1's complement of the binary number, we can implement the logic circuit also by using NOT
gate. We use NOT gate for each bit of the binary number. So, if we want to implement the logic circuit for
5-bit 1's complement, five NOT gates will be used.

Example 1: 11010.1101

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So the 1's complement
of the number 11010.1101 comes out 00101.0010.

Example 2: 100110.1001

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So, the 1's complement
of the number 100110.1001 comes out 011001.0110.

1's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement

0000 1111

0001 1110

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 0010 1101

0011 1100

0100 1011

0101 1010

0110 1001

0111 1000

1000 0111

1001 0110

1010 0101

1011 0100

1100 0011

1101 0010

1110 0001

1111 0000

Use of 1's complement

1's complement plays an important role in representing the signed binary numbers. The main use of 1's
complement is to represent a signed binary number. Apart from this, it is also used to perform various
arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction.

In signed binary number representation, we can represent both positive and negative numbers. For
representing the positive numbers, there is nothing to do. But for representing negative numbers, we have to
use 1's complement technique. For representing the negative number, we first have to represent it with a
positive sign, and then we find the 1's complement of it.

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Let's take an example of a positive and negative number and see how these numbers are represented.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, we will take
the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110
2. Find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e., 1 1001. Here, MSB denotes that a number is a negative
number.

Here, MSB refers to Most Significant Bit, and LSB denotes the Least Significant Bit.

Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, take the 8-bit
register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e., 1 0000111. Here, the MSB denotes the number
is the negative number.

2's complement
Just like 1's complement, 2's complement is also used to represent the signed binary numbers. For finding 2's
complement of the binary number, we will first find the 1's complement of the binary number and then add 1
to the least significant bit of it.

For example, if we want to calculate the 2's complement of the number 1011001, then firstly, we find the 1's
complement of the number that is 0100110 and add 1 to the LSB. So, by adding 1 to the LSB, the number
will be (0100110)+1=0100111. We can also create the logic circuit using OR, AND, and NOT gates. The
logic circuit for finding 2's complement of the 5-bit binary number is as follows:
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Example 1: 110100

For finding 2's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So the 1's complement
of the number 110100 is 001011. Now add 1 to the LSB of this number, i.e., (001011)+1=001100.

Example 2: 100110

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So, the 1's complement
of the number 100110 is 011001. Now add one the LSB of this number, i.e., (011001)+1=011010.

2's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement 2's complement

0000 1111 0000

0001 1110 1111

0010 1101 1110

0011 1100 1101

0100 1011 1100

0101 1010 1011

0110 1001 1010

0111 1000 1001

1000 0111 1000

1001 0110 0111

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 1010 0101 0110

1011 0100 0101

1100 0011 0100

1101 0010 0011

1110 0001 0010

1111 0000 0001

Use of 2's complement

2's complement is used for representing signed numbers and performing arithmetic operations such as
subtraction, addition, etc. The positive number is simply represented as a magnitude form. So there is
nothing to do for representing positive numbers. But if we represent the negative number, then we have to
choose either 1's complement or 2's complement technique. The 1's complement is an ambiguous technique,
and 2's complement is an unambiguous technique. Let's see an example to understand how we can calculate
the 2's complement in signed binary number representation.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, take the 5-bit
register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e. 1 1001.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 11001, the newly generated number comes out 11010.
Here, the sign bit is one which means the number is the negative number.

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Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, take the 8-bit
register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e. 1 0000111. Here, the MSB denotes the number is
the negative number.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 1 0000111, the newly generated number comes out 1
0001000. Here, the sign bit is one, which means the number is the negative number.
4. Binary arithmetic is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital system.

Binary Addition
It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given column
and a carry of 1 over to the next column.
Example − Addition

Binary Subtraction
Subtraction and Borrow, these two words will be used very frequently for the binary subtraction. There are
four rules of binary subtraction.

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Example − Subtraction

Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. It is simpler than decimal multiplication because
only 0s and 1s are involved. There are four rules of binary multiplication.

Example − Multiplication

5.

Binary Division
Binary division is like decimal division. It is called as the long division procedure.
Example − Division

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