Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Review article

A comprehensive review of innovative wind turbine airfoil and blade

designs: Toward enhanced efficiency and sustainability
Anupam Krishnan, Abdulkareem Sh. Mahdi Al-Obaidi *, Lee Ching Hao
School of Engineering, Faculty of Innovation and Technology, Taylor’s University, Taylor’s Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya, Selangor DE, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Wind energy is a clean, sustainable energy source crucial in transitioning to a low-carbon energy system. Wind
Active flow control devices power has become an affordable source due to technological advancements and numerical simulation techniques
Biomimetic turbine blades resulting in higher efficiency. Due to the challenges of wind speed and flow conditions, it is difficult for re­
Horizontal axis wind turbine
searchers to develop wind turbines that are as technically effective and commercially competitive as conven­
Passive flow control devices
tional sources. Researchers strive to minimize flow separation, stall, and tip losses caused by the chaotic wind.
Sustainable Development Goals
Vertical axis wind turbine There are many ways to improve wind turbine efficiency, such as using advanced control and hybrid power
systems, optimization algorithms, and flow control technologies. This paper details improving a wind turbine
blade’s aerodynamic, aero-acoustic, and structural properties under different operating conditions, focusing
especially on active and passive flow control devices and biomimetic adaptations. Experimental and numerical
methods being employed lately by researchers to analyze and optimize the performance of a wind turbine are
also discussed. Finally, recommendations for further study and a design guideline for low-speed applications for
wind turbine blades have been proposed, which will help humanity push toward sustainable development goals.

sustainable goals is the increase in global temperature brought on by

installing large scale wind turbines (LSWT) [4]. Small scale wind tur­
Introduction bines (SSWT) can generate electrical energy to meet community needs
while contributing little to global warming. While Vertical Axis Wind
The energy needs of humanity have risen throughout time, and there Turbine (VAWT) is recommended in regions with unpredictable wind
are no signs that this trend will stop. It is projected that by the end of speeds, Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) is ideal for a geographic
2050, the energy requirement will increase by 50 % [1]. Recent statistics area with greater and predictable wind resource [5].
indicate that along with the increase in power generation, the mean The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) comprises a region’s average
global temperature is also rising annually at an average rate of 1.14 ◦ C wind speed profiles, turbulence intensity (TI), and air viscosity condi­
over the past ten years [2]. The primary source of this anomaly is the tions. The crucial factors to be examined before installation are the
growth in annual CO2 emanations from burning fossil fuels. Sustain­ turbine geometry and its impact on the airflow around it [6]. The most
ability and minimal ecological effects are two key factors that have likely models to succeed soon as reviewed recently are floating offshore
increased interest in renewable energy sources, including wind, solar, wind turbines, smart rotors that change their pitch to changing wind
and bioenergy, that accounts for 28.1 % of the world’s total energy directions, and diffuser wind turbines, according to a thorough assess­
consumption [3]. In its utmost importance, economic viability depends ment of the technological maturity of wind energy systems in Europe
heavily on the system’s efficiency designed to collect helpful energy [7]. High acquisition costs, turbulence, and the resulting aero-acoustic
from naturally occurring sources. noise are three major problems with implementing wind turbines for
Wind turbines have evolved into one of the foremost cutting-edge generating electrical energy. The most crucial factor determining
technologies of renewable energy harvesting. In Fig. 1 is depicted a whether a wind turbine is economically feasible to be competitive with
summary of how wind turbines can be broadly classified. Offshore tur­ other sources is the capital cost and the cost associated with producing
bines have grown in popularity recently, thanks to the consistent wind one unit of electricity. The low-speed effectiveness of a roughened airfoil
that makes them possible to operate around the clock, even if onshore has been shown, and tripping devices have been proven beneficial in
turbines are more common. A major obstacle to achieving the desired

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.Sh.M. Al-Obaidi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103511
Received 11 April 2023; Received in revised form 5 October 2023; Accepted 16 October 2023
Available online 21 October 2023
2213-1388/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Nomenclature HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

LE Leading Edge
Abbreviations LES Large Eddy Simulation
2D 2-Dimensional LSB Laminar Separation Bubble
3D 3-Dimensional LSWT Large Scale Wind Turbine
A Swept area of the turbine (m2) Ma Mach number
ABL Atmospheric Boundary Layer PIV Particle Image Velocimetry
AoA Angle of Attack POD Proper Orthogonal Decomposition
AR Aspect Ratio PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
BEM Blade Element Momentum RANS Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
BL Boundary Layer Re Reynolds number
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics SA Spalart Allmaras
CL Lift coefficient SST Shear Stress Transport
CL/CD Lift to drag ratio SSWT Small scale wind turbine
CLmax Maximum lift coefficient St Strouhal number
CLratio Ratio of forced to free transition lift coefficient TE Trailing Edge
Cp Power coefficient TI Turbulence Intensity
DES Detached Eddy Simulation TSR Tip Speed Ratio
DTE Diverging Trailing Edge URANS Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
FEA Finite Element Analysis v∞ Ambient wind velocity (m/s)
FSI Fluid Structure Interaction VAWT Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
FWH Ffowcs-Williams-Hawkings VG Vortex Generator
GA Genetic Algorithm ρ Density of air (kg/m3)
GF Gurney Flap

Fig. 1. Wind Tree: A broad classification of wind turbines.

minimizing the consequences of a laminar separation bubble (LSB). The practices. The research by Zhao et al. (2022) included geometric fea­
flow around wind turbines can be investigated using computational fluid tures, flow control, blade shape alterations, power augmentation, hybrid
dynamics (CFD) tools. The computing expenses and complexity of the systems, and variable-pitch control of VAWTs. The study analysed the
flow around a wind turbine often determine which mathematical model effect of optimizing airfoil form, thickness, blade count, pitch angle, and
is selected [8]. aspect ratio (AR). Over time, research has suggested leading-edge micro-
Evaluating existing technologies is crucial to wind turbine research cylinders, serrated blades, trailing-edge apertures, vortex generators
because they synthesize and integrate enormous innovations and best (VG), and blade geometry changes for improving the efficiency of a

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 2a. Constraints in increasing the swept area of a wind turbine to extract more power.

VAWT rotor. As augmentation devices, wind collectors, guiding vanes, and v∞ = ambient wind velocity (m/s).
diffusers, flat plate deflectors, and contra-rotating designs were exam­ Due to the forces exerted on the rotor blades due to the aero­
ined. Solidity was also assessed as it affects self-starting and the ideal Tip dynamics, the kinetic energy is transformed into mechanical energy and
Speed Ratio (TSR) [9]. passed on to the generator. According to the Betz Limit, the turbine
Das Karmakar and Chattopadhyay (2022) evaluated several rotor’s Cp cannot exceed 59.26 % [14]. The efficiencies of the electrical
augmentation approaches and devices to improve VAWT effectiveness. and mechanical elements involved in the conversion process reduce the
The cowling technique, invelox profile, and inlet flow path modification overall efficiency [15]. The fluid dynamics around the wind turbines
were evaluated [10]. The performance and structural analysis of wind differ for HAWTs and VAWTs. For conveyance of the distinction, the
turbines were comprehensively studied by Rajamohan et al. (2022). flow can be divided into three regions, inflow, interaction, and wake
Numerical and computational approaches were reviewed for deter­ areas. Blockage creates aerodynamic stresses on blades, creating lift and
mining performance characteristics, including power coefficient (Cp) drag. A blade’s lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD) can be an indicator of effi­
and TSR. Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory and CFD analysis ciency. The wake is the flow disturbance downstream where vortices
were crucial to wind turbine performance study. When assessing wind dissipate due to decreasing velocity [16].
turbine blade structural integrity, numerical techniques like Finite VAWTs are omnidirectional, but continually fluctuating AoA and
Element Analysis (FEA) and Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) are also dynamic stall reduce their efficiency. Using the same aerodynamic
essential [11]. Chen and Lin (2022) reviewed the production status and concept, the Darrieus rotor rotates as in lift-based wind turbines. Drag-
problems of many offshore wind energy-generating components in based turbines like the Savonius turbine spin utilizing thrust. HAWT and
China. Authors stressed on developing sophisticated technologies, VAWT flow phenomena are complicated by turbine design, weather, and
operating and maintenance systems, and integrating offshore wind geography. Sophisticated wind tunnel testing and CFD models are used
power into other businesses [12]. EL Kinani et al. (2023) examined the for flow analysis and prediction. Increasing wind turbine swept area is a
French wind energy industry resources, technology, economics, envi­ simple way to get additional energy from airflow but with drawbacks as
ronment, and society. Considering societal considerations while devel­ seen in Fig. 2(a). The downsides outweigh the power boost targeted.
oping wind turbines is crucial, and the social life cycle assessment Variety of techniques resorted to increase the Cp will be elaborated later
technique was suggested for evaluation [13]. in the article.
The current state of wind energy research reveals that the focus of a
comprehensive review is frequently centred on a single criterion.
Consider this article a revised road map for future research into the Flow parametric around a wind turbine
design and development of wind turbine rotors considering multiple
aspects such as aerodynamics, aero-acoustics, and structural integrity of By carefully examining airflow around the rotor blade, techniques
wind turbines. Following a brief discussion on the basics of wind energy for improving its performance can be offered. While the upstream area
extraction in Section 2, Section 3 discusses the different performance of the turbine should be free of obstacles, the downstream area is as
augmentation tactics utilized for wind turbines. An analysis of many significant. Vortex formation in the leading and trailing edges, as shown
biomimetic models suggested to improve wind turbine blade produc­ in Fig. 3(a), is a crucial phenomenon to be analyzed for natural flyers,
tivity is presented in Section 4. A recap of various numerical and opti­ micro aerial vehicles (MAVs) and low-speed wind turbines. A novel
mization methods adopted is discussed in Section 5, followed by analysis of the validity of transient Kutta condition was presented in the
conclusions and recommendations in Section 6. study conducted by Xia and Mohseni (2016). The vortex sheet developed
in two tangential directions to the TE as per the conducted study [16].
General background The optimization of airfoils for a SSWT becomes crucial as it pro­
duces a lower Cp when compared to LSWTs. SSWT airfoils operate at low
Overview Reynolds number (Re) where LSB reduces their efficiency. The lift co­
efficient (CL) drops dramatically at extreme AoA. In a study conducted
All existing wind turbine models work better when the wind blows by Winslow et al. (2018) even a thin cambered plate was found to have
faster. The quantity of wind energy gathered at the turbine intake is superior aerodynamic property to a conventional airfoil at low Re. One
denoted by Eq. (1). strategy for controlling LSB formation is facilitating momentum diffu­
sivity between the freestream layer and the laminar shear layer to
1
P = ρAv3∞ (1) induce early transition [17]. Placek and Ruchała (2018) studied the flow
2 separation phenomenon of a V2C laminar airfoil experimentally at two
different Mach numbers (Ma), 0.3 and 0.7. It was determined that the Re
where, ρ = air density (kg/m3), A = swept area of the wind turbine (m2)
was approximately 1.22 × 106 and 2.85 × 106. The boundary layer (BL)

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 2b. Main parameters to consider while designing a wind turbine.

transition is a function of Re and takes place downstream where the electricity from industrial exhaust air was studied by Berhanu et al.
thickness is maximum for low Ma and low AoA. At higher Ma, the (2020). Structural stability of the suggested turbine was evaluated uti­
transition occurred far upstream [18]. At a Re of 104, the vortex shed­ lizing a finite element analysis (FEA) approach. The minimum and
ding properties of a NACA0012 profile were studied using k-ω model. maximum power output were 10 kWs and 140 kWs for the system [24].
The state of the flow changed from stationary to non-stationary as the In poor wind conditions, technologies were improvised to maximize
AoA for the involved Re increased. When the flow becomes chaotic, the wind energy use. Nonetheless, the optimal option for medium and large-
Strouhal number (St) decreases sharply [19]. scale wind turbines operating at various speeds is to improve the aero­
Recent studies made it clear that previous assumptions about the dynamic design to generate electricity at significantly higher efficiencies
flow around the wind turbine being only reliant on the Re of the flow keeping in mind multiple objectives like maximizing the aerodynamic
need more compelling proof. To comprehend the production of vortices efficiency, minimizing the aerodynamic noise, and developing struc­
and the onset of flow separation at low velocities, it is crucial to have a turally stable designs.
firm grasp on the stability of the flow, which is demonstrated by St. Both
the airfoil and the blade profile have a role in controlling the growth of Improvements to individual airfoils and blades
the vortex. A summary of main parameters to consider when designing a The aerodynamic design of an airfoil significantly impacts blade
wind turbine blade in a geographic region is provided in Fig. 2(b). airflow. The wind turbine blade is a 3D airfoil model that captures wind
energy. Blade length and design affect how much electricity a wind
Performance enhancement methods for wind energy extraction turbine can generate. Blade curvature, twist, and pitch all affect per­
devices formance and the profile of the airfoil has a direct effect. Multiple im­
provements to the airfoil and blades have been suggested over the years
Individual wind turbines to increase the wind turbine’s aerodynamic, acoustic, and structural
efficiency.
Several ways exist to improve wind turbine performance and make it Karthikeyan et al. (2015) concluded that modifying the airfoil and
a desirable tool for sustainable energy generation. Aerodynamics blade can alter the flow characteristics around it. A thinner, curved
significantly impacts wind turbine efficiency. More efficient blade de­ trailing edge on an airfoil will increase efficiency and reduce noise
signs may produce more energy and redistributing critical loads equally emissions. The flat-back airfoil improves structural strength while
may boost turbine robustness by changing airfoil and blade design. reducing the cut in speeds [25]. Depending on the flow conditions it
Aerodynamics, aero-acoustics, and structural design can improve wind encounters, each airfoil profile has a unique property. Numerous rec­
turbine performance, energy production, asset life, and environmental ommendations for modifying the airfoil surface, leading edge and
effects. Airfoil and blade shape are crucial to wind turbine performance. trailing edge have arisen from recent scientific studies which will be
discussed further.
External flow modifiers
Adding external flow augmentation devices that cause the flow to be a) Active and passive flow control methods
accelerated can increase the power production capability of wind tur­
bines. In conditions of low wind speed, researchers are developing novel Recent developments in active and passive flow control techniques
concepts by incorporating ducts and deflectors to supplement conven­ were analysed by Moghaddam and Neishabouri (2017). Active methods
tional designs. Kishore, Coudron and Priya (2013) developed a portable of flow control employ a controller, whereas passive methods do not.
turbine of 39.4 cm diameter with a Cp of 14 %. The wind speed rating Passive flow control technology uses numerous devices, as detailed in
was 2.9 m/s and introduction of a diffuser enhanced the power output the succeeding sections. It is feasible to reduce drag if the boundary layer
by 1.6 times [20]. does not thicken due to separation over an airfoil and if the pressure
The lack of wind speed in urban environments prompted researchers differential at the trailing edge is not generated [26]. VAWT blade pitch
to seek sustainable solutions. In the investigations by Chong et al. (2013) control was improved using CFD simulations. Using GA, authors found
an enclosed VAWT was installed in the cooling tower exhaust to ideal pitch curves and generalized their notion for optimal pitch man­
generate electricity. The placement of the VAWT had no negative impact agement. The optimized pitch control ensures efficient AoA and mini­
on the cooling tower system. In the case of a 5-bladed, 30 cm diameter mizes blade stall at low and high TSRs, there by increasing the average
VAWT positioned on a cooling tower, the proposed technology recov­ power [27]. Contrary to previous investigations, blade pitch angle did
ered 13 % energy consumption [21]. Fazlizan et al. (2015) investigated not significantly alter a straight bladed VAWT properties. At 6◦ pitch
important parameters for the same configuration. The optimal angle, the torque coefficient achieved its highest value [28].
arrangement considering the horizontal and vertical alignment from the Researchers suggested synthetic jet actuator control and verified the
exhaust fan was identified at 250 mm and 400 mm respectively [22]. control approach using computational models and experimental data.
The artificial source as studied by Gumilar et al. (2019) from air The best results come from a synthetic jet actuator with two orifices and
conditioner outlets successfully harnessed renewable energy. The L upward parabola control. Synthetic jet actuators increase aerodynamic
savonius rotor with 36 cm height and 18 cm radius generated a performance by decreasing flow separation [29]. Analyzing a small-
maximum of 12.95 W [23]. Installing savonius wind turbines to generate scale VAWT design with blown jet actuators at different TSRs showed

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Table 1
A review of recent researches in active flow control methods of airfoils.
Geometry Method Research strategy Parameters optimized Effect on Authors
performance

NACA0021 Pitch control 3D CFD simulation employing k-ω Shear Pitch angle No significant effect Yang et al. (2018) [28]
Stress Transport model and wind tunnel on Cp
experiments
NACA0021 Pitch control 2D CFD simulation employing Transition SST Pitch angle using real time 0.16 maximum Chen et al. (2019) [31]
model monitoring and simulation increase in Cp
NACA0021 Morphed TE 2D & 3D CFD simulation employing DDES Dynamic morphing of blades 16 % increase in Cp Baghdadi et al. (2020)
airfoil and S-S model relative to Azimuthal angle [36]
NACA0021 Synthetic jet 2D CFD simulation employing Realizable k-∊ Synthetic jet control strategy was Maximum 15.2 % Zhu et al. (2018) [29]
actuator model & experimentation optimized as an upward parabola increase in Cp
NACA0021 Boundary suction 2D CFD IDDES turbulence model, FW-H Blowing and suction locations 32.16 % maximum Liu et al. (2022) [39]
and blowing acoustics integral formulation and properties increment in Cp
NACA0021 Blowing jet 2D CFD simulation employing Realizable k-∊ Control strategy of blowing jet Maximum 77.27 % Zhu et al. (2019) [30]
actuator model increase in Cp
NACA0018 Pitch control 2D CFD simulation using LES method & Blade pitch curve Average Cp increase Li et al. (2018) [27]
Genetic Algorithm by 0.317
NACA0018 Pitch control Hybrid double-disk multiple stream-tube and Pitch angle function 78.6 % increase in Xu, Peng and Zhan
wind tunnel tests maximum Cp (2019) [32]
NACA0015 Co-flow jet 2D CFD simulation employing SST k-ω model Optimal combination of jet 170 % maximum Sun, Xu and Huang
parameters increase in Cp (2019) [33]
NACA0022 Plasma actuator 2D CFD simulation employing SST k-ω model Strategy for plasma actuation 7.2 % increase in net Ma et al. (2019) [34]
Cp
NACA0012 Morphed TE 2D CFD simulation employing SST k-ω model Morphing of TE in inward and 46.2 % increase in Leonczuk Minetto &
airfoil outward directions power output Paraschivoiu (2020) [37]
S809, NREL Boundary Layer 3D CFD simulation employing SST k-ω model Boundary layer suction of an 18.08 % increase in Wang et al. (2022) [38]
Phase VI Suction airfoil power
turbine

significant aerodynamic performance benefits [30]. Real-time VAWT sections. The optimal combination of co-flow jet parameters reported a
pitch angle feedback control system efficacy was investigated using CFD maximum of 170 % increase in Cp. In conclusion, active flow control
simulations. The mechanism increased starting performance and technologies for horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines offer a
average Cp [31]. A hybrid double-disk multiple stream-tube model and practical method for increasing the wind turbine’s output. New ad­
pitch control system found optimal blade pitch angles for a VAWT. The vancements in active flow control technology present opportunities for
ideal blade pitch function significantly boosted power. The study did not addressing issues associated with conventional wind turbines, such as
consider how turbulence affects turbine effectiveness; future research load variations, noise production, and poor performance at low wind
should investigate this problem [32]. velocities.
Sun, Xu, and Huang (2019) used CFD models to assess co-flow jet’s
ability to reduce flow separation, postpone stall, and increase lift on b) Aerodynamic improvement
VAWTs. As the jet momentum coefficient grew, co-flow jet control
effectiveness improved [33]. Researchers resorted to pulsed dielectric- The success and efficiency of wind turbines depend on the associated
barrier-discharge plasma actuation for dynamic stall control which aerodynamics. Everything about a wind turbine is intended to maximize
increased Cp and minimized flow separation. Plasma actuation between wind interaction, from blade form and location to component organi­
60◦ and 120◦ azimuth was the best dynamic stall control method [34]. zation. Wind turbine airfoils need to be optimized to harvest energy
Using a passive uniform blowing process on a Clark Y-wing, the local from the wind at low speeds. Using wind tunnel experiments and large
frictional resistance was reduced in the range 4 % to 23 %. While the BL eddy simulation (LES) at a low Re of 23000, the performance charac­
thickness increased locally in the airflow region, suction and airflow teristics of the Ishii airfoil were analysed to obtain the flow regime
influenced the overall static pressure distribution on the wing surface. design guidelines. Compared to symmetrical blades, the camber on the
The combined effect of pressure and frictional drag is an area of interest pressure side, flatness on the upper side, and shape around the LE
for enhancing the efficiency of airfoils [35]. The impacts of morphing improve low Re performance [40].
blades on pressure contours, velocity magnitude, and discharge struc­ Morphing structures, as shown in Fig. 3(b), utilize conformal struc­
ture were investigated, and it was discovered that power extraction tural deformation to change the wing shape adaptively. A series of flaps
capacity was enhanced. These results have significance for optimizing with different mean curvatures but with the same flap tip deflection and
and improving VAWTs [36,37]. surface area were used to test a NACA0012 profile. Reynolds Averaged
CFD simulations analyzed HAWT power extraction with BL suction. Navier Stokes (RANS) simulations were conducted using the OpenFOAM
The suction control modifies surface pressure differences to postpone code and the Spalart Allmaras (SA) turbulence model. The flow prop­
flow separation and stabilize the flow field [38]. Suction is delivered to erties around the hinged flap and morphed flap airfoils were investi­
the VAWT blade LE to improve flow mixing, avoid BL separation, and gated using Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) method. A curved flap
reduce LE vortices. Boundary suction and blowing from the TE were profile airfoil produced more lift than a simple flap profile [41]. Three
done simultaneously, and the pros and cons were evaluated. CFD models modifications were proposed and analysed to minimize the drag asso­
examined how boundary suction and blowing affected aerodynamic ciated with a standard airfoil: a slotted airfoil, a zigzag trailing edge, and
performance, noise reduction, and energy consumption [39]. a hybrid. At low AoA, the zigzag modification, as indicated in Fig. 3(c),
The most recent strategies used by researchers in active flow control enhanced the aerodynamic efficiency. For high angles, the slotted airfoil
are summarized in Table 1, along with the method of study and was found to be the optimal one. The hybrid alteration improved both
improvement in performance identified. Amongst the recent strategies, low and high AoA aerodynamic efficiency [42].
blowing jet actuators, pitch control devices, and co-flow jets can The k-∊ model was used to analyse the NACA0021-bladed 100 W H-
improve the power coefficient of rotor blades of different airfoil cross type VAWT. The NACA0021 airfoil was modified to the NACA0021S

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 3. Recent advances in wind turbine rotor design.

airfoil, which had a sharp TE, and wind energy utilization increased increases in height did not affect energy extraction for a NACA0012
slightly [43]. The effects of TE thickness and its morphing for a airfoil [50]. Using a 2D RANS equation, the impacts of a GF on the
NACA0012 airfoil were also studied by Jaafar et al. (2022). Using the k-ω performance of an SFYT15 thick airfoil were also explored. At an AoA of
Shear Stress Transport (SST) model, a 2-Dimensional (2D) CFD analysis 3◦ in flight, a GF with a height of 0.5 % enhanced the CL/CD ratio by 2.7
of the flow phenomenon was conducted. The CL/CD ratio increased with % [51].
the angle of inclination, with the maximum improvement ratio reaching VGs are an alternative form of passive flow control device used to
39.495 % for the inclined airfoil with θ = 15◦ [44]. Reducing the wake increase the efficiency of an airfoil under various wind speeds. Using a
behind an airfoil is primary to delaying flow separation. Airfoil surface 3D steady-state RANS simulation utilizing the SA model, multiple pa­
protuberances and roughness increase momentum diffusivity, thereby rameters of VGs are evaluated. The primary variables examined were TE
delaying flow separation. Outward dimples, inward dimples, sand grain, height (h), length (d), short distance (a), and long distance (b), as
VGs, and grooves are typical surface modifications for enhancing the illustrated in Fig. 3(f). On the blunt TE profile DU97-W-300, installing a
aerodynamic efficiency of an airfoil [45]. By implementing the RNG k-∊ VG significantly increased the lift of an airfoil, and it was concluded that
two-equation turbulence model in Ansys Fluent, the potential for although drag increased in the pre-stall region, it significantly decreased
transverse grooves to reduce drag was examined. Implementing a after the stall. Increasing the VG TE height (h) increased the lift force but
transverse groove, as illustrated in Fig. 3(d) with s = h = d = 1 mm, incurred a drag penalty. The efficiency of the airfoil decreased as VG
reduced the airfoil drag by 9.65 % [46]. length ’d’ increased [52]. Using double vortex generators increased the
Wind tunnel tests were conducted on a supercritical airfoil at Re of power output of a turbine employing S809 airfoil by 96.4 % under ideal
3.15 × 105 to examine the impact of diverging trailing edges (DTE) and conditions [53].
Gurney flaps (GF). Graphical representations of both devices are shown VGs with height to BL thickness ratios (h/δ) ranging from 1 to 0.2
in Fig. 3(e). GFs were applied to the DTE airfoil as well. When GFs were were investigated to reduce profile drag. VG with traditional height
utilized, the airfoil efficiency was enhanced as opposed to the DTE-only generated the most positive circulation and hence the drag, whereas the
case. Out of the various GF heights studied, CL increased by 29.2 % for one with h/δ of 0.2 caused the least positive circulation with the least
the case with a length of 2 % chord length, while the maximum CL/CD drag [54]. The use of VG to alter the stall features on S809 airfoil was
ratio increased by a maximum of 41.0 % [47]. It was also discovered that investigated using numerical simulation. It was discovered that posi­
increasing GF length by more than 2 % did not affect performance. By tioning single-row VGs in a chord-wise fashion is critical. With the
pushing the vortices downstream, a 2 % GF eliminated flow separation addition of a second set of VGs, the flow was ramped up, and separation
[48]. GFs can also act as stall-regulating mechanisms. The dynamic stall from the wall was averted with 57 % decrease in the hysteresis intensity
can be effectively controlled using a variable droop LE profile, but of CL [55]. A hybrid S809 airfoil modification with a LE slat and micro
compromising at least 10 % of generated lift. Three GFs with chord tab was tested for aerodynamics. Computer simulations examined drag,
heights of 1 %, 2 %, and 3 % were evaluated to compensate for the lost lift, pressure, and other critical flow parameters. Microtab decelerates
lift [49]. lower surface flow while the slat accelerates upper surface flow,
Xie et al. (2016) performed a 2D numerical analysis at a Re of 104 to increasing pressure differential and lift [56]. Recent research has
comprehend the effect of GFs of varying heights on a power-extracting demonstrated that airfoils with a serrated GF enhance aerodynamic
flapping airfoil. The maximum Cp initially increased as the GF height performance and minimize noise. They have superior lift coefficients,
increased between 0 and 0.3 times the chord length, but further stall characteristics, and noise suppression compared to the reference

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Table 2
Passive flow control methods for airfoils and wind turbine blades: a summary.
Year Component Proposed Modification Reynolds Research Method Improvement in performance Reference
number

2007 Airfoil Gurney flap 3.15 × 105 Wind tunnel experiment Max. lift to drag ratio increase by Li et al. (2007) [47]
41 %
6
2010 Drooped LE Gurney flap 0.7 × 10 Compressible dynamic stall Loss lift recovery of 10 % Chandrasekhara(2010)
airfoil –1.6 × 106 facility experiment [49]
2013 Airfoil Gurney flap with different 2.5 × 105 Wind tunnel experiment Max. lift to drag ratio increase by Daniel and Traub (2013)
aspect ratio 12 % [72]
2014 Airfoil Camber on the pressure side, 4.6 × 104 Wind tunnel experiment, 3D Maximum lift to drag ratio of Anyoji et al. (2014) [40]
flatness from max. thickness CFD simulation using LES 18.1
point to TE
2015 Airfoil Vortex generators (pair) 2 × 106 & 3 3D CFD RANS simulation using Post stall drag reduction Gao et al. (2015) [52]
× 106 Spalart Allmaras turbulence
model
2016 Airfoil Gurney flap 104 2D CFD simulation using Ansys Efficiency increase by 15 % Xie et al. (2016) [50]
CFX
5
2018 Airfoil Morphed TE 3.5 × 10 3D CFD DES using Spalart 13 % increase in CLmax for Kamliya Jawahar, Ai and
Allmaras turbulence model morphed TE profile when Azarpeyvand (2018) [41]
compared to hinged flap
2019 Airfoil Transverse grooves in suction 2.88 × 106 2D CFD RANS simulation using Drag reduction of 9.65 % Wu et al. (2019) [46]
surface RNG k-∊ turbulence model
2019 Airfoil Double row vortex generators 1 × 106 3D CFD URANS simulation Hysteresis intensity of lift is Zhu et al. (2019) [55]
using transitional SST k-ω decreased by 57 %
turbulence model
2022 Airfoil Inclined thick trailing edge 3 × 106 2D CFD RANS simulation using Max. 39.495 % increase in CL/CD Jaafar et al. (2022) [44]
SST k-ω turbulence model
2022 Airfoil LE slat and microtab 1 × 106 2D CFD RANS simulation using CL increase of 171 %, delay in Li et al. (2022) [56]
Transition SST turbulence stall
model
2023 Airfoil Slots 8.22 × 105 2D CFD RANS simulation using Max. lift to drag ratio increase by Bhavsar et al. (2023) [75]
Transition SST k-ω turbulence 116 %
model
2023 Airfoil Serrated gurney flap 1.6 × 105 3D CFD RANS simulation using Lift to drag ratio increase by Ye et al. (2023) [57]
SST k-ω turbulence model 8.61 %
2015 HAWT (NACA Slotted blade 2 × 105 – 3 × Wind tunnel experiment Max Cp of 0.4 Ibrahim et al. (2015) [67]
4412 blade) 105
2017 HAWT (NREL Split blade 3 × 105 – 106 3D CFD RANS simulation using 10.7 % increase in generated Moshfeghi, Shams and Hur
Phase VI) SST k-ω turbulence model torque (2017) [66]
6
2017 HAWT Double vortex generators 1 × 10 3D CFD RANS simulation using 96.48 % increase in power Wang et al. (2017) [53]
SST k-ω turbulence model production
2019 HAWT Wavy TE airfoil 6.66 × 105 3D CFD hybrid RANS-LES 40 % reduced drag Yang and Baeder (2019)
simulation [71]
2020 HAWT Dimples 1 × 106 3D CFD RANS simulation using Increased torque of 16.08 % Sedighi et al. (2020) [68]
SST k-ω turbulence model
5
2020 HAWT (NREL Split winglets 1.7 × 10 – 3D CFD RANS simulation using 2.53 % increase in power Sy et al. (2020) [70]
Phase VI) 3.6 × 105 standard k-∊ turbulence model generation
2021 HAWT Multi cross section blade with 1 × 106 BEM, CFD and experimental 16 % increase in Cp Muheisen et al. (2021)
fences method [69]
2023 HAWT (NREL Bent winglet 9.24 × 105 3D CFD URANS simulation Power output increased by 14.5 Zhang et al. (2023) [74]
phase VI rotor) using transitional SST k-ω %
turbulence model
2023 HAWT Vortex generators 6 × 106 3D CFD RANS simulation using Annual energy production Moon et al. (2023) [76]
SST k-ω turbulence model increased by 1.87 %
6
2023 HAWT Morphing TE 1 × 10 3D CFD RANS simulation using 600 % increase in power, 40 % Akhter et al. (2023) [77]
SST k-ω turbulence model reduction in cut in speed
2016 VAWT NACA endplate 5 × 105 2D CFD RANS simulation using 10 % increase in efficiency Gosselin, Dumas and
SST k-ω turbulence model Boudreau (2016) [58]
2019 VAWT Gurney flap 1.5 × 105 2D CFD RANS/URANS hybrid 23.1 % increase in Cp Bianchini et al. (2019)
simulation using SST k-ω [60]
turbulence model
2020 VAWT Gurney flap 1.6 × 105 2D CFD RANS simulation using 17.52 % increase in max. Cp Yan et al. (2020) [48]
SST k-ω turbulence model (calculated)
5
2020 VAWT LE Slat ̃10 2D CFD URANS simulation 15 % increase in Cp Ullah et al. (2020) [62]
using SST k-ω turbulence model
2021 VAWT Gurney flap 1.5 × 105 2D CFD RANS simulation using 21.32 % increase in Cp Zhu et al. (2021) [61]
Transition SST turbulence
model
2022 VAWT Tubercled blade 0.4–––1.2 × 3D CFD RANS simulation using 28 % increase in Cp, 20 % Sridhar et al. (2022) [64]
105 Transition SST turbulence decrease in noise
model
5
2022 VAWT Gurney flap ̃10 2D CFD Unsteady RANS/LES 41.36 to 130.94 %, increase in Cp Syawitri et al. (2022) [65]
hybrid simulation

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

airfoil [57]. design proposed by Yang and Baeder (2019) incorporated wavy varia­
Gosselin, Dumas, and Boudreau (2016) found that VAWT power tions in the flatback TE, as shown in Fig. 3(i). Wavelength and depth
extraction depends on 3D parameters: AR (AR = height/radius), blade were examined as the two primary parameters to control. The drag
configuration, endplates, and connecting arms. Circular endplates did decreased as the wavelength increased until the wavelength/chord ratio
not enhance Darrieus rotor efficiency due to profile drag, but the NACA reached 0.25; after 0.25, the drag was nearly identical to that at 0.25
endplate boosted efficiency by 10 % [58]. Further research observed wavelength/chord [71].
that a longer blade, or a higher AR, mitigated the negative impacts of the The influence of AR on GF performance was analysed using a wind
tip. The Unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier Stokes (URANS) 3D simu­ tunnel experiment. When the AR was decreased, the maximum lift co­
lation was utilized to analyze the flow. An AR less than 0.8 is not advised efficient decreased. This trend did not hold for AR less than 1.5.
for power generation at any scale for a wind turbine. For medium and Different ARs from 1 to 3 and GF heights from 1 to 4 % of the chord were
large turbines, tip losses had a greater influence than Re [59]. evaluated at constant Re of 2.5 × 105. For a given AoA, the lift gain of
GF improves the performance of a wing by increasing lift and the flap increased with AR [72]. Pourrajabian (2022) studied how
deferring stall. The ideal design for a Darrieus wind turbine culminated changing the blade profile affects the effectiveness of a 0.75 kW HAWT.
in installing a 2 % chord length GF on the inside of an airfoil. It was Genetic algorithm optimized blade geometry to reduce starting time and
discovered that these advantages are apparent at low speed conditions increase Cp. NACA4412 airfoil is suitable for windy and low wind speed
[60]. To enhance the performance of straight blade VAWT, the geo­ regions despite being less efficient than the SG6043 airfoil [73]. Zhang
metric design of GFs ranging in height from 0.5 % chord length to 1.75 % et al. (2023) studied bent winglet development for wind turbines and
chord length in intervals of 0.25 % chord length and in width from 0.04 was compared to straight and V-shaped double winglets. Bent winglets
% chord length to 0.12 % chord length was examined. The analysis with specific bending parameters increased power output of NREL Phase
considered a three-bladed rotor with NACA0018 blades for the blades VI rotor by 14.5 % [74]. Researchers investigated the effect of slots on
and NACA0021 blades for the struts. The turbine radius and half-height thick airfoils. CL/CD ratio of DU-99-W-405 airfoil increased by 116 %
were 750 mm and 1125 mm, respectively with a wing chord length of with optimal slot design [75]. Adding VGs to the blades increased the
90 mm. The modification to the airfoil increased upstream lift while annual energy production by 1.87 % [76]. Recent research revealed that
increasing drag for an azimuth angle between 90◦ and 170◦ . At the same morphing TE on the NREL Phase VI wind turbine increased the turbine
TSR, GF with a height of 0.75 % chord length and a width of 0.04 % output by 600 % and reduced its cut-in speed by 40 % [77].
chord length increased power by 21.32 % [61]. Researchers looked at Table 2 displays recent modifications for airfoils, HAWTs, and
using slats at the LE to improve VAWT efficiency in low-wind conditions. VAWTs. Modifications like GF and VG improve aerodynamic efficiency,
The slatted rotor had a higher lift, delayed stall, and power than the base but hybrid designs like a serrated gurney flap or a LE slat with a micro
rotor [62]. In another study, a synergic control of a flap and pitch tab modify flow in multiple ways. Academic research focuses on
improved the efficiency of a VAWT by 30 % and torque coefficient by improving airfoil and blade aerodynamic efficiency. Numerous re­
130 % [63]. searchers have attempted to modify these vortices by implementing tip
Tubercles on VAWT blades cause vortices that delay separation and devices such as winglets, split winglets, and bent winglets with varying
control dynamic stall. Flow separation in blade trough increased the geometries.
power coefficient by 28 % and maximal lift by 14 % [64]. The efficiency
of a VAWT was evaluated using different GF geometries. The GF ge­ c) Aero-acoustic improvement
ometry parameters were optimized using the Taguchi method, resulting
in a Cp increase of 41.36 % to 130.94 % [65]. Using a k-ω SST turbulence In addition to aerodynamic features, the noise production of a wind
model, the effect of split wings on their aerodynamic efficiency at a Re of turbine is another essential factor that must be considered while
106 was investigated. It was discovered that the aerodynamic perfor­ designing a wind turbine blade. Diverse forms of noise were identified,
mance of attached flows is highly dependent on the split point and angle including those resulting from TEs, points, inflow turbulence, sepa­
of the flow. In partially separated flows, the location of the separation rated/stalled flow, and laminar BL. Options for reducing noise include
can have either positive or adverse effects. In the case of strongly alterations to the LE, serrations on the TE, and optimized blade tip forms
separated flows, gap location became irrelevant to the performance of [78]. The TE morphing technique effectively redistributes the load
the blades [66]. After evaluating the performance of slot and tubercle across the airfoil’s surface. Using FEA, a novel morphing flap design
wind turbine blades, the tubercled blade had the lowest Cp of the three utilizing a honeycomb core with zero Poisson’s ratio and tailored
(slotted, plain, and tubercled). Due to less wake interaction, the tubercle bending stiffness was developed for a NACA 63–418 profile. Adjusting
blade was found to have superior stalling characteristics at variable the morphing profiles resulted in a noise reduction of up to 3 dB [79].
wind speeds. A model design for the slotted airfoil and tubercled blade is Using numerical simulation models URANS and DES, the aero­
illustrated in Fig. 3(g) [67]. dynamic and near-field noise generated by a turbine was analysed. The
Flow modification in a rotor blade that incorporates dimples and Ffowcs-Williams-Hawkings (FWH) analogy was used to forecast far-field
different configurations on the suction side of a HAWT blade were noise. The experimental data for NREL Phase VI turbines were used to
analysed. The optimal design for V47-660 kW HAWT was determined to validate the results. The shark tip configuration, as shown in Fig. 3(j),
be 150 dimples with a radius of 25 mm and a pitch of 200 mm in three reduced acoustic noise by 7 % while reducing power by only 3 %,
rows that increased the turbine torque by 16.08 % [68]. Along the length compared to the standard configuration [80]. The effect of 3 mm-dia
of a HAWT blade, the FX 66-S-196 V, FX 63137S, and SG6043 super­ holes linearly distributed near the TE on the acoustic properties was
critical airfoils were spaced. Wind turbines with single-section and investigated. Studies showed that the improved profile was more
multi-section blades were tested using a NACA4412 airfoil. The multi- effective at higher AoA, resulting in a 1 to 2 dB decrease in noise [81].
section blades increased the Cp by 8 %. Using fences of varying Experiments in wind tunnels using acoustic measurement instruments
heights and spanwise lengths, decreased induced drag and increased Cp investigated the noise suppression potential of self-oscillating flexible
by 16 % [69]. The influence of split winglets, as represented in Fig. 3(h) flaps on an airfoil TE. All flaplets reduce the noise level to some degree
at the blade tip of a HAWT was examined. The airfoil selected was S809, [82].
rotor was 10.06 m in diameter, and the blade chord length ranged from Researchers studied H-Darrieus VAWTs to predict and reduce aero­
0.358 m to 0.720 m (linearly tapered). On the NREL Phase VI HAWT dynamic noise. Tip vanes, especially V tip vanes, can significantly
numerical simulation was conducted. Four configurations were inves­ reduce VAWT aerodynamic noise [83]. Results showed that tubercles on
tigated: the base, the extended, the single winglet, and the split winglet. the mid-and tip-planes of a VAWT reduce noise emission. The noise was
Introducing split winglets increased power output by 2.53 % [70]. The cut by an average of 20 % in the mid-plane and 12 % in the tip-plane

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 4. Summary of recent researches on airfoil and blade modifications in wind turbines to improve aerodynamic-acoustic-structural characteristics.

[64]. The effect of LE protuberances on the noise performance of wind time, stress, and deflection of a wind turbine blade. They considered
turbine airfoils was studied. LE protuberances reduced flow separation, hollowing out the blade to decrease initial acceleration [88]. Re­
aerodynamic noise and improved performance by modifying vortex searchers optimized a wind turbine blade using genetic searching. Static
distribution and decreasing intensity at the TE [84]. Researchers assessment of a 13 m blade showed a 24 % mass reduction while
designed bionic blades inspired by owl wings, with rugged LEs and maintaining stress and deflection limitations [89].
curved, serrated TEs. Bionic blades reduced noise by 6.9 dB in inter­ A novel family of CU-W1-XX profiles was developed to improve a
mediate and high-frequencies [85]. wind turbine’s aerodynamic and structural properties. Four critical pa­
Aerodynamic noise in wind turbines is a significant impediment to rameters studied were maximum lift coefficient (CLmax), ratio between
the renewable energy industry, as it contributes to environmental noise forced and free transition lift CLratio, AoA range, and weight. Multi-
pollution and may decrease community support for wind power. The objective optimization was applied to the highest-performing airfoil
convergence of acoustics and fluid dynamics will play a crucial role in sections, including structural performance. On metrics such as the
accelerating the transition to renewable energy sources through the moment of inertia, CLmax, CL/CD ratio, and roughness insensitivity, the
optimization of wind turbine designs. CU-W1-XX blade family exhibited superior performance [90]. A novel
prediction method was developed to analyse the performance of a wind
d) Structural improvement turbine with serrations and different flap angles for two airfoils, NOR­
DEXAD030 and NACA643418. The devices did not affect the stall angle
Aerodynamic optimization of airfoils without structural consider­ in any case. For the original configuration, the effect of serrations was
ation will cause the wind turbine to fail under unfavourable load con­ quantified to within 5 % in mean loading and within 1 % in power
ditions. Structural analysis of the blades is necessary to construct and variation [91]. As shown in Fig. 3(k), TE flaps were added to control the
optimize wind turbines for efficient and dependable energy production. loads on an airfoil. It was discovered that TE flap pitch significantly
Wind turbine blades are subject to a variety of structural loads as affected the dynamic stall hysteresis loops accountable for load varia­
listed below: tion. At least 26 % and 24 %, respectively, of the cyclic variation in lift
coefficient and root bending moment were reduced by the TE flap [92].
• Steady load For the Cp of a VAWT to reach values near 0.5, the Re must be in the
• Cyclic load range of 5 × 106. It was discovered that the lower AR turbine produced a
• Transient load higher Cp at Re values around 105, indicating that the blade is struc­
• Stochastic load turally more stable [93].
• Resonance-induced loads Significant improvements have been made to the durability of wind
turbine systems, reducing maintenance costs, and extending lifespan.
Material and airfoil choice greatly affected turbine power and startup Consequently, ongoing research into airfoil structural modifications in
time. Rapid prototyping is identified for making compact blades, with wind turbine blades ensures a sustainable future for wind energy pro­
sustainable materials like flax and wood [86]. A FEA study focused on duction, enhancing our capacity to utilise this abundant, renewable
efficient power extraction, robust blade structures, and dependable energy source. A summary of recent technologies that have been pro­
launching performance. Validating the model helped optimize blade posed by various researchers to improve the aerodynamic, aero-
performance [87]. Researchers used a hybrid technique combining BEM acoustic, and structural characteristics of wind turbines are summar­
and fundamental beam theory to calculate the output power, starting ised in Fig. 4. Certain design modifications like morphing TE, TE

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 5. Bio inspired wind turbine rotor design ideas.

serrations, TE flaps and tubercled blades improve the efficiency of an significantly affected the evolution of the wake deficit and the location
airfoil and a blade in all three aspects discussed. of the peak in the velocity deficit in the case of cambered airfoils
compared to the straight TE case [100]. The shadowing effect of thicker
airfoils on the GF made wake regimes at lower AoA irregular [101]. The
Wake characteristics and performance enhancement of multiple wind effects of a NACA0012 airfoil with TE serrations on wake generation
turbines were investigated experimentally. Consideration was given to a low Re
of 78,000 with a 0◦ AoA. The modification aided in the transmission of
The effect of vortices generated in the wake of a turbine and its effect momentum, thereby diminishing the average deficit in velocity in the
on efficiency and the degrading effect on other turbines operating in the wake region [102]. For airfoils working in tandem, serrated LE airfoil
vicinity has been widely investigated recently. The wake region of a significantly decreased the velocity deficit and noise. Using sawtooth TE
wind turbine is separated into close and distant wake zones. Numerous on the front airfoil resulted in a significant overall noise reduction of up
techniques for analyzing wake characteristics include wind tunnel to 7 dB for the wide and 10 dB for the sharp sawtooth serrations [103].
testing, particle image velocimetry (PIV) testing, field testing, and CFD
simulation [94]. According to P. Zhao et al. (2021), the torque coeffi­ Biomimetic approach for efficiency enhancement of wind
cient improved by 23 % when a rhombus-shaped deflector, as depicted turbine rotor
in Fig. 3(l), was added ahead of ideally positioned vertical axis twin
turbine (located 1.2 diameters apart). Upon installing a deflector, the Biomimetics, sometimes called biomimicry, is an approach that takes
wake recovery zone moved from 4.5 diameters to 7 diameters down­ inspiration from patterns of structure available in nature to address
stream due to the oblique flow, which was detrimental to the overall technological and aesthetic challenges. A wind turbine loses approxi­
efficiency [95]. mately 60 % of its total energy through aerodynamic loss. All stall
Facilitating the mixing in crossflow and vertical directions toward control mechanisms attempt to maintain the attachment of BL [104].
the center of flow aided in the recovery of the wake [96]. Three small The conventional aerodynamic mechanism for increasing lift is delayed
wind turbines, baseline, serrated, and winglet rotors were analyzed and stall, which permits a wing to operate at high AoA without stalling. The
was determined that the tip vortices of the serrated tip rotor had higher delayed stall is a prime candidate for explaining high lift coefficients
vortex velocities than the winglet and baseline rotors [97]. Studies [105].
concluded that the co-rotating twin rotor configuration is the least Historically, aircraft wings with spiroid wingtips have been
desirable. The forward configuration with counterrotating propellers employed to lessen the drag caused by lift. Up to 75 % less drag was seen
produced superior wake interaction, mitigating the degradation effects at a CL of 0.95 when spiroid winglets shown in Fig. 5(a) were imple­
[98]. Wind turbines upstream generate high-velocity zones on the mented. There is a problem with the increased parasitic drag caused by
windward and leeward sides of the wake. Formulating an optimal the winglet, and this must be fixed [106]. The dryobalanops aromatica
configuration within the high velocity zone increased the efficiency of seed, as in Fig. 5(b), inspired the design of a HAWT blade. Suggested
downstream turbines by 22.89 % [99]. turbine was found to have a maximum Cp of 0.386 and superior self-
The flow field results on an airfoil indicated that serrations

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 6. Recap of recent biomimetic modifications adopted by researchers to improve wind turbine blade characteristics.

starting ability compared to an existing turbine model by Lund and The tip vortex structures of five bionic multi-tip winglets inspired by
Krogstad (2012) [107]. The optimization used pitch and cone angles as bird wings were evaluated at a Re of 83166. The tip vortex was effec­
parameters [108]. tively suppressed by increasing the distribution density of the winglets.
At a transient Re regime, the impact of a tubercle LE airfoil was The greatest ratio of induced drag to total drag was 25.54 % [119].
investigated. The flow parameters in the range (1.2 × 105–5 × 105) were Blade designs with spanwise corrugations inspired by dragonflies, as
inherently highly variable. Investigations revealed that the redesigned in Fig. 5(f), and the shape-shifting of bird wings were adopted by Mul­
airfoil delivered much more stable performance than the original airfoil ligan (2020). Corrugated skin airfoils (both surfaces) experienced a 7.3
[109]. A basic blade design was fixed as the control blade, and a flex % lower peak CL/CD ratio than smooth airfoils at Re ranging from 4 ×
blade was designed to improve performance at Re values between 0.485 104 to 5.2 × 104 [120]. The graphical representation of serrations on the
and 3.184 × 105. The robustness index of the blade, enhanced by 8.1 % LE inspired by owls is shown in Fig. 5(g). The lift characteristics of the
[110]. Due to its characteristics, the skimmer bird is an excellent serrated device surpassed the regular one at 15◦ AoA and Re>=4x104
candidate for research. The characteristic structure of beaks allows them [121]. For an upstream velocity range of 4 to 14 m/s, the power and
to reduce drag [111]. torque coefficients of a HAWT inspired by the Petrea Volubilis seed were
Research using bio-inspired wingtip devices, as portrayed in Fig. 5(c) evaluated, as demonstrated in Fig. 5(h). At a pitch angle of 10◦ , the
with varied wingtip gap widths, was done at a low Re of 105. The pre- current rotor generated 7.42 % greater Cp than the dryobalanops aro­
stall area of a planar wing with a 20 % gap showed a mean CL in­ matic rotor [122]. Comparing the design to a typical NACA2412 airfoil,
crease of 7.25 % and a maximum CL increase of 5.6 % to the wing tip computational and experimental studies revealed that Nelumbo nucifera
without a gap. The pattern was also seen in the non-planar arrangement lotus-inspired design generated 31.8 % more power than the reference
[112]. A redesigned wing with humpback whale LE tubercle was model at a Re of 2.60 × 105 [123].
compared to a standard wing investigated by Miklosovic et al. (2004) at A novel bionic airfoil inspired by the head of the photoanodes dalli
a Re value of 1.8 × 105 [113]. The tubercles delayed stall by 7◦ and dolphin, the structure of which is illustrated in Fig. 5(i), was integrated
raised maximum CL by 22 % [114]. A study on the effect of sinusoidal into a NACA0018 airfoil, and its aerodynamic properties were evalu­
tubercles on the LE of an NREL Phase VI turbine at wind speeds of ated. At a Re of 1.6 × 105 and an inflow angle of 16◦ , the lift coefficient
around 10 m/s revealed that turbine performance was poor in com­ rose 21.1 %, and the drag coefficient fell 29.8 % compared to the
parison to the standard model [115]. NACA0018 airfoil [124]. The research conducted by M. Zhao et al.
A wing inspired by the biological alula, annotated in Fig. 5(d), the LE (2021) addressed a strategy for optimizing TEs with serrations as
alula-inspired device boosted the capacity of the wing to sustain more rendered in Fig. 5(j). Ideal serrated airfoil reduced noise more effectively
significant pressure gradients by changing the near-wall flow. The sug­ at low to medium frequencies. Within frequencies ranging from 200 Hz
gested adjustment delayed flow separation by creating tip vortices to 2000 Hz, around 3 dB of noise reduction was realized [125]. At a Re of
[116]. A modification of hydrofoils mimicking the abdomen anatomy of 5 × 105, the NACA4415 airfoil is compared to tubercled airfoils. Two
the mantis shrimp to improve their drag characteristics was addressed variants of tubercles were then used to design turbine blades. The results
and was determined that the highest rate of drag reduction was 15.33 % demonstrated that the Cp of the two modified turbines improved
[117]. A whale pectoral fin has a structure, as in Fig. 5(e). The rede­ considerably in the lower TSR range [126]. A biomimetic wind turbine
signed blades enhanced the average Cp by 17.67 % at a pitch 5◦ [118]. rotor based on the structure and behavior of maple samaras, as

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

visualized in Fig. 5(k), was designed to enhance the performance and Optimization methods
testing found that the highest possible Cp was 28.4 %. Also, the cut in
speed was determined to be the lowest [127]. Optimization techniques are gaining popularity in wind turbine
A recap of recent biomimetic modifications discussed in the above research because they enable the design, operation, and maintenance of
section are encapsulated in Fig. 6. With the right biomimetic approach, wind turbines to be efficient and cost-effective. Optimization techniques
wind turbines might be made far more effective and efficient. Through can significantly enhance the performance and efficiency of wind energy
imitating natural phenomena, such as the aerodynamic qualities of bird systems, contributing to the expansion of the renewable energy sector.
wings or a plant, engineers can create wind turbine blades that are more Using multi-parameter optimization, the effect of multi-winglets on
efficient and durable. the aerodynamic optimization of an aircraft wing is considered and
optimized by Reddy et al. (2015). A multidisciplinary, multi-objective
Recap of numerical and optimization techniques in wind turbine optimization is necessary to combine the aerodynamic and structural
research evaluations [134]. The optimal airfoil shape generates high lift and low
drag. In the study by Anitha et al. (2018) GA and particle swarm opti­
Numerical methods misation (PSO) techniques were used to optimise the NACA4412 airfoil
shape [135]. Using the aerodynamic design optimization discussion
Using numerical approaches to study wind turbines has considerably group NACA0012 and RAE2822 optimization cases, methods for
improved the discipline, generated vital insights, and fostered innova­ addressing robustness issues in airfoil aerodynamic shape optimization
tion. Analysis of the impact of blade profile and solidity on the perfor­ were studied and compared. To test the robustness of the optimization
mance of an H-Darrieus VAWT is frequently conducted utilizing 3D CFD method, a new circle-based aerodynamic shape optimization case can be
analysis. At higher TSRs, 2D CFD models tend to overestimate perfor­ used [136]. Masdari et al. (2019) developed a discrete vortex method for
mance. The 3D nature of the wind turbine vortex is not considered in a calculating the power coefficient, a class shape transfer code for
2D analysis [128]. Stream tube models can be used to evaluate the generating the airfoil’s coordinates, and a salp swarm algorithm (SSA)
performance of VAWTs at TSR as low as 4. Between 0.25 and 0.5 is the code for optimization through which the Cp increased by 27 % [137]. As
optimal solidity range for H-Darrieus straight-blade turbines. DU-06-W- a remedy for the LE problem in airfoil optimization, a data-driven
200 and NACA0012H were the most suitable profiles for low-speed strategy was implemented by J. Li, He and Martins (2019). Engineer­
applications [129]. A low-speed airfoil riblet drag reduction study uti­ ing knowledge was transformed into a continuously differentiable
lized an implicit LES analysis. The developed method was then applied function using a Gaussian mixture model. In contrast to the conventional
to install a riblet film on a low-speed Eppler E374 airfoil. A channel flow approach of explicitly constraining geometry, the data-driven constraint
was used to validate the numerical method, which was then compared to approach improved off-design low-speed performance without
previously published direct numerical simulation data [130]. compromising optimization gains at on-design transonic travel points
The S809 airfoil profile was designed specifically for small and me­ [138].
dium HAWT. At relatively low Re ranging from 1.2 × 105 to 106, a 2D X. Li et al. (2020) employed the overall design optimization algo­
URANS simulation was conducted to determine the optimal turbulence rithm to optimise the performance of an airfoil for low-speed conditions
model among the transition SST, k-ω SST, and SA models. At high Re by considering aerodynamic, geometric, and acoustic noise parameters.
flows, one (SA) and two (k-ω SST) equation models can be used to reduce The archive-based micro genetic algorithm enhanced the performance
computational cost and time. The transient SST model accurately pre­ of the profile under the specified conditions [139]. Khalil et al. (2020)
dicted stall behaviour [131]. A static airfoil was analysed using the used a design code established explicitly for a small wind turbine rotor
RANS SST turbulence model in 2D and the LES model in 3D for a wide to develop a preliminary design for an 11 kW wind turbine. Utilizing the
range of Re and AoA. Comparison with previous experimental data optimized FX63-137 profile, the Cp increased to 0.42 from 0.4 [140].
confirmed that the LES model was more accurate. The rapid change in Researchers proposed a multi-objective optimization to improve the
AoA causes the RANS models to capture the vortex inefficiently [132]. A characteristics of airfoils using the Bezier curve to perform multi-
new blade profile with a fixed TE flap (S809 blade) was designed for a parameter optimization on the E387 airfoil, with the increase and
10-kW turbine with a 5 m blade length and analysed with the QBlade dispersion of CL/CD chosen as objective functions. For the optimized
software, which solved the BEM equations iteratively. These results profile, the performance at small AoA and stall conditions was signifi­
were also used to validate the performed CFD flow analysis. The CFD cantly enhanced [141].
model overestimated the performance coefficient by 14 % [133]. Using approaches such as numerical optimization, artificial intelli­
The flow conditions around an airfoil and a wind turbine blade have gence, and multi-objective optimization, the best design and operation
been analysed using various numerical techniques by researchers over of wind turbines can be determined. Nevertheless, the complexity and
the years, as listed in Table 1 and Table 2. RANS, LES, and DES are unpredictability of the wind energy system need the con­
commonly used in numerical research of airfoils and wind turbine tinuous development and use of these strategies.
blades. DES combines RANS and LES techniques to simulate flow around
solid obstacles. It is computationally efficient like RANS for attached Conclusions and recommendations
flow but behaves like LES for separated flow with large eddies. RANS
turbulence models decompose flow into mean and fluctuating compo­ Researchers have long been interested in boosting wind turbine
nents. The k-∊ model is accurate for attached flows, while the k-ω model performance under various adverse operating situations. Flow separa­
is better for separated flows. Transition models are used for partially tion, trailing edge-leading edge vortices, and blade tip losses are detri­
turbulent or laminar flows, typical for low-speed wind turbine flows. mental to the effectiveness of a wind turbine rotor. When constructing
Time dependence is vital in modelling turbulent flows. Numerical sim­ and deploying a flow-modifying device for a wind turbine blade,
ulations must accurately capture time dependence when analysing flow extreme attention must be taken. Each part of the airfoil and the blade
around an airfoil or wind turbine blade. Researchers can analyse the may be adjusted to improve a wind turbine’s aerodynamic, acoustic, and
significance of many aspects of wind turbine performance, such as airfoil structural aspects.
and blade shape, wind speed, and atmospheric conditions, using various The findings from recently reviewed literature that might contribute
numerical techniques. By continuing to improve and develop numerical to further wind turbine development are summarized as follows:
techniques for wind turbine research, the flow phenomena may be
predicted with greater precision. • For low-speed wind turbines, the Reynolds and Strouhal numbers are
critical dimensionless numbers to be considered. For small-scale

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

Fig. 7. Design strategy for wind turbine rotor at low wind speeds.

wind turbines operating under low wind velocities, augmentation • Various techniques, including Genetic Algorithm, Particle Swarm
devices can improve the power output of a wind turbine. Optimization, and Salp Swarm Algorithm, may be utilized to opti­
• Active and passive flow control devices can improve the power co­ mize the performance of airfoils and wind turbine blades. Enhancing
efficient of vertical and horizontal axis wind turbines by modifying the robustness of the optimization method is a crucial condition for
the flow separation and vortices around the blade. When designing a all prevalent procedures.
wind turbine blade, the main objective is to improve the power
production capability and stay within acceptable structural and aero Considering all the phenomena deteriorating the performance of
acoustic loads to avoid material failure and ensure acceptance from low-speed wind turbines, the authors suggest a general design strategy,
the community. as shown in Fig. 7. Future research and development may build off this.
• Modifications like morphed trailing edge, trailing edge serrations, The recommendation aids researchers in finding the best solutions for
and tubercled blades effectively control the wind turbine blade’s various operating environments to which wind turbines are exposed and
essential aspects: aerodynamic, aero-acoustic, and structural. Hybrid developing optimal models.
modifications to an airfoil can be an exciting area for further research
to improve the performance of a wind turbine. Declaration of Competing Interest
• The trailing edge influences the characteristics of flow in the wake
region. While installing wind turbines in a farm, wake effects from The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
several wind turbines in proximity must be considered. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
• In wind turbine development research, biomimetics is considered the work reported in this paper.
revolutionary owing to its capacity to adapt blades to unfavourable
flow conditions. Distribution density and nonplanarity of the devices Data availability
help to control flow separation on the blade efficiently.
• At high Reynolds number flows, one (Spalart Allmaras) and two (k-ω No data was used for the research described in the article.
shear stress transport) equation turbulence models may be used to
decrease computational cost and time. At relatively low Reynolds
number flows, unsteady simulation can give better results.

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A. Krishnan et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 60 (2023) 103511

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