buildings

Article
Influence of Cotton Knitted Fabric Waste Addition on
Concrete Properties
Bruno Bartulović * , Sandra Juradin , Dujmo Žižić and Matea Galić

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Geodesy, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia;
[email protected] (S.J.); [email protected] (D.Ž.); [email protected] (M.G.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Manufacturing cotton knitted fabric apparel generates a substantial amount of production
(pre-consumer) waste. One of the ways to alleviate the environmental impact of this is to use the
cotton knitted fabric production waste (CKFW) in concrete, which had the simultaneous benefit
of reducing the use of virgin aggregate. The aim of this research was to examine the influence of
CKFW on concrete properties, and to explore the possible application of this novel material in the
construction industry for the production of precast building elements based on its characteristics.
An additional goal was to enhance certain properties of concrete and determine the shortcomings of
CKFW concrete. A total of 10 mixes were made and tested. CKFW was used at rates of 1.7% and 3.5%
of the total mix volume. All mixtures had the same amount of cement, with three mixes having the
addition of silica fume. Crushed limestone was used as the aggregate with different aggregate size
combinations. Two types of polycarboxylic ether-based superplasticizer were used. The properties
of the fresh mix were determined by the slump method. The ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic
modulus of elasticity, flexural strength and compressive strength were tested on 28-day-old concrete
specimens. The σ–δ diagram is also presented in this paper. We learned that the flexural strength
of specimens with CKFW addition was increased by up to 38% but the compressive strength was
Citation: Bartulović, B.; Juradin, S.;
reduced by up to 20% compared to the reference concrete mix. The CKFW mixtures had higher
Žižić, D.; Galić, M. Influence of ductility and permeability. Additionally, silica fume had a positive effect on the concretes with a
Cotton Knitted Fabric Waste higher percentage of textiles. The percentages of textile waste used in this study affected the density
Addition on Concrete Properties. of concrete in a range of 0–2%. Based on the obtained results, we offer recommendations for further
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121. https:// tests and possible applications.
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081121
Keywords: cementitious materials; concrete; cotton; textile waste; recycled textile; mechanical
Academic Editor: Ricardo M. S.
F. Almeida
properties; sustainability

Received: 20 June 2022

Accepted: 26 July 2022
Published: 29 July 2022
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The textile industry produces a high quantity of waste. According to the data presented
with regard to jurisdictional claims in by Ailenei et al. [1], the global textile industry generates 92 million tons of waste per year.
published maps and institutional affil- Around 35% of the total waste is generated in the primary processing phase of the raw
iations. material [2]. Part of the waste is reused or recycled, especially that from the postproduction
stream. However, recycling within textile manufacturing requires logistics and machinery
that are not always practicable or available. Furthermore, in each round of recycling,
fibers are shortened and degraded and eventually end up in landfills or incinerated, thus
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
polluting the environment [3].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
However, it is feasible to utilize an open-loop method of recycling, which can be
distributed under the terms and
described as an industrial metabolism [4], in which textile industry waste and byproduct
conditions of the Creative Commons streams are diverted to the construction industry. This topic has become the focus of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// research and is partially summarized by Rubino et al. [5]. The main goal is to reduce and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ upcycle textile waste so as to gain a better-performing construction material. Due to the
4.0/). various types of textile waste, numerous approaches are being studied that attempt to

Buildings 2022, 12, 1121. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081121 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 26

various types of textile waste, numerous approaches are being studied that attempt to
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 2 of 24
integrate different forms of textile waste and byproducts within new composite materials.
As they are greatly affected by textile characteristics, composite materials or building ele-
ments are chosen and designed to use the positive features of textiles. Different materials
integrate different
and building formsprototypes
element of textile waste
haveandbeenbyproducts
developedwithin new composite
by researchers: materials.
e.g., mortars [6],
Asconcretes
they are [7,8],
greatlywallaffected
cavityby textile
infills characteristics,
[9,10], clay bricks composite materials or building
[11,12], thermoformed polymer ele-resin
ments
panelsarecomposite
chosen and fordesigned to use
partitioning the positive features
or thermo-acoustic of textiles.
insulation Different
[1,13–17], materials
thermal insula-
and building element prototypes have been developed by researchers:
tion mats with incased textile waste [18,19], gypsum-based insulation panels [20], chip- e.g., mortars [6],
concretes [7,8], wall cavity infills [9,10], clay bricks [11,12], thermoformed
board composites [21], hydraulic lime composite [22], wall partitions [23–25], cement- polymer resin
panels
basedcomposite
panels [26–28],for partitioning
concrete-based or thermo-acoustic
blocks [11,29–31]insulation [1,13–17],foam
and polyurethane thermal insu-
composites
lation
[32]. mats with incased textile waste [18,19], gypsum-based insulation panels [20], chip-
board composites
Concrete is[21], hydraulic
one of the mostlime composite
widely [22],and
available wall partitions
used [23–25],
building cement-based
materials, and cotton
panels [26–28], concrete-based blocks [11,29–31] and polyurethane
production amounts to around 25% of fibers produced globally. An investigation foam composites [32].
con-
Concrete is one of the most widely available and used building materials,
ducted by Dobilaite et al. [33] showed that the amount of cutting waste reaches 20–25% of and cotton
production amountsof
the total quantity tomaterials
around 25% usedof fibers produced globally.
for production. The vast An investigation
quantity of such conducted
waste is the
bymain
Dobilaite et al. [33] showed that the amount of cutting waste
reason we sought to examine the influence of partial aggregate replacement reaches 20–25% of the with
total quantity of materials used for production. The vast quantity
CKFW (cotton knitted fabric production waste) cuttings on concrete properties and ex-of such waste is the
main
plorereason we sought
the possible to examine
applications the influence
of this of partial
novel material in theaggregate replacement
construction industry with
based
CKFW (cotton knitted fabric production waste) cuttings on concrete properties and explore
on its characteristics, as displayed in the graphical abstract in Figure 1.
the possible applications of this novel material in the construction industry based on its
characteristics, as displayed in the graphical abstract in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of textile waste use in the construction industry.

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of textile waste use in the construction industry.
The use of textiles in concrete is a well-known research topic, but current studies
are mainlyThe use of textiles
focused on thein concrete
use of fibersis a well-known
and fabrics research specificallytopic, but current
designed to bestudies
used as are
mainly focused
reinforcements on the use
in concrete, i.e.,ofnon-crimp
fibers andfabrics
fabrics specifically
(NCF) [34], anddesigned to be used
textile-reinforced as rein-
concrete
forcements in concrete, i.e., non-crimp fabrics (NCF) [34],
(TRC) [35]. The design concepts of fabric architectures for cement-based composites are and textile-reinforced concrete
(TRC)complex,
rather [35]. Thetaking
design concepts
into of fabrica architectures
consideration range of parameters for cement-based
such as thecomposites
geometrical are
rather complex, taking into consideration a range of parameters
characteristics of the yarn and fabric (yarn orientation, yarn shape, opening of bundle such as the geometrical
characteristics
filaments, of the yarneffects,
yarn tightening and fabricfabric(yarn orientation,
geometry yarn shape,
and density) opening
[36–38], of bundle
the material andfil-
aments,
fabric yarn tightening
tightness effects, of
[39], the number fabric
fabricgeometry
layers inand thedensity)
composite [36–38],
[40] andthe the
material
cement and
fabric tightness
permeability [41]. [39], the number
In general, of fabricyarns
the reinforcing layersused in the compositematerials
in composite [40] and should
the cementbe
aspermeability [41]. In in
straight as possible general, the reinforcing
the reinforcing directionyarns to used
achieve in composite materialsefficiency.
a high reinforcing should be
as straight as possible in the reinforcing direction to achieve
Rather than perceiving textile fabric waste simply as concrete reinforcement, Aspiras a high reinforcing efficiency.
andRather
Manalothanstate
perceiving textilecuttings
that textile fabric waste
can be simply as concrete
conceived reinforcement,
as neither an aggregate Aspirasnorand
a
Manalo state[28].
reinforcement that Instead,
textile cuttings can be conceived
they contribute as neither
to the increased an aggregate
volume nor a reinforce-
of the mixture (which
is ment [28].function
the major Instead, of they contribute and
an aggregate) to the
theincreased
increase in volume of the
the tensile mixture(which
resistance (whichisisthethe
majorfunction
major function ofof an aggregate) and
a reinforcement) due the increase
to their fibrous in the tensile
nature. Theresistance
interactions (which
betweenis the
majorand
CKFW function of a cement
Portland reinforcement) due to
are multiple andtheir fibrousfrom
complex, nature.
theirThe interactions
chemical between
interactions
andCKFW and Portlandofcement
the compatibility are multiple
the cellulose fiber and and complex,
cement matrix from their
to the chemical
adhesion interactions
and effect of
theandknit
the structure itself. of the cellulose fiber and cement matrix to the adhesion and effect
compatibility
Research
of the conducted
knit structure by Eldin and El-Tahan on virgin cotton fabric cement reinforce-
itself.
ment has confirmed
Research that thebytensile
conducted Eldinand andflexural
El-Tahan strength
on virgin depend
cottononfabric
the fabric
cement properties,
reinforce-
mainly
ment has its tensile strength,
confirmed which
that the in turn
tensile and depends on the structure
flexural strength depend on of the fabric properties,
[40]. The
drawbacks
mainly itsof raw cotton
tensile fibers
strength, whichare similar
in turn to those ofonother
depends cellulosicof
the structure orthe
vegetable fibers,
fabric [40]. The
the main one being the great variability in their mechanical properties. The quality of
natural fibers depends on geographical and climate conditions, soil quality, weathering
conditions, extraction methods, the time of harvesting and plant maturity [42]. Cellulosic
fibers have significant variations in their chemical compositions, diameter, length and sur-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 3 of 24

face roughness, resulting in significant scattering in fiber mechanical properties [43]. Their
high moisture absorption [44,45] and lower processing temperatures are also mentioned as
disadvantages of natural fibers [42,46].
Furthermore, natural fibers degrade in the alkaline environment of Portland ce-
ment [47,48]. The two main mechanisms that cause the degradation of natural fibers
within cement-based matrices are alkaline attack and fiber mineralization. In the first
mechanism, the degradation of fibers in the cement matrix occurs as a consequence of the
dissolving of the lignin and hemicellulose components of the fibers through the alkaline
pore water (due to the adsorption of calcium and hydroxyl ions). In the second mechanism,
fiber mineralization is caused by the migration of hydration products (calcium hydroxide)
onto the fiber wall and into the fiber cell [47,49,50].
Although man-made fibers and fabrics might have better performance, there are
certain advantages to cotton and other cellulose fibers that make them interesting, such as
their low cost, high strength and low density, renewability, lower energy requirement for
production and significantly lower CO2 emissions [35].
Furthermore, some of aforementioned disadvantages inherent to raw vegetable and
cotton fibers are addressed by CKFW.
Firstly, cotton lint used for clothing is rated according to the quality of the fiber, and
fibers are often blended to homogenize them, decreasing the natural variations in fiber
properties. The homogenization process reduces the problem of the great variability in
the mechanical properties of natural fibers to some extent. In addition, since the CKFW
has been processed and homogenized as a part of the industrial process of cloth making,
energy has been saved on treating the virgin fibers.
Secondly, after cotton lint is spun to yarn and knitted, it is scoured and bleached; the
most commonly used solutions are sodium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide and sodium
hypochlorite. These procedures and chemicals are similar to those often used to alleviate
the effects of the alkaline environment and to increase cellulose fiber–cement composite
compatibility and durability, and include alkali treatment of fibers with sodium hydroxide
and calcium hydroxide solutions [42,44,50,51].
Furthermore, scouring and bleaching eliminate organic compounds impacting the
cement hydration process and bring the cotton composition to 99% cellulose content.
High cellulose cotton fibers increase the heat of hydration and seem to act as nucleating
agents [46], while raw fibers hinder the hydration process [52,53]. As CKFW has already
been scoured or bleached as a part of the industrial process of cloth making, there is a
reduction in chemical pollution and energy usage with the added effect of potentially
increasing the durability of fibers in the cement composite.
However, it must be noted that scouring and bleaching increase the water retention of
fabric and may weaken the bond with the cement matrix [44,54]. Specifically, the effect of
subsequent bleaching on Jersey knit causes fabric weight loss and a poorer bursting test
performance [55]. Thus, the study of the chemical treatment of CKFW specifically needs
further exploration.
This study is a continuation of research on cotton knitted fabric waste (CKFW) from
an underwear garment factory [56]. The intent of this research was to study the effect of
CKFW on different concrete mixtures through basic standardized test methods so as to
provide guidelines for further research. We were looking for the optimal composition of
concrete that would be used for the production of prefabricated elements. By including
industrial waste, assuming there is no reduction in the quality of concrete, the requirements
of industrial metabolism and the circular economy would be met. According to the given
references, it is evident that this issue is important. We tested sample concrete mixtures
based on Portland cement with different aggregate size distributions, supplementary
cementitious materials (silica fume) and plasticizer types. The CKFW was pure cotton post-
industrial waste and, in order to simplify its use in preliminary testing, the textile waste
was not treated but only washed in tap water, as in [56,57]. Some durability indicators were
tested to evaluate the application of this type of concrete in different classes of exposure.
 post-industrial waste and, in order to simplify its use in preliminary testing, the textile
waste was not treated but only washed in tap water, as in [56] and [57]. Some durability
indicators were tested to evaluate the application of this type of concrete in different clas-
ses of exposure. Sections 3 and 4 summarize the findings of this study and give recom-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 4 of 24
mendations for further testing and potential applications.

2. Materials and Methods

Sections 3 and 4 summarize the findings of this study and give recommendations for further
2.1. testing
Materials
andand Sample
potential Preparation
applications.

2.For the purpose

Materials of testing the effect of CKFW on the properties of concrete, a total of
and Methods
10 concrete mixtures
2.1. Materials werePreparation
and Sample composed: 3 reference concrete mixtures without the addition
of CKFW Forand 7 mixtures
the purpose withthe
of testing theeffect
addition
of CKFWof textile waste in of
on the properties the amounts
concrete, of of
a total 1.7% and
3.5%10of the total volume. The concretes were made with crushed limestone
concrete mixtures were composed: 3 reference concrete mixtures without the addition of aggregate; 6
wereCKFW
madeand with 3 fractions,
7 mixtures 0/4,
with the 4/8 and
addition of 8/16
textilemm, and
waste 4 with
in the a 0/4
amounts of mm
1.7% fraction.
and 3.5% ofDifferent
the total volume. The concretes were made with crushed limestone aggregate;
aggregate grain sizes were combined to examine the possibility of using this type of con- 6 were made
cretewith 3 fractions,prefabricated
to produce 0/4, 4/8 and 8/16 mm, andCumulative
elements. 4 with a 0/4 mm fraction. Different
granulometric aggregate
curves of aggregates
grain sizes were combined to examine the possibility of using this type of concrete to
are shown in Figure 2.
produce prefabricated elements. Cumulative granulometric curves of aggregates are shown
in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Cumulative sieving curves of aggregates.

Figure 2. Cumulative sieving curves of aggregates.
All mixtures contained the same amount of cement, 350 kg per m3 of concrete; con-
All mixtures
cretes contained
with a higher maximum the same amount
aggregate grain size ofused
cement,
CEM I350
42.5kg per concretes
R, and m3 of concrete;
with con-
lower
cretes withmaximum
a highergrain size used
maximum CEM II/B-M
aggregate grain (S-LL)
size 42.5
usedN.CEMTwo Itypes
42.5 of
R, cement were
and concretes with
selected
lower for testing
maximum grainin order to assess
size used CEM which
II/B-Mcement is more
(S-LL) 42.5suitable
N. Two fortypes
the production
of cement were
of prefabricated elements. Both cements are declared by the manufacturer as suitable for
selected for testing in order to assess which cement is more suitable for the production of
prefabricated elements. Since each combination of mixtures has its own reference mixture,
prefabricated
the number elements.
of samples Both cements
was reduced andare declared
it was by thetomanufacturer
not necessary as suitable for
make all combinations
prefabricated
of the aggregate used for each cement. The CEM I and CEM II/B-M (S-LL) powder X-raymixture
elements. Since each combination of mixtures has its own reference
the number
diffractionof(XRPD)
samples was and
pattern reduced and it was and
their quantitative not qualitative
necessaryanalyses
to makeofall combinations
cements are of
shown in Figures 3 and 4. The XRD analysis of CEM I 42.5 R and
the aggregate used for each cement. The CEM I and CEM II/B-M (S-LL) powder X-rayCEM II/B-M (S-LL) 42.5 N
was made
diffraction with a system
(XRPD) patternwith
andthe following
their operating
quantitative andconditions:
qualitativeCu-Ka, 40 kV voltage,
analyses of cements are
40 mA current and a PIXcel3D Detector with Medipix3 (Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK).
shown in Figures 3 and 4. The XRD analysis of CEM I 42.5 R and CEM II/B-M (S-LL) 42.5
Based on the XRD pattern, Table 1 gives a comparative analysis of the composition and the
N was made
specific withand
gravity a system
surfacewith
area the following
according operating conditions: Cu-Ka, 40 kV voltage
to Blaine.
40 mA current and a PIXcel3D Detector with Medipix3.
Two types of polycarboxylic ether-based superplasticizer Based
(PCE)on theused:
were XRDSP1 pattern,
was Table
1 gives
useda in
comparative
nine mixturesanalysis
and SP2 ofin the
one composition
mixture. Both were and the specific
added gravityof
in an amount and surface
0.6% by area
weight of binder.
according to Blaine. One reference concrete and two CKFW mixtures were made with the
addition of silica fume in the amount of 10% by weight of cement. The amount of water in
Two types of polycarboxylic ether-based superplasticizer (PCE) were used: SP1 was
all mixtures was defined by a water-binding factor of 0.5.
used in nine mixtures and SP2 in one mixture. Both were added in an amount of 0.6% by
 Buildings 2022,
Buildings 2022, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 55 of
of 26
26

weight of binder. One reference concrete and two CKFW mixtures were made with the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121
addition of silica fume in the amount of 10% by weight of cement. The amount of water
5 of 24
in all mixtures was defined by a water-binding factor of 0.5.

Figure3.3.XRD
Figure XRDpattern
patternof
ofthe
the cement
cement CEM
CEM I 42.5 R.

Figure4.4.XRD
Figure XRDpattern
patternof
ofthe
the cement
cement CEM
CEM II/B-M
II/B-M (S-LL)
(S-LL)42.5
42.5N.
N.

Table 1. Mineral composition, specific surface area according to Blaine and specific gravity of CEM I
42.5 R and CEM II/B-M (S-LL) 42.5 N.

Specific Surface Area

C3 S C2 S C3 A C4 AF Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 ·2H2 O CaCO3 Specific Gravity
Cement According to Blaine
% % % % % % % cm2 /g g/cm3
CEM I 42.5 R 76.5 15.0 1.5 4.0 0.9 2.2 - 3785 3.16
CEM II/B-M (S-LL) 42.5 N 59.1 13.6 1.3 2.8 0.4 6.6 16.2 4110 3.09
 % % % % % % % cm2/g g/cm
CEM I 42.5 R 76.5 15.0 1.5 4.0 0.9 2.2 - 3785 3.16
CEM II/B-M (S-LL) 42.5 N 59.1 13.6 1.3 2.8 0.4 6.6 16.2 4110 3.09
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 6 of 24
The textile waste was provided by a local factory that mainly produces clothing
such as underwear. The obtained CKFW comprised leftover pieces from the cuttin
cess, The
in which garment
textile waste components
was provided arefactory
by a local cut out
thatfrom
mainlythe largerclothing
produces fabric items
surface in a
such as underwear. The obtained CKFW comprised leftover pieces from the
needed for sewing of the clothing item. The waste obtained is entirely made out of n cutting process,
in which garment components are cut out from the larger fabric surface in a shape needed
cotton fiber yarn and composed out of two fabric types, Single Jersey and Fine Rib
for sewing of the clothing item. The waste obtained is entirely made out of natural cotton
offiber
fabrics are composed
yarn and weft knitted
out of(Figure 5).types,
two fabric TheSingle
mainJersey
characteristics
and Fine Rib.ofBoth theoffabrics
fabrics are sho
Table
are weft2. knitted
The ratio of fabric
(Figure 5). The types in a batch provided
main characteristics byarethe
of the fabrics manufacturer
shown is unkno
in Table 2. The
ratio of fabric types in a batch provided by the manufacturer is unknown.

Figure 5. Scheme of weft knitted fabric.

Figure 5. Scheme of weft knitted fabric.
Table 2. Characteristics of Single Jersey and Fine Rib fabric.
Table 2. Characteristics of Single Jersey and
Single Fine Rib fabric.
Jersey Fine Rib
Raw material composition 100% cotton 100% cotton
Fineness of yarn (tex; Nm, Ne): Single Jersey
20 tex × 1; Nm 50/1; Ne 30/1
Fine Rib
20 tex × 1; Nm 50/1
(HRN ISO 7211-5:2003)
Raw
Mass material
per unit area, composition
dry (g/m2 ): 100% cotton 100% cotton
154 180
(HRN EN 12127:2003)
Fineness of yarn (tex; Nm, Ne):
Loop density per 10 cm: Wale direction: 150 Wale direction: 120
20 tex × 1; Nm 50/1; Ne
Course direction: 214
30/1 Course 20 tex
direction: 180
× 1; Nm 50/1
(HRN ISO
(HRN 7211-5:2003)
EN 14971:2008)

Mass per unit area, dry (g/m2):

CKFW EN typically 154knitting style and an irregular cutoff
possesses elasticity due to the 180
(HRN 12127:2003)
shape with
Loop varying
density surface
per 10 cm:area, a consequence of the production
Wale direction: 150 process. Wale
CKFW was
direction: 120
additionally cut to about 2 cm × 6–8 cm to homogenize fabric pieces and accommodate
(HRN EN 14971:2008) Course direction: 214 Course direction: 18
easier mixing within concrete. Fabric was cut regardless of the fabric knit pattern. Weft
knit predominately stretches and elongates in the course direction, i.e., crosswise. Tensile
CKFW
strength and typically
elongation possesses
measurementselasticity due
for Single to the
Jersey andknitting style fabric
Fine Rib kitted and an irregular
were
obtained by Sitotaw and Adamu [58].
shape with varying surface area, a consequence of the production process. CKFW
The amount of CKFW was selected based on previous tests [56]. Before adding to
additionally cut to about 2 × 6–8 cm to homogenize fabric pieces and accommodate
the mixture, the cloths were saturated in room temperature tap water and drained well
mixing
in order to be in concrete.
within Fabricand
a water-saturated wassurface-dry
cut regardless of the
state. The fabric knit
appearance of thepattern.
cloths inWeft kn
dominately
the mixer when stretches andcomponents
dosing the elongatesisinshown
the course direction,
in Figure 6a, and ini.e., crosswise.
Figure Tensile st
6b, they are
and elongation
visible measurements
in the hardened for Single Jersey and Fine Rib kitted fabric were ob
concrete samples.
by Sitotaw and Adamu [58].
 The amount of CKFW was selected based on previous tests [56]. Before adding to the
mixture, the cloths were saturated in room temperature tap water and drained well in
order to be in a water-saturated and surface-dry state. The appearance of the cloths in the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 7 of 24
mixer when dosing the components is shown in Figure 6a, and in Figure 6b, they are vis-
ible in the hardened concrete samples.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 6.
6. (a)
(a) CKFW
CKFW in
in the
the mixer
mixer prior
prior to
to mixing;
mixing; (b)
(b) CKFW in hardened
CKFW in hardened samples
samples TX-3.5.
TX-3.5.

Table 3 shows
showsthe
thecomposition
compositionand and labels of of
labels all all
mixtures. E marks
mixtures. the reference
E marks con-
the reference
crete samples
concrete without
samples the the
without addition of cloths;
addition TX TX
of cloths; represents samples
represents with
samples thethe
with addition of
addition
textiles. The
of textiles. S marks
The samples
S marks sampleswith
withsilica
silicafume,
fume,FFdenotes
denotesfine
fineaggregate
aggregatesamples
samples and
and 1.7
and 3.5 denominate the percentage of textiles in the total volume of concrete.
concrete.

Table 3. The mixture designs

Table 3. designs and
and labels
labels for
for tested
tested mixtures,
mixtures, mass
mass for m33.
for 11 m

Crushed Limestone
SilicaCrushed Limestone
Constituent Cement Constituent CKFW CementSilica Fume CKFW Aggregate Aggregate SP1SP1 SP2
SP2
w/b w/b 0/4 fume
mm 4/8 mm 8/16 mm
Mixtures
kg Mixtureskg kg kg 0/4 mm kg 4/8 mm 8/16
kg mm kg kg
E 350 0.5 - kg - kg 968.7kg kg279.4 kg 614.8 kg 2.1kg kg
TX-1.7 350 0.5 E 3.8 350 -0.5 - 944.5 - 272.5
968.7 279.4 599.4614.8 2.12.1
TX-3.5 350 0.5 7.7 - 920.3 265.5 584.0 2.1
E-S 350 0.5 TX-1.7 - 350 350.5 3.8 901.0 - 944.5
259.9 272.5 571.8599.4 2.32.1
TX-S-1.7 350 0.5 TX-3.5 3.8 350 350.5 7.7 877.3 - 253.1
920.3 265.5 556.7584.0 2.32.1
TX-S-3.5 350 0.5 7.7 35 852.2 245.8 540.8 2.3
E-F 350 0.5 E-S - 350 -0.5 - 1824.035 901.0- 259.9 - 571.8 2.12.3
TX-F-1.7 350 0.5TX-S-1.7 3.8 350 -0.5 3.8 1785.035 877.3- 253.1 - 556.7 2.12.3
TX-F-1.7 * 350 0.5 3.8 - 1785.0 - - 2.1
TX-F-3.5 350 0.5TX-S-3.5 7.7 350 -0.5 7.7 1737.035 852.2- 245.8 - 540.8 2.12.3
E-F * marks the
The label 350sample0.5 - an SP2 superplasticizer.
made with - 1824.0 - - 2.1
TX-F-1.7 350 0.5 3.8 - 1785.0 - - 2.1
All solid components
TX-F-1.7* 350 0.5 were3.8 mixed- in a laboratory
1785.0 mixer - for 1 min;
- then, water2.1and
superplasticizer
TX-F-3.5 350were 0.5 added,7.7
and everything
- was
1737.0mixed for - an additional
- 5 min. After
2.1
mixing,
The label the consistency
* marks the sample was
madetested
withbyanthe
SP2slump test according to HRN EN 12350-2 [59]
superplasticizer.
(Figure 7).
Thesolid
All samples were poured
components wereand compacted
mixed using vibrations
in a laboratory mixer forin1cube
min;molds
then, measuring
water and
15 cm and prism were
superplasticizer moldsadded,
measuring 10 cm × 10 was
and everything cm ×mixed
50 cm.for
The
ansamples were
additional storedAfter
5 min. in a
humid chamber for 24 h, then removed from the mold and placed in a pool of
mixing, the consistency was tested by the slump test according to HRN EN 12350-2 [59]water at a
◦
7). of 20 ± 2 C until day 28, when they were tested.
temperature
(Figure

2.2. Testing of Hardened Concrete Samples

Concrete samples were tested on the 28th day after casting.
The density of hardened concrete samples was determined in accordance with HRN
EN 12390-7 [60]. Ultrasonic pulse velocity through the specimens was determined according
to HRN EN 12504-4 [61].
Buildings 2022,2022,
Buildings 12, x12,
FOR PEER REVIEW
1121 8 of 26
8 of 24

Figure 7. 7.Slump
Figure Slumptest
teston
onsamples
samples with the addition
with the additionofofCKFW
CKFWand
and E-F.
E-F. The
The label
label * marks
* marks the sample
the sample
made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
made with an SP2 superplasticizer.

Thesamples
The dynamicwere
modulus of elasticity
poured was calculated
and compacted usingfrom the ultrasonic
vibrations pulse
in cube velocity
molds (v)
measuring
assuming a Poisson’s ratio (µ) of 0.2 and using the hardened concrete density
15 cm and prism molds measuring 10 × 10 × 50 cm. The samples were stored in a humid (ρ) according
to the Equation
chamber for 24 h,(1):
then removed from the mold and placed in a pool of water at a temper-
v2 ρ(1 + µ)(1 − 2µ)
ature of 20 ± 2 °C until day 28, when
Edin =they were tested. (1)
1−µ
Compressive
2.2. Testing strength
of Hardened was tested
Concrete on cube-shaped samples according to EN 12390-3 [62]
Samples
with a constant loading rate of 0.50 MPa/s.
Concrete samples were tested on the 28th day after casting.
The flexural tensile strength was tested using a hydraulic device with a load capacity
ThekN
of 300 density of hardened
according concrete
to EN 12390-5 samples
[63]. Singlewas determined
concentrated in was
force accordance
applied with
at theHRN
EN 12390-7 [60]. Ultrasonic pulse velocity through the specimens was determined
midspan of the prism while simultaneously recording the load and midpoint displacement accord-
ingofto HRN
samples. EN 12504-4 [61].
The dynamic
Sorptivity modulus
and saturatedofwater
elasticity was calculated
absorption from
were tested the ultrasonic
on cube specimens pulse velocity
according
(v)toassuming a Poisson’s
[64,65]. After curing forratio (µ) of
28 days, the0.2 and using
specimens thedried
were hardened ± 5 ◦ C fordensity
at 105 concrete (ρ) ac-
24 h until
a constant mass was
cording to the Formula (1): reached. Then, the specimens were cooled to room temperature to
determine the mass M1 . The specimens were immersed in water for 24 h until a constant
mass M2 was obtained and weighed. 𝑣 𝜌(1 + 𝜇)(1 − 2𝜇)
𝐸 The= saturated water absorption (Wa ) was calculated (1)
using the Equation (2): 1−𝜇
M2 − M1
Compressive strength was tested × 100% samples according to EN 12390-3
Wa = on cube-shaped (2)
M1
[62] with a constant loading rate of 0.50 MPa/s.
where M1 is the mass of an oven-dried sample in air and M2 is the mass of a surface-dry
The flexural tensile strength was tested using a hydraulic device with a load capacity
specimen in the air after immersion.
of 300 kN according to EN 12390-5 [63]. Single concentrated force was applied at the mid-
The sorptivity test was carried out according to the ASTM C1585 [64,66]. The samples
span
wereoffirst
the prism while
dried in simultaneously
the drying oven at 105recording the24load
± 5 ◦ C for andreaching
h until midpoint displacement
constant mass of
samples.
M0 . Then, the specimens were cooled at room temperature and weighed, and only one
Sorptivity and saturated water absorption were tested on cube specimens according
to [64,65]. After curing for 28 days, the specimens were dried at 105 ± 5 °C for 24 h until a
constant mass was reached. Then, the specimens were cooled to room temperature to de-
termine the mass M1. The specimens were immersed in water for 24 h until a constant
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 9 of 24

surface of the specimen was exposed to water. The cubes rested on small supports in
water, so that only <5 mm of the cubes was submerged. The amount of absorbed water
was determined at different times, after 0, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min and 4 and 24 h, by
weighing the cubes:
∆W = Mt − M0 (3)
where ∆W represents the mass increase (g) in water absorbed by the surface 150 × 150 mm2 ,
and t (h) is the time at which the mass is determined.
Sorptivity in mm/h0.5 can be calculated from the Equation (4):
∆W
A
S= (4)
t0.5
where ∆W/A is an increase in mass due to the access of water in mm (1 g of water is
equivalent to 1 mm3 , so g/mm3 = mm3 /mm2 = mm [64]), A is a cross-section of the cube
(150 mm × 150 mm) and t is time measured in hours (t = 24 h).
Lower values are preferable.

3. Results and Discussion

Table 4 presents the average values and standard deviation of the measured results
obtained from all the mixtures.

Table 4. Test results of fresh and hardened concrete.

Dynamic Saturated
Compressive Flexural
Measured Modulus of UPV Slump Sorptivity × 10−4 Water Density
Values Strength Strength
Elasticity Absorption
Mixtures MPa MPa GPa m/s mm mm/h0.5 % kg/m3
E 66.4 ± 0.21 7.0 ± 0.03 52.6 ± 0.29 4905.9 ± 14.77 170 6.12 3.3 ± 0.02 2428.0 ± 1.93
TX-1.7 59.5 ± 2.00 8.5 ± 0.31 50.6 ± 3.08 4839.3 ± 147.85 135 7.04 4.2 ± 0.15 2399.8 ± 4.69
TX-3.5 53.4 ± 1.05 8.3 ± 0.16 47.5 ± 4.07 4709.0 ± 207.39 70 7.66 4.4 ± 0.06 2378.8 ± 19.77
E-S 58.7 ± 2.00 9.1 ± 0.42 33.0 ± 0.63 3986.6 ± 42.24 100 6.92 3.1 ± 0.11 2307.3 ± 27.39
TX-S-1.7 52.8 ± 1.04 8.8 ± 0.15 31.0 ± 0.84 3908.9 ± 57.57 140 6.90 3.3 ± 0.13 2251.5 ± 16.77
TX-S-3.5 56.5 ± 0.75 8.5 ± 0.08 20.9 ± 0.05 3870.2 ± 5.20 85 6.40 2.7 ± 0.03 2289.7 ± 2.50
E-F 30.0 ± 0.74 4.1 ± 0.32 25.7 ± 0.35 3580.8 ± 11.59 220 21.82 7.3 ± 0.20 2227.3 ± 15.98
TX-F-1.7 * 29.6 ± 0.69 5.7 ± 0.14 25.4 ± 0.06 3563.0 ± 7.47 110 19.77 7.2 ± 0.43 2222.8 ± 8.13
TX-F-1.7 25.5 ± 0.70 5.6 ± 0.36 25.0 ± 0.45 3546.1 ± 22.11 180 22.67 7.8 ± 0.23 2210.7 ± 14.00
TX-F-3.5 25.2 ± 0.21 5.2 ± 0.04 24.6 ± 0.19 3524.4 ± 1.59 155 24.59 8.2 ± 0.07 2204.4 ± 18.95
The label * marks the sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.

3.1. Compressive and Flexural Strength

Figure 8 shows the compressive and flexural strength results relative to the mixture E
and Figure 9 shows the relative values of the corresponding reference mixtures: E, TX-1.7
and TX-3.5 with respect to E; E-S, TX-S-1.7 and TX-S-3.5 with respect to E-S and E-F; and
TX-F-1.7*, TX-F-1.7 and TX-F-3.5 with respect to E-F. According to the results shown in
Figure 8 and Table 4, the reference mixture E achieved the highest strength of 66.4 MPa.
Even E-S, the reference mixture with the addition of silica fume and the same maximum
grain size, had a lower value compared to E. The reduction in the maximum grain size of
the aggregate and the change in the type of cement led to a significant drop in strength—the
mixture E-F achieved only 45% of the strength of the mixture E. As shown in Figures 3
and 4 and Table 1, due to the higher C3 S content, CEM I achieved higher early strengths
compared to CEM II, but since both cements are in the same class, the 28-day strength of
concrete did not differ significantly. For a given quantity of cement, the concrete strength is
proportional to the maximum size of the aggregate [67,68]; thus, the smaller aggregate size
used in F specimens resulted in lower concrete strengths. Group F represents fine-grained
concrete, also known as sand concrete. However, if the use of textiles in the production of
prefabricated elements is considered, the compressive strengths do not have to achieve high
values such as mixture E. For example, Fortes et al. [69] tested concrete blocks with nominal
compressive strengths of 16, 24 and 30 MPa. For this reason, it is important to observe the
obtained results in relation to the corresponding reference mixtures in this study.
 value of reference mixture E is TX1.7, which achieved 90% of the compressive strength of
reference mixture E. If the CKFW mixtures are observed in relation to the corresponding
reference mixtures (Figure 9), then this reduction in compressive strength is 1–20%. Ac-
cording to Figure 9, CKFW addition had the least effect on the compressive strength in
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 with silica fume and the mixture with the SP2 superplasticizer.
mixtures 10 of 24

, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26

Figure 8. Compressive strength and flexural strength relative to mixture E. The label * marks the
Figure 8. Compressive strength and flexural strength relative to mixture E. The label * marks the
sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.

Figure 9. Compressive strength and flexural strength relative to reference mixtures E, E-S and E-F.
Figure 9. Compressive strength and flexural strength relative to reference mixtures E, E-S and E-F.
The label * marks the sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
The label * marks the sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
As presented in Figure 8, the compressive strength of CKFW concrete reduced pro-
A similar trend of compressive
portionally strength
to the percentage decrease
of the with anThe
CKFW addition. increase in waste
exception carpet
is mixture TX-S-1.7.
fiber dosage was observed by Awal and Mohammadhosseini [70], where, for the largestto the
The CKFW concretes achieved 38–90% of the reference mixture strength E. Closest
value ofthey
fiber content of 1.25%, reference mixture
obtained E is TX1.7,reduction
a strength which achieved 90% of
of 21.3% the compressive
compared to thestrength
con- of
reference mixture E. If the CKFW mixtures are observed in relation to the corresponding
trol mixture. Sadrolodabaee et al. [71] found that the compressive strength decreased sig-
reference mixtures (Figure 9), then this reduction in compressive strength is 1–20%. Accord-
nificantly with theingincrease
to Figure 9,inCKFW
the textile
additionwaste
had thefiber
least content. Selvaraj
effect on the and strength
compressive Pryjanka [7]
in mixtures
obtained a strength
withreduction
silica fumeof andalmost 50% with
the mixture withthetheSP2
addition of 5% textile waste by the
superplasticizer.
weight of cement. In their study, the control mixture scored 63.01 MPa, while the mixture
with 5% of textile waste achieved only 32.76 MPa. Mixtures with 1% and 2% textile waste
achieved 70.2% and 67.7% strength of the control mixture, respectively [7]. As shown in
Table 3, in this study, textile waste replacement of 1.7% and 3.5% of the total volume of
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 11 of 24

A similar trend of compressive strength decrease with an increase in waste carpet fiber
dosage was observed by Awal and Mohammadhosseini [70], where, for the largest fiber
content of 1.25%, they obtained a strength reduction of 21.3% compared to the control mix-
ture. Sadrolodabaee et al. [71] found that the compressive strength decreased significantly
with the increase in the textile waste fiber content. Selvaraj and Pryjanka [7] obtained a
strength reduction of almost 50% with the addition of 5% textile waste by the weight of
cement. In their study, the control mixture scored 63.01 MPa, while the mixture with 5% of
textile waste achieved only 32.76 MPa. Mixtures with 1% and 2% textile waste achieved
70.2% and 67.7% strength of the control mixture, respectively [7]. As shown in Table 3, in
this study, textile waste replacement of 1.7% and 3.5% of the total volume of the mixture,
which corresponds to 1% and 2% of the mass of cement, respectively, produced results in
the range from 80% to 99% of the compressive strength of the reference mix. Selvaraj and
Pryjanka [7] indicate that there were two reasons for the decrease in compressive strength:
the reduction in the cohesiveness and the fact that calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) formation
does not occur completely around the aggregate grains. If the added textiles are regarded
as a fiber, then, according to [68], the reason for the decrease in strength is the more difficult
placement and the increased surface area of the cement mortar in the Interfacial Transition
Zone (ITZ).
Anglade et al. [29] concluded that the reduction in compressive strength when polyester
textile waste is added is caused by fibers that increase the air bubbles and voids in the
concrete. The same was observed by Bartulović et al. [56]. Ali et al. [72] used 25 × 5 mm
cuttings and found that the optimal percentage of textile waste in concrete is 0.6%, which
increases the compressive strength by 11.7%; however, with the addition of 1% textile waste,
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 26
compressive strength was reduced by 29.3%. According to Figure 10, the selected amount
of textile waste in the mixtures did not affect the failure mode of the hardened concrete.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Failure mode of
Failure mode of cube
cube specimens
specimens of
of mixtures
mixtures E-S,
E-S, TX-S-1.7
TX-S-1.7 and
and TX-S-3.5.
TX-S-3.5.

From Figures 88 and and 9,9,ititisisobservable

observablethat thatCKFW
CKFWimproved
improved thetheflexural
flexuralstrength
strength of
reference
of referenceconcretes,
concretes,except for the
except for specimens
the specimens withwith
silicasilica
fume,fume,
wherewhere
CKFW failed failed
CKFW to in-
to increase
crease flexural
flexural strength
strength in reference
in reference to mix to E-S.
mix However,
E-S. However, overall,
overall, specimens
specimens with
with silica
silica fume achieved higher values than reference mix E. For
fume achieved higher values than reference mix E. For the larger aggregate grain size the larger aggregate grain
size samples,
samples, the increase
the increase was inwas the in the of
range range
19%of to 19%
25% into reference
25% in reference
to E; for to E; for fine-
fine-sized ag-
sized aggregate
gregate samples,samples, the improvement
the improvement was in thewas in the
range range
of 26% of 26%
to 38% to 38% intoreference
in reference E-F, but
to
wasE-F, but by
lower was lower in
19–41% bycomparison
19–41% in comparison to mixetE.al.Selvaraj
to mix E. Selvaraj et al. a[7]
[7] obtained obtained
greater im-
aprovement
greater improvement in flexural
in flexural strength, but strength,
with a largerbut amount
with a larger amount
of textile waste.ofMixtures
textile waste.
from
Mixtures
Selveraj andfrom Selveraj[7],
Pryjanka and Pryjanka [7],
comparable comparable
to this research, to withthis1%research,
and 2% with textile1% and 2%
waste, in-
textile waste, increased flexural strength by 9.5% and 21.3%, respectively.
creased flexural strength by 9.5% and 21.3%, respectively. As shown in Table 4 and Fig- As shown in
Table 4 and Figures 8 and 9, mixtures TX and TX-S achieved better
ures 8 and 9, mixtures TX and TX-S achieved better results in comparison to the afore- results in comparison
to the aforementioned
mentioned study [7]. Manishankar
study [7]. Manishankar and Sathiyaraj and [8]Sathiyaraj [8] tested
tested concretes withconcretes with
textile waste
textile waste with
with different different
textile textile
to cement to cement
ratios ratios
in regard toin regardweight.
cement to cement
Theweight.
authorsThe authors
concluded
that textile waste in concrete generally increased the strength of concrete; up to 3% textile
waste gave better flexural strength compared to control samples.
The main goal of reinforcing concrete with textiles is to delay the spread of cracks by
transferring stress to adjacent sections. From the σ–δ curve in Figure 11, it is clear that the
 Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 12 of 24

concluded that textile waste in concrete generally increased the strength of concrete; up to
3% textile waste gave better flexural strength compared to control samples.
The main goal of reinforcing concrete with textiles is to delay the spread of cracks
by transferring stress to adjacent sections. From the σ–δ curve in Figure 11, it is clear that
the addition of CKFW improved the concrete properties. Selvaraj et al. [7] came to the
same conclusion, namely that the inclusion of fabric waste increases the tensile properties
of concrete due to the reinforcing effect of the fabric fibers. As shown in Figure 11, the13 of 26
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
reference mix E broke immediately while the TX specimens continued to carry the load. The
same applies to the reference mix E-S and TX-S specimens. However, we failed to observe
the same trend for the TX-F specimens, even though they increased the flexural strength.

Figure 11. σ–δ

Figure11. diagram. The
σ–δ diagram. Thelabel
label* marks thethe
* marks sample made
sample withwith
made an SP2
ansuperplasticizer.
SP2 superplasticizer.
Even though the fabric distributes evenly in the mix [56], increased CKFW hinders
Evenplacement
concrete though the duefabric
to thedistributes
anisotropic evenly inofthe
behavior themix [56],This
fabric. increased
confirmsCKFW
that thehinders
concrete
knitted fabric behaves like a thick fiber in the concrete, helping to increase the flexuralthat the
placement due to the anisotropic behavior of the fabric. This confirms
knitted
strengthfabric behavesoflike
and ductility a thick fiber in the concrete, helping to increase the flexural
the concrete.
strength and ductility of the concrete.
3.2. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity and Ultra Pulse Velocity
Figures 12
3.2. Dynamic and 13 of
Modulus show the relative
Elasticity results
and Ultra of the
Pulse dynamic modulus of elasticity and
Velocity
velocity of ultrasound with respect to mixture E and all other reference mixtures. The
Figures 12 and 13 show the relative results of the dynamic modulus of elasticity and
dynamic modulus of elasticity shows a trend comparable to the compressive strength. All
velocity
samplesof ultrasound
had withlower
a significantly respect to mixture
dynamic modulusE and
of all other reference
elasticity compared mixtures.
to referenceThe dy-
namic modulus of elasticity shows a trend comparable to the
sample E (Figure 12). For the TX samples, the reductions in the dynamic moduluscompressive strength.
of All
samples
elasticityhad
werea 4%
significantly lower
and 10%, with dynamic
other CKFW andmodulus of elasticity
reference mixes havingcompared to reference
53–37% lower
sample
values E (Figure 12).
compared For theE.TX
to sample Thesamples, the reductions
silica fume in the dynamic
samples displayed modulus
unexpectedly largeof elas-
decreases
ticity werecompared
4% and 10%,to sample E. However,
with other CKFWwhen and compared
reference with
mixes their reference
having 53–37%mix lower
E-S val-
(Figure
ues 13), TX-S-1.7
compared and TX-S-3.5
to sample E. Theshowed a decrease
silica fume of 6%.
samples For the TX-F
displayed samples, there
unexpectedly large de-
was almost no change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity in comparison
creases compared to sample E. However, when compared with their reference mix E-S to reference mix
E-F (1–4%).
(Figure 13), TX-S-1.7 and TX-S-3.5 showed a decrease of 6%. For the TX-F samples, there
was almost no change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity in comparison to reference
mix E-F (1–4%).
, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 26
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 26
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 13 of 24

Figure 12. Dynamic modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic pulse velocity relative to mixture E. The
label * marks
Figure 12. DynamicFigure
the sample 12. Dynamic
made
modulus with modulus
an of elasticity
SP2 superplasticizer.
of elasticity and ultrasonic and ultrasonic
pulse pulse
velocity velocitytorelative
relative mixture to mixture
E. The E. The
label * marks the label * marks
sample madethewith
sample
an made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
SP2 superplasticizer.

Figure 13. DynamicFigure

modulus13. Dynamic modulus
of elasticity andof elasticity and
ultrasonic ultrasonic
pulse velocitypulse velocity
relative to relative
referenceto reference
mixtures mixtures
E,Figure
E-S and E, E-S and E-F. The label * marks the sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
13.E-F. The label
Dynamic * marks
modulus of the sample
elasticity made
and with anpulse
ultrasonic SP2 superplasticizer.
velocity relative to reference mixtures
E, E-S and E-F. The labelThe* ultrasonic
marks the pulse
sample made with
velocity (UPV) anwas
SP2highest
superplasticizer.
with the reference mixture E and
The ultrasonic thepulse velocity
differences (UPV)
of the otherwas highest
mixtures with
with the reference
respect to E were mixture E and the
slightly smaller than with
The ultrasonic
differences of thethe pulse
other
dynamic velocity
mixtures
modulus (UPV)
with was highest
respect
of elasticity, to with
E were
ranging from the
1% reference
slightly smaller
to 28% mixture
(Figure than E and
12). with
The the
UPV the of the
dynamic modulus of elasticity, ranging from 1% to 28% (Figure 12). The UPV of the 0–4%
differences of CKFW-reinforced
the other mixtures mixes
within comparison
respect totoEthe respective
were reference
slightly smallermixes was
than lower
with by
the
dynamic modulus
CKFW-reinforced (Figure
of 13).
mixes Table 4 displays
elasticity,
in comparison ranging to the
theUPV
from values
1%
respective to for
28% all mixes.
(Figure
reference According
12).was
mixes The to the manual
UPV
lower of 0–
by the[73], if
UPV is higher than 4500 m/s, the concrete quality is rated as excellent. In Table 4, it can
4% CKFW-reinforced
(Figure 13). Table mixes in comparison
4 displays the UPVtovalues the respective reference
for all mixes. mixes was
According lower
to the by 0–
manual
be seen that mixes E, TX-1.7 and TX-3.5 were of excellent quality. The mixtures labeled
4% if(Figure
[73], UPV is13). STable
higher F4were
andthan displays
4500 thegood,
m/s,
rated as theUPV asvalues
concrete foraall
quality
they have UPVismixes.
valueAccording
rated as excellent.
above toIn
3500 m/s. the Inmanual
Table
this 4,
test, the
it [73],
can be if UPV
seen is higher
that mixesthan 4500 m/s,
E, TX-1.7 andthe concrete
TX-3.5 werequality is rated
of excellent as excellent.
quality. The mixturesIn Tablela-4,
it canS be
beled andseen thatrated
F were mixesasE,good,
TX-1.7 asandtheyTX-3.5
have awereUPVofvalue
excellent
above quality.
3500 m/s.TheIn mixtures
this test,la-
thebeled
silicaS fume
and Fmixes
were also
ratedfared
as good,
poorly as compared
they have atoUPV valuewithout
the mixes above 3500 it. Am/s. In thisrea-
probable test,
sontheissilica fume mixes
the improper also of
storage fared poorly
silica fumecompared to the mixes
and its subsequent without
failure it. A probable
to completely rea-
activate
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 14 of 24

silica fume mixes also fared poorly compared to the mixes without it. A probable reason
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
is theimproper storage of silica fume and its subsequent failure to completely 15 of 26
activate in
the concrete mixture. The remainder of silica fume that did not undergo the pozzolanic
reaction acted as a filler in the concrete. Another problem was observed in silica samples
whilemeasuring
while measuringthe theentrained
entrainedairair
inin the
the fresh
fresh concrete.
concrete. TheThe silica
silica fumefume mixes
mixes (E-S,(E-S,
TX-S-TX-S-1.7
1.7
andand TX-S-3.5)
TX-S-3.5) contained
contained from
from 5.9%
5.9% (TXS-S-3.5)
(TXS-S-3.5) upupto to 7.2%
7.2% (TX-S-1.7)
(TX-S-1.7) entrainedair,
entrained air,
while E,
while E, TX-1.7 and TX-3.5 contained 1.2–2.2%. The entrained air content may
TX-1.7 and TX-3.5 contained 1.2–2.2%. The entrained air content may explain why there was explain why
there
a 20%wasUPVa 20% UPV decrease
decrease compared compared to reference
to reference mixturemixture E and measured
E and other other measured
values, val-
because
ues, because the average accepted value for the UPV in air is 340 m/s. Moreover,
the average accepted value for the UPV in air is 340 m/s. Moreover, a large quantity of a large
quantity
entrained of air
entrained
may beairthemay be the
reason why reason why had
TX-S-1.7 TX-S-1.7 had compression
a worse a worse compression
strength than
strength
TX-S-3.5, which is in line with the conclusions made by Anglade Anglade
than TX-S-3.5, which is in line with the conclusions made by et al. [29].
et al. [29].
3.3.
3.3.Workability
Workabilityand
andDensity
Density
Figures
Figures1414andand 1515
show
show thethe
relative values
relative of slump
values and density
of slump of the of
and density tested mixes, mixes,
the tested
and
and the measured values are displayed in Table 4 and Figure 7. Mixture E-S lower
the measured values are displayed in Table 4 and Figure 7. Mixture E-S had a had a lower
slump value and mixture E-F had a higher slump value compared to mixture E (Figure
slump value and mixture E-F had a higher slump value compared to mixture E (Figure 14).
14). It is clear that the addition of silica fume in mixture E-S lowered the slump due to the
It is clear that the addition of silica fume in mixture E-S lowered the slump due to the
specific surface area of the silica fume compared to cement. Since all mixtures had the
specific surface area of the silica fume compared to cement. Since all mixtures had the
same water:binder ratio, an increase in the workability of group S could be obtained by
same water:binder ratio, an increase in the workability of group S could be obtained by
considering the k concept, where, for silica fume, k is 2 [74]. According to Table 2 and [75],
considering
the the kwere
slump classes concept, where,mixtures
as follows: for silicaTX-3.5
fume,andk isTX-S-3.5—S2
2 [74]. According to Table
(standard); 2 and [75],
TX-1.7,
the slump
E-S, TX-S-1.7,classes were
TX-F-1.7* as TX-F-3.5—S3
and follows: mixtures
(wet); TX-3.5 andTX-F-1.7—S4
E, E-F and TX-S-3.5—S2 (standard);
(very wet). TheTX-1.7,
FE-S, TX-S-1.7,
group mixturesTX-F-1.7* and TX-F-3.5—S3
were plastic and workable (wet); E, E-F
and could and TX-F-1.7—S4
produce (verywhich
smooth surfaces, wet). The F
group
are mixtures
especially werefor
suitable plastic and workable
architectural and could
forms (Figure 7). produce smooth surfaces, which are
especially suitable for architectural forms (Figure 7).

Figure14.
Figure Slump
14.Slump andand density
density relative
relative to mixture
to mixture E. TheE. The* marks
label label *the
marks themade
sample sample
withmade
an with an
SP2 superplasticizer.
SP2 superplasticizer.

Generally,aasmaller
Generally, smalleraggregate
aggregatesize size requires
requires a greater
a greater water
water content
content than
than is needed for
is needed
a larger
for aggregate
a larger aggregate size ofofthe
size thesame
samestone
stoneorigin
origin to
to achieve thesame
achieve the sameworkability.
workability.InInthis this case,
the workability
case, of concrete
the workability of concreteE-FE-F
waswasbetter than
better thethe
than workability
workability ofof
mixture
mixtureE Eeven eventhough
though
the same theamount
same amount
of waterof water was used
was used (Figure
(Figure 14). 14).
TheThe exception
exception is the
is the mixture
mixture TX-
TX-F-1.7*, a
F-1.7*, a mixture with another type of superplasticizer. Moreover, as
mixture with another type of superplasticizer. Moreover, as shown in Table 1, the shown in Table 1, thespecific
specific
surfacesurface
area ofarea
theofCEMthe CEM II cement
II cement waswas larger
larger thanthanthethe specificsurface
specific surface area
area of
of the
the CEM
CEM I cement, which should reduce the workability of the F group. All
I cement, which should reduce the workability of the F group. All of the aggregate was of the aggregate
was supposed
supposed to be
to be in ainsaturated
a saturatedand andsurface-dry
surface-dry state,
state, but
butthetheaggregate
aggregateinin the 0/40/4
the frac-fraction
tion also had significant surface moisture, which led to excess water in
also had significant surface moisture, which led to excess water in the F mixtures. Due tothe F mixtures.
Due to the excess
the excess water, water,
the E-Fthe E-F mixture
mixture had better
had better workability
workability compared
compared to E.toAsE.theAsamount
the of
amount of water in the F mixtures was greater than was required for the complete hydra-
water in the F mixtures was greater than was required for the complete hydration of cement,
tion of cement, excess water remained free and capillaries and cavities were formed,
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 15 of 24

which can be seen in the cross-section of the sample shown in Figure 16. Moreover, this
excesspart
water water remained
resulted in a free andreduction
further capillariesinand
thecavities
strengthwere
of F formed, which can
group mixtures be seen in
compared
the cross-section of the
to the other concretes. sample shown in Figure 16. Moreover, this water part resulted in a
further reduction in the strength of F group mixtures compared to the other concretes.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26

Figure 15.
Figure Slumpand
15.Slump anddensity
density relative
relative to reference
to reference mixtures
mixtures E, and
E, E-S E-S and
E-F. E-F. The label
The label * marks
* marks the the
samplemade
sample madewith
withan
anSP2
SP2superplasticizer.
superplasticizer.

As shown in Table 4 and Figure 15, the workability of the mixes decreased with re-
spect to the amount of textile, with the exception of TX-S-1.7. Since this mixture had a
larger amount of entrained air, the amount of paste and thus the workability of the con-
crete increased. The TX-F-1.7* mix had lower workability than the TX-F-1.7 mix, although
they had exactly the same composition and differed only in the type of superplasticizer
used. Both superplasticizers were added in the same quantity, 0.6% by weight of binder.
However, for the SP2 superplasticizer used in TX-F-1.7*, the recommended dose range is
0.2–0.8%, whereas for the SP1 superplasticizer used in the other nine mixtures, the recom-
mended dose range is 0.6–1.4% by weight of binder. Even though the SP2 was added in
an amount closer to the upper recommended limit, it obviously had a weaker effect than
the SP1.

Figure16.
Figure 16.Specimen
SpecimenTX-F-1.7
TX-F-1.7 after
after fracture.
fracture.

As shown in Table
Compared 4 and sample
to control Figure 15,
E,the
theworkability
density ofofthe
the mixtures
mixes decreased with respect
was reduced by 1–9%
to the amount of textile, with the exception of TX-S-1.7. Since this mixture
(Figure 14). Compared to E, the densities TX-1.7 and TX-3.5 were reduced by 1% and had a larger
amount of entrained
2%, respectively. Theair, the amount
TX-S-1.7 of paste
density and thus
reduction was 2%the compared
workabilitytoofE-S,
the while
concrete
for TX-
increased. The TX-F-1.7* mix had lower workability than the TX-F-1.7 mix,
S-3.5, the density reduction was marginal, which may be due to the compaction. although they
For all
had exactly the same composition and differed only in the type of superplasticizer
fine aggregate samples (TX-F), the density reduction was below 1% compared to E-F (Fig- used.
Both superplasticizers were added in the same quantity, 0.6% by weight of binder. However,
ure 15). The difference between TX-3.5 and TX-1.7 was also marginal. Similar results were
for the SP2 superplasticizer used in TX-F-1.7*, the recommended dose range is 0.2–0.8%,
obtained by Ali et al. in [72], where the reduction in density depending on the proportion
whereas for the SP1 superplasticizer used in the other nine mixtures, the recommended
of textile (0–1%) was 0–0.9%. The percentage of textile waste used in this study did not
significantly affect the density of the concrete.

3.4. Durability: Saturated Water Absorption, Sorptivity and Gas Permeability

The design and construction of concrete structures require safety and usability
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 16 of 24

dose range is 0.6–1.4% by weight of binder. Even though the SP2 was added in an amount
closer to the upper recommended limit, it obviously had a weaker effect than the SP1.
Compared to control sample E, the density of the mixtures was reduced by 1–9%
(Figure 14). Compared to E, the densities of TX-1.7 and TX-3.5 were reduced by 1% and 2%,
respectively. The TX-S-1.7 density reduction was 2% compared to E-S, while for TX-S-3.5,
the density reduction was marginal, which may be due to the compaction. For all fine
aggregate samples (TX-F), the density reduction was below 1% compared to E-F (Figure 15).
The difference between TX-3.5 and TX-1.7 was also marginal. Similar results were obtained
by Ali et al. in [72], where the reduction in density depending on the proportion of textile
(0–1%) was 0–0.9%. The percentage of textile waste used in this study did not significantly
affect the density of the concrete.

3.4. Durability: Saturated Water Absorption, Sorptivity and Gas Permeability

The design and construction of concrete structures require safety and usability through-
out the life cycle. Concrete corrosion is basically a diffusion process where the diffusion rate
depends on the permeability of the concrete to fluids, which is a more practical measure
for estimating the rate of corrosion progression. The permeability of concrete depends on
the amount and the characteristics of its pore structure; thus, absorption and sorptivity are
recognized as indicators of concrete durability. As shown in Figures 17 and 18, silica fume
affected the reduction in the saturated water absorption. Mixtures with silica fume, labeled
S, had the same or lower values in comparison to reference mixture E, while mixtures
labeled F had more than twice the value (Figure 17). The behavior of F-labeled mixtures
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 ofcan
26
be explained by the aforementioned increase in the number of capillaries in the specimens.
Mixtures labeled TX had 28–34% higher absorption in comparison with E. The absorption
of mixture TX-S-1.7 was the same as for E, but was 5% higher than E-S, and 19% higher
Regarding the sorptivity, a similar trend can be observed as with the results of the
than TX-S-3.5; the increased amount of entrained air also affected the results obtained.
saturated water absorption,
The TX-F mixtures had 7% and except
13%that all the
higher results were
absorption worseto
compared inE-F;
comparison to the
only TX-F-1.7*
reference mixture E. The S group mixtures had 4–13% higher values compared
with the SP2 superplasticizer had a better result (Figure 18). In addition, according to to E, while
the
mixturesEuro-International
Comité of the F group haddu 3 to 4 times
Béton [76] higher values
and [77], than reference
the concrete qualitymixture
is goodEif(Figure
water
17). The addition
absorption of the3%,
is less than textile increased
average sorptivity,
if water with
absorption the exception
is between 3% and of mixtures
5% and poorTX-S-if
3.5 and TX-F-1.7* (Figure 18). The reason for this may be the random distribution
water absorption is higher than 5%. As shown in Table 4, TX-S-3.5 achieved a good quality of CKFW
in concrete;
of the test specimens,
the mixtureswhich may not
E, TX-1.7, haveE-S
TX-3.5, been
andclose to thehad
TX-S-1.7 surface in contact
average with
quality; andwater.
the F
series was of poor quality.

Figure
Figure 17. Saturatedwater
17. Saturated waterabsorption
absorptionand
andsorptivity
sorptivityrelative
relativetotomixture
mixtureE.E.
TheThe label
label * marks
* marks thethe
sample
sample made
made with
with an
an SP2
SP2 superplasticizer.
superplasticizer.
 Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 Figure 17. Saturated water absorption and sorptivity relative to mixture E. The 17
label * marks th
of 24
sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.

Figure 18. Saturated water

Figure 18. absorption
Saturated waterand sorptivity
absorption andrelative to reference
sorptivity mixtures
relative to E, mixtures
reference E-S and E-F.
E, E-S and E
The label * marks the sample
The label made
* marks with anmade
the sample SP2 superplasticizer.
with an SP2 superplasticizer.

Regarding the
As in sorptivity,
the studya similar
by Yangtrend
et al.can
[78],bea observed as with the
linear relationship canresults of the betw
be established
saturated water absorption, except that all the results were worse in
the measured values of sorptivity and saturated water absorption. Figurecomparison to19
the
shows a v
reference mixture E. The S group mixtures had 4–13% higher values compared to E,
strong positive linear relationship between the results, with R = 0.9812. This shows t while
mixtures of one
the Fofgroup
thesehad 3 to 4 times
measured higherindicators
durability values than reference mixture
is sufficient to assessEthe
(Figure 17).of concr
quality
The addition of the textile increased sorptivity, with the exception of mixtures TX-S-3.5 and
TX-F-1.7* (Figure 18). The reason for this may be the random distribution of CKFW in the
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
test specimens, which may not have been close to the surface in contact with water.
As in the study by Yang et al. [78], a linear relationship can be established between
the measured values of sorptivity and saturated water absorption. Figure 19 shows a
very strong positive linear relationship between the results, with R = 0.9812. This shows
Figure 20 shows the water absorption (g/cm2) relative to the square root of tim
that one of these measured durability indicators is sufficient to assess the quality of con-
gram.
crete. Figure 20 shows the water absorption (g/cm2 ) relative to the square root of time
(h0.5 ) diagram.

Figure 19. Relationship between sorptivity and saturated water absorption.

Figure 19. Relationship between sorptivity and saturated water absorption.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 18 of 24
Figure 19. Relationship between sorptivity and saturated water absorption.

Figure
Figure 20. 20. Water
Water absorption–square root
absorption–square of of
root time diagram.
time The label
diagram. The* label
marks*the sample
marks themade with made w
sample
an SP2 superplasticizer.
an SP2 superplasticizer.
The values in Figure 20 indicate that water penetration was very slow for TX and
The samples.
TX-S values inThe Figure 20 indicate
TX mixtures thathad
initially water penetration
a higher wasthan
absorbency very slow
TX-S, forthe
but TX and T
S samples. The
difference TX mixtures
decreased initially
over time. Mixturehad a higher
E had absorbency
the best results and than
mixture TX-S, but the
TX-S-3.5 had differen
almost identical behavior to E. There was an increase in sorptivity
decreased over time. Mixture E had the best results and mixture TX-S-3.5 had almost for TX-F, which can be id
explained by the aforementioned increase in the proportion of capillaries in the concrete.
tical behavior to E. There was an increase in sorptivity for TX-F, which can be explain
Once again, a significant difference in sorptivity was observable between TX-F-1.7 and
by the aforementioned
TX-F-1.7*, highlightingincrease in the
the effect that theproportion
plasticizer can ofhave
capillaries
on CKFW inmixtures.
the concrete.
SamplesOnce aga
a significant difference
from Selvaraj in sorptivity
et al. [7], which was observable
are comparable with TX andbetween TX-F-1.7
TX-S, exhibited waterand TX-F-1.7*, hig
absorption
in thethe
lighting range of 2.67–28.74%.
effect They concluded
that the plasticizer that these
can have values are
on CKFW due to theSamples
mixtures. absorption of Selva
from
water by the cloth itself. In contrast to [7], in this study, mixtures with
et al. [7], which are comparable with TX and TX-S, exhibited water absorption in the ran silica fume achieved
better results than the reference mixture without CKFW, but not in relation to mixture E.
of 2.67–28.74%. They concluded that these values are due to the absorption of water
Based on the results of water absorption from Table 4 and Figure 20, mixtures with
the cloth itself. In contrast
the addition of silica to [7],
fume were in this
selected forstudy,
testing mixtures with silica
the gas permeability fume achieved
according to the bet
results
RILEMthanCembureau
the reference method mixture
[79,80].without
Samples 150 CKFW,
mm inbut not inand
diameter relation
50 mmto mixture
high were E.
made
Based on the results of water absorption from Table 4 and Figure 20, three
and tested in the Cembureau cell setup (Figure 21a). The samples were tested at mixtures w
pressure levels: 0.15 MPa, 0.20 MPa and 0.30 MPa. The gas permeability coefficient K is
the addition of silica fume were selected for testing the gas permeability according to
determined from the Equation (5):

2 Pa Q L µ
K= (5)
A Pi2 − Pa2

where L represents the thickness of the specimen (m), A is the cross-section of the specimen
(m2 ), Q is the flow rate at a certain pressure stage measured with a soap bubble flow meter
connected to the top surface of the specimen (m3 /s), µ is the gas (oxygen) dynamic viscosity
at the test temperature (Pas), Pi is the applied test pressure (Pa) and Pa is the atmospheric
pressure (Pa).
 dry places or in areas where there is no alternating wetting and drying. The required con-
ditions correspond to exposure classes X0 (no risk of corrosion or attack) and XC1
(permanently dry or permanently wet) according to EN 206, C0 (concrete dry or protected
from
Buildings moisture)
2022, 12, 1121 according to ACI 318, I (non agressive) according to EHE-08 or 1 (dry)
19 of 24
according to NMX C403 and pNMX C155 [80].

(a) (b)

Figure 21. (a) Cembureau

Figurecell
21. setup. (b) Gas cell
(a) Cembureau permeability coefficient
setup. (b) Gas according
permeability coefficienttoaccording
the RILEMto theCem-
RILEM
Cembureau
bureau method relative to mixturemethod
E-S.relative to mixture E-S.
The coefficient K for the mixture E-S was 1.283 × 10−16 m2 , and for the other two
mixtures, relative values are given in relation to E-S in Figure 21b. If the gas permeability
coefficient K is between 10−18 m2 and 10−16 m2 , the quality of the concrete is normal, but if
the K is higher than 10−16 m2 , the quality of the concrete is considered poor [79]. The K
value for the E-S mix was very close to the limit value between normal and poor concrete.
According to the results of Figure 21b, the mixtures TX-S-1.7 and TX-S-3.5 achieved higher
values of the coefficient K compared to the mixture E-S, which means that the quality of
the concrete is considered poor. A mixture with a higher amount of textile has a higher
gas permeability compared to the reference mixture E-S. Gas permeability usually refers to
the assessment of the performance of concrete in relation to CO2 penetration, i.e., to assess
the durability of concrete that will be exposed to the carbonation process. Accordingly,
based on the obtained results, the tested mixtures in this form can be used only in dry
places or in areas where there is no alternating wetting and drying. The required conditions
correspond to exposure classes X0 (no risk of corrosion or attack) and XC1 (permanently
dry or permanently wet) according to EN 206, C0 (concrete dry or protected from moisture)
according to ACI 318, I (non agressive) according to EHE-08 or 1 (dry) according to NMX
C403 and pNMX C155 [80].

3.5. Influence of Textile Quantity on Test Results

Figures 22 and 23 show the results for the same concrete mixtures with different CKFW
quantities. In the TX mixtures, the double percentage of CKFW reduces the overall quality
of the hardened concrete up to 10%, while the TX-S mixture with 3.5% CKFW had mainly
the same or better properties compared to the mixture with a smaller percentage of CKFW.
In the TX-F group, a positive effect of the SP2 superplasticizer on the quality of concrete was
noticeable, and the increase in the percentage of CKFW reduced the quality of hardened
concrete up to a maximum of 8%.
 CKFWthe
mainly quantities.
same orInbetter
the TXproperties
mixtures, the double percentage
compared of CKFW
to the mixture with reduces
a smallerthepercentage
overall
ofquality
CKFW. of In
thethe
hardened concrete
TX-F group, up to 10%,
a positive while
effect the SP2
of the TX-Ssuperplasticizer
mixture with 3.5%
on CKFW had of
the quality
mainly the same or better properties compared to the mixture with a smaller percentage
concrete was noticeable, and the increase in the percentage of CKFW reduced the quality
ofofhardened
CKFW. Inconcrete
the TX-Fupgroup, a positive effect
to a maximum of 8%.of the SP2 superplasticizer on the quality of
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 concrete was noticeable, and the increase in the percentage of CKFW reduced the quality 20 of 24
of hardened concrete up to a maximum of 8%.

Figure 22. Compressive strength, flexural strength, dynamic modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic
Figure
Figure
pulse 22. Compressive
22. Compressive
velocity for the same
strength,
strength, flexural
flexural
mixes with
strength,
strength,
different CKFW
dynamic
dynamic modulus
modulus
quantity,
of
of elasticity
relative elasticity and
and ultrasonic
to the mixture ultrasonic
with lower
pulse
pulse velocity
velocity for
for the
the same
same mixes
mixes with
with different
different CKFW
CKFW quantity,
quantity, relative
relative to
to the
the mixture
mixture with
with lower
lower
CKFW quantity. The label * marks the sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
CKFW quantity.
CKFW quantity.TheThelabel
label**marks
marksthethesample
samplemade
madewith
withan
anSP2
SP2superplasticizer.
superplasticizer.

Figure 23.
23. Slump,
Figure23.
saturated
Slump,saturated
water
saturatedwater
absorption,
waterabsorption,
sorptivity
absorption,sorptivity
and
sorptivityand
density
anddensity
forfor
thethe
density for
same mixes
same mixes
withwith
dif-
mixes with
Figure Slump, the same dif-
ferent CKFW quantity, relative to the mixture with lower CKFW quantity. The label * marks the
different
ferent CKFW
CKFW quantity,
quantity, relativetotothe
relative themixture
mixture with lower
lowerCKFW
CKFWquantity.
quantity.The label
The * marks
label the the
* marks
sample made with an SP2 superplasticizer.
sample
samplemade
made with SP2 superplasticizer.
with an SP2 superplasticizer.

The properties investigated so far suggest the possible application of CKFW in indoor,
weather-protected spaces for non-load-bearing partitions, substrates and linings. Existing
technologies for the production of such building elements include the casting of fresh mix-
ture into shallow molds for the production of the boards, or deep molds for the production
of elements of more complex geometry. Extrusion, pultrusion and compression molding,
more technologically demanding processes in which CKFW could affect many variables,
were not considered at this stage of the research.
The specifics of this material in the production of slabs in shallow molds require
further research. Areas still to be investigated include (a) the thickness of the slabs, which
depends on the load, location and method of installation; (b) optimizing of the formats
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 21 of 24

of rectangular, hexagonal and complex geometric patterns; (c) the possibilities of cutting
large-format plates; and (d) the design of surface structures by means of relief molds.
When casting into deep molds, it is necessary to additionally examine (a) the wall
thickness of the complex element in terms of the embeddability and the prevention of
air cavities and excessive segregation; and (b) the installation of prefabricated building
elements at the construction site depending on the role and position of the element and the
impacts to which it will be exposed during the operation. Slabs of screed would be laid flat
on the elastic elements of sound insulation. Single-layer or multi-layer partitions made of
blocks of complex geometry would be built on and supported by the building structure,
and stiffened in the horizontal direction. In addition to dividing spaces, partitions can play
a role in noise protection and fire protection. Wall and ceiling coverings would be mounted
on the prepared substructure, with the possible relief structure, in addition to its design
role, also functioning as an acoustic diffuser.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, the properties of ten mixtures in fresh and hardened states were examined
with the purpose of studying the effects of CKFW addition on concrete properties as a
fore step to exploring the possibility of precast element production. Seven mixtures were
reinforced with post-industrial cotton knitted fabric waste. The workability of CKFW
concrete depended on the percentage of textile waste and the type of superplasticizer and
the percentages of textile waste used in this study did not significantly affect the density of
the concrete. The compressive strength of the CKFW concrete was reduced proportionally
to the percentage of textile waste and the addition of textile waste can increase the flexural
strength by up to 38% compared to unreinforced concrete. It was observed that the inclusion
of CKFW increased the ductility of concrete with a larger grain size due to the reinforcing
effect of the CKFW in the concrete. Silica fume had a positive effect on concretes with a
higher percentage of textiles, and, by adding silica fume and a suitable superplasticizer, it
is possible to form concrete mixtures with CKFW that have low water absorption. On the
other hand, for the tested mixtures, a larger amount of textile in concrete increased the gas
permeability of the concrete, meaning the use of such concrete mixes is limited to dry and
protected conditions.
Given the obtained results, it is clear that the use of textiles in concrete requires
further testing, especially in terms of durability. It is necessary to consider the method
of preparation, treatment and the shape of textiles before installation in concrete or other
composites. The restriction of the use of this material to dry and protected areas allows the
use of other types of binders, so research can be focused on the search for environmentally
friendly composites that give a pleasant and healthy indoor climate. In addition to the
investigated material properties, it is necessary to pay attention to the technological aspects
of production and the architectural aspects of design to determine the applicability of
building elements that use CKFW.
Incorporating only a portion of discarded textiles into building elements would reduce
the problem of burying the planet with waste, and, if used properly, could also improve
the properties of concrete.
Finally, all of these potential building elements must, after the end of the life cycle of
the building, offer opportunities for their reuse or safe disposal, in accordance with the
overarching themes of industrial metabolism and the circular economy.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.B.; methodology, S.J.; validation B.B., S.J. and D.Ž.;
formal analysis, S.J. and M.G.; investigation, B.B., S.J. and D.Ž.; resources, B.B., S.J. and M.G.; data
curation, S.J. and M.G.; writing—original draft preparation, S.J.; writing—review and editing, B.B.,
S.J. and D.Ž.; visualization, B.B., S.J. and D.Ž.; supervision, S.J.; project administration, S.J., fund
acquisition B.B. and S.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1121 22 of 24

Funding: This research was partially supported through projects: KK.01.1.1.02.0027, a project co-
financed by the Croatian Government and the European Union through the European Regional
Development Fund—The Competitiveness and Cohesion Operational Programme.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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