Capt.

Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

1. The earth
SPHERE A three-dimensional closed surface such that all point on the surface is equidistant from a
given fixed point, known as Center.

• The radius or diameter of sphere is constant.

• The earth is not a true sphere but an oblate spheroid.

• There is two axis one is polar axis and another is equatorial axis,

This spheroid rotates about its smaller (miner) i.e. polar axis.

SHAPE OF THE EARTH

• The earth is not a perfect sphere; there is a slight bulge at the Equator and a flattening at the
Poles.

• The polar diameter is 6860.5 nm which is 23.2 nm shorter than the average equatorial
diameter of 6883.7 nm.

• This gives a compression ratio of 1/297 which for all practical purposes can be ignored.

• Cartographers and Inertial Navigation systems (INS) will take the true shape of the earth for
navigation.

Equatorial diameter of earth is = 6883.7 NM

Polar diameter of earth is = 6860.5 NM

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Compression is = E.D-P.D = 23.2 NM

Compression Ratio = (equatorial diameter – polar diameter)/equatorial diameter

(6883.7-6860.5)/6883.7 =1/297 ≈ 1/300

If we have 300 inch of equatorial diameter then we have polar diameter 299 inch. There is
flattening at the pole of the earth, this flattening is called Compression. Due to this the
polar diameter is shorter than equatorial diameter, hence the earth rotates the smaller axis
(polar axis) therefore the shape of the earth is Oblate Spheroid, Elliptical or Geoid.

For navigation and mapping purposes, World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) is the current ICAO standard THE
POLES

The two opposite points on the earth's surface through which its smaller axis passes those two points
are called North Pole and South Pole.

The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole and The South Pole, also
known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole

EAST AND WEST

East is the direction toward which the Earth rotates about its axis. This direction is Anti-Clockwise to
a person if looking down on the North Pole from above. The direction opposite to East is called west. If
looking earth upon south pole its appears to rotate in Clock wise.

NORTH POLE AND SOUTH POLE

The North Pole is the pole which lies to the left of an observer facing East and the pole lies to the right
of observer called South Pole.

At the North Pole, all directions are South at the South Pole all directions are North. If you are facing a
rising sun it means left of you is north and right is south.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

CARDINAL POINT

The directions North, East, South, and West are known as the Cardinal point. And these directions are
called cardinal direction.

QUADRANTAL POINT

NE, NW, SE, SW is Quadrantal Point.

CIRCLES ON THE EARTH

GREAT CIRCLE

A largest possible circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are same as those of the
earth is called great circle.

PRPPERTIES OF GREAT CIRCLE

1. It divided the earth into two equal halves.

2. The smaller arc of a great circle joining two places represents the shortest distance between
them.

3. Its plane passes to the center of the earth.

4. Only one great circle can be drown through two points which are not diametrically opposite to
each other (antipodal).

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

5. Infinite number of great circles can be drowning through two points which are diametrically
opposite. For example - The North Pole and the South Pole, an infinite number of great circles
may be drawn. Radio signal follow great circle path.

A Great Circle, also known as an Orthodrome or Riemannian circle. For all practical purpose

1’(minutes) of great circle arc equals 1 NM.

SMALL CIRCLES

It is a circle on the earth the surface of the earth whose center and radius are not the same as that of
earth.

The distance round the small circle is less then distance round of GC of 360°×60=21600nm. (1
Degree = 60 minutes)

VERTEX OF A GREAT CIRCLE

The vertices of a great circle are the most northerly and southerly points on that great circle. The
points are called antipodal; the vertices are diametrically opposed.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

The distance between the points is 10 800 nm (180°×60)

Antipodal point of a point on the surface of a sphere is the point which is diametrically opposite to it
so situated that a line drawn from the one to the other passes through the center of the sphere and
forms a true diameter. At the vertex the direction of the great circle is 090° - 270°.

Example 1: If the most northerly point is 73°N 020°W, what is its most southerly point? Answer:
73°S 160°E

Example 2: Where the vertex is 73°N 020°W, the great circle cuts the Equator at which longitudes?
Answer: 110°W, 070°E
THE EQUATOR

Equator is a great circle whose plane is at 90° to the axis of rotation of the earth (the polar axis) is
called equator.

It lies in an east-west direction and it divided the earth equally into two hemispheres. The
north of the Equator is the Northern Hemisphere and to the south, the Southern Hemisphere. The
distance from the Equator to the North Pole is the same as the distance from the Equator to the South
Pole.

Equator is the datum for defining Latitude.

MERIDIANS

Meridians are semi-great circles joining the north and south poles.

All meridians indicate True North-South direction. Every great circle passing through the
poles forms a meridians and it’s Anti-meridian (not visible by observer from opposite side). The
meridians cross the equator at 90°. Two places located on same meridian lies in N/S direction to each
other.

The meridian through Greenwich, England, also called the Prime Meridian. The prime is the datum
for defining Longitude.

PARALLELS OF LATITUDE

The parallels of latitude are small circle on the surface of the earth whose planes are parallel to the
Equator. They lie in an East-West direction and indicate position North or South of the equator. It cut
all meridians at right angle.

GRATICULE

The network of the prime meridian, the meridians, the equator and the parallel of latitude formed on a
map or the surface of a globe is called Graticule.

DESCRIBING POSITION ON THE EARTH

There are many method of describing position used in aviation.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

1. By place name Eg.-Patna, Subic bay international airport

2. By ICAO and IATA location codes, Eg- for Delhi, DEL(IATA) and VIDP(ICAO)

3. Bearing and distance Eg-10 nm on track 090 degree.

4. Latitude and longitude

LATITUDE

The latitude of any place is the Arc measured along the meridians through the place from the Equator.

In other words “it is a angular distance along meridian taking datum as Equator. They are measured in
degree, minutes and second E.g.- 0° to 90°N and 0° to 90°S Of Equator. As 40°66’N, 63°69'S

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

S
GEOGRAPHIC OR GEODETIC LATITUDE

Geographic latitude is the angle between the normal to the observer’s horizontal plane and the
equatorial plane.

GEOCENTRIC LATITUDE

Geocentric latitude is the angle between the lines joining the observer to the geometer of the earth.

1. The geographical latitude will always exceed the geographical latitude.

2. There is no difference between them at the equator and at the pole.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

3. The maximum difference between geocentric and Geodetic Latitudes occurs at 45° N/S
and is about 11.6 minutes of arc.

4. Because of the oblate shape earth length of nautical mile varies from 1843 meter at
equator and 1862 meter at pole and is about correct at 45° latitude where it is 1853
meter.

5. The ICAO standers one nautical mile is 1852 meters.

6. The distance travelled when flying up or down a meridian will be the difference of
geographical latitude and so the maximum error will occur.

NAUTICAL MILE

The nautical mile is a length of arc of a Great Circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the
center of curvature of the Earth’s surface.

1. The ICAO definition of nautical mile is that it is a measure of distance of 1852 meters.

2. Nautical mile is longer at the pole at about 6108 ft.

3. Nautical mile is shortest at the Equator at 6046ft.the average value is 6076.1ft, is

known as the international Nautical mile which equates to approximately 1852 meter.

4. For navigation calculation one nautical mile is 6080ft.

5. One minutes of latitude = 1NM, one degree of latitude = 60minutes = 60NM but one
minutes of longitude = 1NM at equator only.

6. The average distance between the equator and pole is 90°×60= 5400nm

7. The circumference of the earth at equator is 360°× 60=21,600nm.

8. The length of a nautical mile increase with altitude.

Center of curvature

Earth surface

1 minutes distance 1852m

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

KILOMETER

The length of 1/10 000 of the average distance between the Equator and a pole.

1 km=1000 m= 3280 ft

STATUTE MILE(SM)

Statute mile is fixed by law. The length of statute mile is fixed by British law (Queen Elizabeth). It
length is 5280ft.

Note-runway lengths and visibility ICAO recommended the use of meter.

CHANGE OF LATITUDE (CH. LAT)

Ch Lat is the shortest arc along a meridian between two parallels of latitude. It is expressed in degrees
and minutes.

Example. Point A is 20°30’N and point B is 41°30’N. If an aircraft is Travelling from A to B, what is the
Ch Lat?

Solve
41°30’ – 20°30’ = 21°

Note the direction of the change. In this case, the aircraft is travelling north so the Ch Lat is: 21°N
We can calculate D.LAT (distance in latitude) = 21°×60=1260nm.

Example. Point A is 20°30’N and point B is 41°30’S. If an aircraft is travelling from A to B, what is the
Ch Lat?

Solve

41°30’ + 20°30’ = 62°

Note the direction of the change. In this case, the aircraft is travelling south so the Ch Lat is:62°S

Example. Calculate the Mean lat for the positions 65°N and 25°N.

Add the two values of latitude: 65 + 25 = 90

Then divided by 2 = 90 ÷ 2 = 45 = 45°N

LONGITUDE

Longitude is the shorter arc of the equator intercepted between the prim meridian and the meridian
passing through the place.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

It is measured from prim meridian in degree 0° to 180° E/W of prim meridian. Longitude distance is
angular distance along the equator.

PRIM MERIDIAN The meridian passing through Greenwich is called prim meridian. It is 0° meridian
or datum meridian from which we measure the longitude

The point lies east or west of the Prime Meridian. Longitude cannot be greater than 180°W or 180°E.
These two longitudes are coincident, and the meridian is referred to as the Greenwich Anti-Meridian.

Example 165°35’W or 165°35’E

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

RHUMB LINE

A Rhumb line is a regular curved line on the surface of the earth witch cut all meridians at the same
angle. It has constant in direction. It is also called Loxodrome.

PROPERTIES OF RHUMB LINE

1. Only one Rhumb line can be drawn through two points on the Earth’s surface.

2. Rhumb line cut all meridians at equal angle that’s why they have constant in direction, for
making equal angle with meridian they continuously curved.

3. Rhumb line is always greater then great circle distant but in the case of meridian and equator
the distance of great circle and Rhumb line is same.

4. Rhumb line is concave towards the pole.

5. Rhumb line is straight line on Mercator chart and curved on any other chart.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

6. All meridian and parallel of latitude and equator are Rhumb line because they have constant in
direction.

7. Normally , flight of less than 1000 nm fly Rhumb line track, flights of a longer distance follow
the Great-Circle track

8. A Rhumb line always spirals toward one of the poles, unless its direction is true east, west,
north, or south.
9.
10. Rhumb line is also called an equiangular spiral, loxodrome, loxodromic curve, or Mercator
track.

In above diagram shows that Rhumb line cut all meridians as equal angle that’s β and on other diagram
Rhumb line has greater distance then great circle distance.

Concave to the pole and spiral towards the pole.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

PROPERTIES OF EQUATOR

1. Equator is a largest circle on the surface of the earth that’s mean it is a great circle, and it has
East and West direction that’s mean it is Rhumb line too.

2. Equator cuts the earth in two hemispheres that is N/H and S/H.

3. If we fly east direction then all time we have only one direction that is east (090°) and for
west direction only west (270°) direction.

4. Equator is a datum plane to measurement of latitude. It is 0° latitude

PROPERTIES OF MERIDIANS

1. Meridian are semi-Great circle, and its anti-meridian combined make a Great circle.

2. Meridian converges to the either poles, that’s why Rhumb line continuously curve to make a
equal angle with meridians.

3. Meridians cut all parallel of latitude and equator at 90°. That’s why all parallel

4. Plane situated on the same meridians are north-south to each other

5. Meridians are parallel at equator.

6. Any two places on a same meridian having same U.T.C and L.M.T.

7. Time difference between meridians and its anti-meridian is 12 hrs and its angular difference is
180 °.

PROPERTIES OF PAPALLEL OF LATITUDE

1. They are small circle and they are constant in direction that is 90° or 270°.

2. Place situated on the same parallel of latitude are East-West direction to each other

3. All parallel of latitude cuts the meridians are the same angle 90°.

4. Two places situated on same parallel of latitude at different point having different U.T.C and
L.M.T.

5. All parallel of latitude are Rhumb line.

CHANGE OF LONGITUDE (CH LONG), (DLONG)

The difference between two meridians is called Ch Long or difference in longitude. The value of Ch
long never exceeds 180°.The suffixes E and W are used in regard to the direction of travel.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Example Calculate the Ch Long between position A 165°W and position B 103°W. Assume that the
aircraft is flying from A to B.

Solve

165 – 103 = 62°E (Remember anti-clockwise measurement is east and clock-wise west)

Example Calculate the Ch Long between position A 165°W and position B 170°E. Assume that the
aircraft is flying from A to B.

Solve

It is obvious the shortest distance between the two points is by crossing the 180° meridian. The

difference between 165° and 180° is 15°.

The difference between 170° and 180° is 10°.

The Ch Long is therefore 25°W because the movement is clockwise.

Figure-A

The difference between longitude A and longitude B is arc AB. If aircraft fly from A to B then
easterly (E) suffix. If aircraft fly from B to A then westerly (W) suffix.

Figure-B

The difference between longitude A and longitude B is arc AB (GB+GA). If aircraft fly from A
to B then easterly (E) suffix. If aircraft fly from B to A then westerly (W) suffix.

POSITION USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Position on the Earth is always expressed as latitude first, then longitude. The lines that form the
parallels of latitude and the meridians are called the Graticule. By using the Graticule, any position on
the Earth can be determined.

Latitude is written in four figure of group and longitude is written in four and five figure of
group. The position of Delhi airport written as 28°34’N and 77°07’E.

ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

• Angles are expressed in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds.

• A degree (symbolized by °) is the angle subtended by an arc equal to 1/360 part of the
circumference of a circle.

• Each degree is split into 60 minutes (symbolized by ‘)

• Each minute is split into 60 seconds (symbolized by ‘’)

Example 010°32’24”

In navigation:

North is 000°, East is 090°, South is 180°, West is 270°

Where a direction is given, use three figures, e.g. 90° is reported as 090°. Angles are
always Measured in a Clockwise direction from North.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

2.DISTANCE
CONVERSION FACTORS

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

® 41 NM = 76KM ® Imp.Gal × S.G ×10 = lbs

41 SM = 66KM ® Liter × S.G = kg
66 NM = 76SM= 122KM ® Imp.Gal × 1.2 = US Galloon
® 100 liter = 22 Imp.Gal = 26.4 US gal
® 1 NM = 1.85KM
1 SM = 1.61KM (S.G-Specific Gravity)
1 NM = 1.15SM

® 1 NM = 6080ft 1 SM =
5280ft
1 KM = 3280ft

®1 KM = 1000Meter
1 feet = 12 inch
1 kg = 2.22lbs (pound)
1 Pound = 453gram

® 1 Inch = 2.54
300 m = 1000feet
1m = 3.3 feet
30 m = 100feet
1 Fathum = 6feet=2 yard

® 1 Imperial gallon = 1.2 U.S

gallon
1 Imperial gallon = 4.54 liter
1 U.S gallon = 3.7 liter

® 24 hrs = 360° long.

1 hr = 15° long. 1
Minute = 15’ long
1 second = 15’’ long

GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE

The great circle distance between two point on the Earth can be calculated some method.

Note- spherical geometry is not required in DGCA examination.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Method 1.

Both positions in the same hemisphere — What is the shortest Distance between A (64°35’N
010°00’W) and B (53°15’N 010°00’W)?

Solve

If the points are on the same meridian, calculate the

D Lat: 64°35’ – 53°15’ = 11°20’ = 680’
Using the definition of the nautical mile, 1 minute of arc is
Equivalent to 1 nm: 680’ is equal to 680 nm.

Method 2.

Both positions in different hemispheres — What is the shortest distance between A (64°35’N
010°00’W) and B (53°15’S 010°00’W)?

Solve

If the points are on the same meridian, calculate the D Lat:64°35’ + 53°15’ = 117°50’ = 7070’. Using
the definition of the nautical mile, 1’ is equivalent to 1 nm: 7070’ is equal to 7070 nm.

Method 3.

Both positions on the meridian and anti-meridian in the same

Hemisphere — What is the shortest distance between A (64°35’N 010°00’W) and B (53°15’N
170°00’E)?

If both positions are in the same hemisphere, the shortest distance of travel is over the North Pole.

Solve

Find the distance to travel from A to the North Pole and from B to the North Pole.
A: 90° – 64°35’ = 25°25’= 1525’ = 1525 nm
B: 90° – 53°15’ = 36°45’ = 2205’ = 2205 nm
The total distance = 1525+2205 = 3730 nm

Method 4.

Both positions on the meridian and anti-meridian in different

Hemispheres — What is the shortest distance between A (64°35’N 010°00’W) and
B (53°15’S 170°00’E)?

Solve
If travel was by the North Pole, the approximate distance would Be:
90° – 64°35’ = 25°25’ = 1525 nm total distance = 1525+8595 =10120 nm 90° +
53°15’ = 143°15’ = 8595 nm

If the calculation had been done using the South Pole:

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

90° + 64°35’ = 154°35’

90° - 53°15’ = 36°45’
Total = 191°20’ which is great than via north pole so the shortest path of great circle will be via north
pole that is 10120 nm.

Method 5.

Two points on the Equator — What is the great circle distance between? A (00°00’N/S 012°00’W)
and B (00°00’N/S 012°00’E)?

Solve

Calculate D Long between A and B.

A to the Prime Meridian is 12°
B to the Prime Meridian is 12°
Total 24° = 1440’ = 1440 nm

DEPARTURE

• Departure is a distance between two meridians along a parallel of latitude in east-west

direction.

• Departure is express in Nautical mile (nm). At equator the distance between two meridians is
maximum and at the pole the distance between two meridians is zero.

• Therefore, the distance between meridians is reducing at the rate of Cos of latitude.

• Because the meridians converge, the distance between them decreases with increasing
distance From the Equator.

• The formula can also be express of D Long: Departure = D Long Cos Lat. Where D long will
be in minutes.

Example. Calculate the distance between two meridians that are 10° apart at latitude 60°N

Solve
D Long = 10 x 60 = 600’ (in minutes)
Formula: Departure = D Long Cos Lat, 600 Cos 60 = 600 x 0.5 = 300 nm.

Example. What is the distance between 00500W and 01000E at latitude of 35°S?

Solve
D Long = 15 x 60 = 900’, 900 Cos 35 = 900 x .819 = 737 nm.

Example. The distance between 01000W and 00500W is 200 nm. What is the latitude?

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Solve
Departure = D Long x Cos Lat
Cos Lat = Departure / D Long
Cos Lat = 200 /300
Inverse Cos 0.66 = 48.2, Latitude 48.2°

Example. Starting at position 5000N 00000E/W, an aircraft flies due west for 1000 nm. What is the
final position?
Solve
D Long = Departure / Cos Lat
1000/Cos 50 = 1000/.642 = 1557.6’
25°57.6’ Ch Long
Final Position 50°00’N 025°57.6’W
The distance along a parallel of latitude, represent a Rhumb line distance.
If the aircraft fly on Rhumb line track on same parallel of latitude that is fly towards west then Rhumb
line bearing will be 270° and if fly towards east then 090°.

3. DIRECTIOn
DIRECTION

Direction are measured in navigation in degree clock wise from 0° to 360° from a fix datum that
datum is called north.
The angular position of a point with respect to a fixed datum is called direction.

THERE ARE FOUR DATUM NORTH

1. True north
2. Magnetic north
3. Compass north
4. Grid north

TRUE NORTH

True north (geodetic north) is the direction along the earth's surface towards the geographic North
Pole.

All direction which is measured clockwise from true north as a datum is called true direction.
NOTE- directions are always given as a 3-figure of group, so true north would be written 000° (T).
Symbol for true north is a diamond. The true north always aligned with local meridian.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

In above diagram the aircraft heading is 070 degree measuring from true north to longitudinal axis of
the aircraft.

We can see in above diagram that both aircraft heading 040 degree and 320 measures from a fixed
datum that is true north.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

In this figure we take true north as a local meridian that meridian aliened with the North Pole (000T ).

MAGNETIC NORTH

When a magnetic needle is suspended freely influenced only by earth magnetic field, it will indicate
towards magnetic north. The direction indicated by this freely suspended needle is called magnetic
north.

All direction measured clockwise with magnetic north as a datum is called magnetic direction.
Magnetic north is indicated by (M) or by single triangle.

1. The Earth’s magnetic field acts as if there are two magnetic poles.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

2. These magnetic poles are not co-located with the North and South Geographic poles.

3. They move annually. The magnetic North Pole and the geographic North Pole are
separated by approximately 900 nm.

4. The magnetic North Pole rotates around the True North Pole approximately every 960
years.

VARIATION

Variation is the angular difference between magnetic north and true north at any given point.

Variation is measured in degrees with the suffix W (west) (-) or E (east) (+).we take datum as true
north. If magnetic north is east of true north then variation is east. If magnetic is west of true north
then it is called west variation.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

REMEMBER
VARIATION EAST MAGNETIC LEAST
VARIATION WEST MAGNETIC BEST

TRUE DIRECTION = MAGNETIC DIRECTION+VARIATION EAST

TRUE DIRECTION = MAGNETIC DIRECTION-VARIATION WEST

NOTE- The maximum value of variation cannot exceed 180°.

Example if magnetic heading is 50° and variation is 5°E, find true heading?

Solve
T.D=50+5=55°

Example If the aircraft is heading 130°T and the variation is 15°E, what is the Magnetic
heading?

Solve
True Heading - Variation (E) = Magnetic Heading 130° - 15° = 115°M

ISOGONALS

On all aeronautical chart, the lines joining the place of equal variation.
A peaked or dashed blue line is used to indicate the Isogonal line on aeronautical chart.

AGONIC LINE

The Agonic Line is an Isogonal where the value of variation is zero.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Magnetic variation at raju airport is 3°w

COMPASS NORTH

When compass is installed in the aircraft to indicate direction, it is subject to the influence of many
metallic and electrical components which cause it to deviate from the direction of magnetic north.

The direction indicated by north seeking end of a compass needle under various influence is called
compass north.

All direction measured clockwise with compass north as datum are called compass north. It denoted as
000°(C).

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

DEVIATION

Deviation is an angular difference between magnetic and compass north.

If compass is east of the magnetic north deviation is called east deviation and if it is west then called
west deviation, hear taking datum as magnetic north.

REMEMBER
DEVIATION EAST COMPASS LEAST
DEVIATION WEST COMPASS BEST

MAGNETIC DIRECTION = COMPASS DIRECTION+DEVIATION EAST

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

MAGNETIC DIRECTION = COMPASS DIRECTION-DEVIATION WEST

Example An aircraft is flying a heading of 130°M; deviation is 10°W. What is the compass heading?

Solve
Magnetic Heading + Deviation (W) = Compass Heading 130° + 10° = 140°C

Example Compass heading is 250°; deviation +3°. What is the magnetic heading?

Solve
Compass Heading + Deviation = Magnetic Heading
250° + 3° = MH
MH = 253°
COMPASS ERROR

Compass error is the algebraic sum of variation and deviation. This can be directly applied to compass
reading to obtain true heading.

Compass Error = Deviation + Variation

Example deviation 005°E variation 008°w finds compass error. If compass reading is 001° find true
direction?

Solve
Compass error = (+5) + (-8) =-3°
True direction = 001°-003° =358°.

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GENERALAIRNAVIGATION
 Capt. Satyajit
Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

GRID NORTH

One particular meridian we select as a datum meridian and grid meridian are drown parallel to that
datum meridian.

CONVERGENCE

The angular difference between grid north and true north is called convergence.

REMEMBER
Grid convergence east true direction is least
Grid convergence west true direction is best (Datum is grid north)

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GRID DIRECTION = TRUE DIRECTION ± CONVERGENCY GRIVATION

The angular difference between grid north and magnetic north called Grivation.

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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REMEMBER
GRIVATION EAST MAGNETIC LEAST
GRIVATION WEST MAGNETIC BEST (Datum is grid north)

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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REMEMBER
GRID DIRECTION = MAGNETIC DIRECTION +/- GRIVATION

GRIVATION = VARIATION + CONVERGENCE

Isogrivs means equal Grivation

DEFINITIONS

COURSE

It is a direction in which an aircraft is heading and measured from datum north. It is express in four
ways,
• True course----------Co (T)

• Magnetic course-----Co (M)

• Compass course-----Co (C)

• Grid course-----------Co (G)

HEADING

The direction in which the fore-and-aft axis of the aircraft is pointing and measured from datum north.
It also express in three way that is true, magnetic and compass north.

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TRACK

Track is the path of aircraft described it on the surface of the earth. It also measured from datum
north and express in four ways.

• True track-------Tr (T)

• Magnetic track--Tr (M)

• Compass track--Tr (C)

• Grid track-------Tr (G)

RHUMB LINE TRACK

When the path of aircraft described along the Rhumb line is called Rhumb line track. All parallel of
latitude is R/L track.

GREAT CIRCLE TRACK

When flight path of aircraft along with great circle is called Great Circle track.

REQUIRED TRACK

The path of aircraft suppose to follow is called required track.

TRACK MADE GOOD (T.M.G)

Actual path of aircraft followed by aircraft is called T.M.G.

TRACK MADE GOOD AND REQUIRED TRACK WOULD BE SAME IF PREVAILING WIND ARE SAME AS ESTIMATED
WINDS.

TRACK ERROR

Angular difference between the required track and T.M.G.

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NOTE Heading is indicated by single arrow and track is indicated by double arrow and that of wind
indicated by triple arrow.

HDG

WIND DIRECTION

TRACK

DRIFT

Drift is angular difference between T.M.G and heading of the aircraft. Taken datum as heading of
aircraft.
• If track is starboard side of the heading it is called Starboard Drift.

• If track is port side of the heading it is called Port Drift.

REMEMBER
T.M.G (T) = HGD (T) ± DRIFT

T.M.G (M) = HDG (M) ± DRIF

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

In above figure track error is shown

RELATIVE BEARING

Direction of a ground station determined by taking datum as the heading of aircraft is called relative
bearing.

The relative bearing of an object is the clockwise angle in degrees from the heading of the aircraft to a
straight line drawn from the ground station.
Relative bearing is neither true nor magnetic.

REMEMBER
MAGNETIC BEARING (QDM) = R.B+HDG (M)

TRUE BEARING (QUJ) = R.B+HDG (T)

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ADF GIVES RELATIVE BEARING OF GROUND STATION FROM THE HEADING OF T HE AIRCRAFT

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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In this figure Drift angle is starboard where require track (hdg) taking as datum and drift angle is
called track error. It is angle between require track and T.MG.

THE ANGLE OF DIP

The angle of dip is the angle in the vertical plane between the horizontal and the earth’s magnetic field
at a point. At equator magnetic dip is zero and at pole is Maximum.

ISOCLINALS

Isoclinals are line on map or chart joining places of equal magnetic dip.

ACLINIC

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Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Aclinic is the name given to isoclinals joining places of zero dip.

NOTE- Isoclinals and Aclinic line do not appear on navigation chart.

4. THE 1:60 RULE

The technique of estimating solutions to navigation problem is known as pilot navigation. This
estimation mainly uses the one in sixty Rule.

Ex-finding distance off track, calculate appropriate height on a glide slope, calculate rate of descent
and so many problem.

1:60 RULE

At the range of 60 units, an angle of 1° subtends an arc of 1 unit.

The rule uses unit but there unite can be kilometer, statute mile nautical mile or any other unit can be
used.

Using nautical miles, the 1:60 rule can be stated as,

At a range of 60nm, an angle of 1° subtends an arc of 1nm.

This variation can be summarized in above figure as,

Distance of track
Drift angle = 60

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Distance covered or distances to go

Example An aircraft is 4° off track at a range of 90nms from a waypoint. What is the distance off
track in nm?

Solve

Remember always as a formula, X

Ø= × 60
Y
= (4×90)/60 = 6nm

Example An aircraft is 12 nm off track when 240 nm from a way point. What is the angular deviation
from the planned track?

Solve
(12×60)/240 = 3°

Remember

Do not use 1:60 rule for problem which angle is greater than 20°

TRACKING PROBLEM

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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TRACK MADE GOOD

Actual path follow by aircraft is called track made good.

TEACK ERROR
The angular difference of between TMG and desired track is called track error.
• If the aircraft is left of desired track, than track error is left (port).

• If the aircraft is right of desired track, than track error is right (port).

Datum will be planned track or desired track

NOTE Track error and drift is different things track error is measured between desired track and actual
track (TMG), drift is measured between heading and track (TMG).

CLOSING TRACK

The required track offer alternation of the heading to approach the way point is called Closing Track.

CORRECTION ANGLE

The angle between closing track and TMG is called Correction Angle.
Correction angle = track error + closing angle

CLOSING ANGLE

The angle between desired track closing track is called Closing Angle.

Example over position A, an aircraft sets heading for B, a ground distance of 78 nm. After travelling
30 nm along track, the pilot fixes the aircraft at position C, 4nm port (left) of track?

Solve

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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Ø = (CD/AD)×60 , (4/30)×60 = 8°Port

CHANGE HEADING TO DESIRE TRACK (ALTER HEADING)

To find the required heading to point B, add track error and closing angle (a+b) there will be right in
above figure.

Example an aircraft is flying from M to N, distance 55nm. After 25nm, the aircraft is 2.5 nm right of
track. What alteration of heading is required to fly directly to N?

Solve

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Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Total alteration a+b

(2.5/25)×60 + (2.5/30) ×60 = 11° left

HEIGHT ON A GLIDE SLOPE

For height and rang calculation we also apply 1:60 rule, Range is normally measured in nautical mile
and we need height in feet. Range must be converted to feet. Height (ft)
z° = × 60
Range (ft)

Height (ft) = Angle ×100 × Range (nm)

Example On 3° glide slope at 4nm from touchdown.

Solve
3×100×4= 1200ft
NOTE 3° glide slopes are the most common. 2.5° glide slopes are found at military airfields operating
high speed jets. Glide slopes greater than 3° are normally found when airfields are located near high
building or terrain.

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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RATE OF DESCENT (ROD)

Rate of descent (ROD) = Angle × 100 × (Ground Speed/60)

CHANGE OF SPEED ON A GLIDESLOPE

To maintain Glide Slope.

• Decrease speed, decrease ROD

• Increase speed, increase ROD

Change in ROD = Angle × 100 × Change in Speed

60
5 × Ground Speed (3° only)

Example If your glide slope is 3° and your ground speed is 140kts, what rate of Descent is required
to maintain the glide slope?

Solve
ROD = 5×140 =700ft/min

SLOPE

In this figure the threshold elevation of runway 09 is 90 ft, the threshold elevation of runway 27 is 200
ft if runway length is 8000 ft, what is the slope of runway 09 in degree.

This type of problem also solve using 1:60 rule

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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Slope = (difference in elevation × 60)/Runway length

= (110 × 60)/8000 =0.825 degree.

VOR/DME Problem

In this above figure you are flying along an airway to VOR/DME ‘Q’ The airway QDM is 271° M. your
radial magnetic indicator indicates your QDM to Q as 266°M, range 48nm. How far are you off the
track airway centerline and which side.

Angle off track =(distance off × 60)/DME range

5° = (dis. Off ×60)/48 = 4 nm to the right of centerline

Note Most of airway are 10 nm wide, it means 5nm either side of centerline.

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5. SPEED
Distance travels per unit of time are called speed. It is expressed in unit per hour.

• Knots (Kt)--------------------nautical mile per hour

• Mile per hour (Mph)---------statute miles per hour

• Kilometers per hour (Kph)

The speed says that how far an aircraft travels in one hour. Ex- 200kts means 200 nm travels in one
hour.

SPEED = DISTANCE/TIME

There are three groups of speed are used in air navigation.

• Airspeed --------The speed of aircraft through the air

• Groundspeed---The speed of aircraft relative to the ground

• Relative speed--The speed of an aircraft relative to another aircraft

AIRSPEED

INDICATED AIRSPEED(IAS)

The speed measured by the Pitot-static system connected to the airspeed indicator without any
correction.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS) OR RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS)

IAS corrected for position and instrument error.

Note –RAS equal TAS in calibration condition, i.e. sea level temperature +15° with pressure 1013.25
Hpa.

INSTRUMENT ERROR

It caused by manufacturing process. Normally these errors are so small they are ignored.

POSITION ERROR

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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It caused by air flow near the Pitot-static system, inaccuracies can occur. Position error is in different
configuration like landing, take-off, turn, and side slip so many configurations this configuration is
listed in operating manual.

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS)

RAS corrected for compressibility error. Compressibility is only corrected for TAS of greater than
300kts.normally ASI are calibrated for an ideal incompressibility air flow.

TRUE AIRSPEED

EAS corrected for density error.TAS is the speed of aircraft relative to the air mass through which the
aircraft is flying.

Note TAS can calculate by adding 2 percent of the RAS/CAS for each 1000 ft of pressure altitude.

Example An aircraft is flying at 10000 ft at RAS/CAS of 150 kt. What is the TAS?

SOLVE
150 × (2/100) = 3
For 10000ft = 3 × 10 = 30, now TAS = 150+30 = 180kts.

TAS = RAS (1 + 1.75% × ALTITUDE/1000)

DENSITY ERROR

Air density decrease with high temperature and high Pressure Altitude.

If at the same Groundspeed in still air, the ASI will indicate a lower speed if, The temperature
increases and pressure altitude increases.

TAS = IAS [1+ (ALTITUDE/1000) × 0.02]

TAS = IAS + 2% per 1000' Altitude.

DEFINITION

• Indicated altitude – The altimeter reading

• Absolute altitude – Altitude in terms of the distance above the ground directly below

• True altitude – Altitude in terms of elevation above sea level

• Height – Altitude in terms of the distance above a certain point

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• Pressure altitude – The air pressure in terms of altitude in the International Standard
Atmosphere. Setting 1013.25hpa and also give flight level

• Density altitude – the density of the air in terms of altitude in the International Standard
Atmosphere

6. TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES
Velocity can be represented graphically by straight line where,

• The length of the line represents the speed.

• The direction of the line is measured from a datum

THE COMPONENTS OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

1. THE AIR VACTOR

The path of the aircraft through the air. The heading is the direction the aircraft flies in relation to the
air mass. The speed through the air is true airspeed. The two sub component of the Air Vector is
Heading (HDG) and True Airspeed. (TAS).

2. THE WIND VECTOR

The wind vector described the movement of the air mass through which the aircraft is travelling over
the surface of the Earth.

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WIND VELOCITY The direction from which the wind is blowing and the speed usually in knots. Ex
320/25 It means wind blowing from 320 directions with 25 knots speed.

The air vector and wind velocity gives the third component the ground vector.

3. THE GROUND VECTOR

It describes the direction and speed of the aircraft over the Ground. It comprises Track (TRK) and
Groundspeed (GS)

The complete Triangle of velocities.

The angle between the Heading and Track is the Drift Angle.

THE SIX ELEMENTS OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

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1. Heading
2. TAS
3. Wind Direction
4. Wind Speed
5. Track
6. Ground Speed

In DGCA examination the four components are given in question and we have to find two other
component. This type of problem we use the FLIGHT COMPUTER to find other component.

EXAMPLE

Given

• Heading, TAS, Wind Velocity, find track and groundspeed.

• 2. Heading, TAS, track, Groundspeed find the wind velocity.

• 3. TAS, Track, Wind Velocity find the heading and groundspeed.

SOME FLIGHT COMPUTER PROBLEMS SOLVED BY FORMULA

SPEED, DISTANCE, AND TIME

EXAMPLE An aircraft flies 210 Nm in 25 Minutes. What is the ground speed?

Solve (210 × 60) / 25 = 504 Knots

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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EXAMPLE At ground of 504 Knots, how long will take the aircraft to travel 210 Nm?

Solve 210 ÷ 504 = 0.41 hr = 25 Minutes

EXAMPLE For a ground speed 504 Knots, how far will the aircraft travel in 35 minutes?

Solve (504 ÷ 60) ×35 = 294 NM

EXAMPLE An aircraft travel 250 Nm for 25 minutes and the fuel consumption for that time is 200 Lbs
what groundspeed is and fuel flow?

Solve Groundspeed = (250 ÷ 25) × 60 = 600 Knots, Fuel flow = (200 ÷ 25) × 60 = 480 Lbs/Hr

CALCULATION OF TAS

EXAMPLE The pressure altitude is 35000 ft and the corrected outside air temperature is -65°. The
RAS is 160 knots. What is the TAS.?

Solve
In this type of problem use the electronic flight computer or you can also use the formula above
mentioned. In DGCA exam chose the closest option for answer because if you are using manual
computer than the answer will be not same quite different.

ANS 268knots (by Flight Computer).

By formula,

TAS = RAS (1 + 1.75% × ALTITUDE/1000) = 258kts.

CALCULATION OF TRUE ALTITUDE

Example For a temperature of -40°C and a pressure altitude of 25000 ft, what is the true altitude?

Solve

TRUE ALTITUDE = PA +PA (TEMP.DEVIATION) %/3°C)

PA-PRESSURE ALTITUDE, and some time indicated altitude

TEMP. DEVIATION = ACTUAL – ISA TEMP.

Now, deviation = -40-[15-{25000×2/1000}] = -5°c

Using formula, true altitude = 25000+2500(-5/300) = 24583ft

Example An aircraft is flying at FL 150, with an outside air temperature of -30°c, above an airport
where the elevation is 1660 ft and the QNH is 993 Hpa. Calculate the true altitude. (Assume 30ft=
1hpa).

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Solve Temp.Deviation = -30-[15-{15000×2/1000}] =-15°c

Now using formula, 15000+15000(-15/300) =14250ft

By definition of true altitude we measure from QNH

Now, 1010.2hpa-993=20.25×30 =607ft

Again the true altitude from mean sea level = 14250-607=13643ft

CALCULATING DENSITY ALTITUDE

Density altitude is the altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at which the air density
would be equal to the actual air density at the place of observation,

In other words, the height when measured in terms of the density of the air rather than the distance
from the ground. "Density Altitude" is the pressure altitude adjusted for non-standard temperature.

DENSITY ALTITUDE = PRESSURE ALTITUDE+120(ISA DEVIATION)

Example Pressure Altitude 20000 ft Temperature -10°C. What is Density Altitude?

Solve
Temp. Deviation = actual temp.- ISA temp.

-10-(15-(20000×2÷1000) = 15°c
Now,
Density altitude = 20000+120(15) = 21800ft

7. WIND COMPONENTS
WIND DIRECTION AND RUNWAY RELATIONSHIP

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Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

The wind some time blows exactly along the runway center line. It always blow to cross the runway
may be it will perpendicular or make some angle with runway direction and the direction from which
wind is blowing.

COMPONENTS OF WIND

CROSSWIND COMPONENTS

A Crosswind is any wind that has a perpendicular component to the runway or direction of landing.

• In Aviation, a Crosswind is the component of wind that is blowing across the runway making
landings and take-offs more difficult. Crosswind is sometimes abbreviated as X/WIND.

• If the wind direction and runway direction were same than there is cross wind.

HEAD WIND/TAIL WIND

A Tailwind is a wind that blows in the direction of landing of an aircraft, while a Headwind blows
against the direction of landing.

A tailwind increases the aircraft speed and while a headwind has the opposite effect.

HEAD WIND COMPONENT/TAIL WIND COMPONENT

• CROSSWIND COMPONENT = WINDSPEED×SINØ

• HEAD/TAIL WIND COMPONENT = WINDSPEED×COSØ

Ø=angle of wind with the runway direction

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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In this diagram,
Headwind Component = 20×sin30° =10kts
Tailwind Component = 20×cos30°=17° approx 15°

• Headwind and Tailwind are Cosine functions of the wind

• Crosswind Component is a sine function.

• Headwind and Tailwind do not occur together in normal conditions.

• In above case, If aircraft landing on direction 000 than 15kts its headwind. If it’s landing on
direction of 180, than its tail wind component the numerical value is same.

Remember The Runway direction is in magnetic and the wind velocity reported by ATC is in magnetic.

Example
Runway 31 is in use and the wind velocity reported by ATC is 270/40. What is the crosswind and
headwind component?

Solve

The angle between runway direction and wind direction Ø =310°- 270° = 40°

Now,

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Redbird Ground Instructor
+91 9665552003

Crosswind component = 40×sin (40°) = 26knots.

Headwind component = 40×cos (40°) = 30knots.

8. EARTH CONVERGENCY
CONVERGENCY

The angle of inclination between two selected meridians measured at given latitude called Earth
Convergency.

Meridians are not parallel to each other and they are converge towards the pole that’s why the great
circle cut all meridians at different angle.

CONVERGENCY = D.LONG×SIN (LAT.)

If two points at different latitude than take mean latitude,

Convergency = D.Long × Sine mean lat.

1. Convergency is zero at equator because the meridians cross the Equator at 90°.

2. Convergency is maximum at the poles where all the meridians converge.

3. Convergency increased with increase in latitude and increase of D.Long it is function of Sin latitude.

CONVERSION ANGLE

The angular difference between the Rhumb line Track and the Initial/Final Great Circle Track is Called
the Conversion Angle (CA)

CONVERSION ANGLE = ½ CONVERGENCY = ½ D.LONG×SIN (LAT)

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Example Calculate the value of Convergence between A (N 45 :25 E 025 :36) and B
(N 37 :53 E042 :17).
A N 45:25 E 025:36
B N 37:53 E 042:17

Solve
N 41:39 Mean Latitude 16:41 Change of Longitude

Convergence = Ch. Long x Sin Mean Latitude

= 16 41 x Sin 41 39'
= 16.6833 x Sin 41.65
= 11.0874
Conversion angle = 5.5437

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

In fig.1

Initial great circle track from A to B is 060

Convergency 40

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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Now, GC track at B is 60 +40 = 100

In fig.2

Initial great circle track from C to D is 280

Convergency 45

Now, GC track at D is 280 - 45 = 235

SOUTHERN HEMISPERE

• CONVERGENCE = CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

• CONVERGENCE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GC TRACKS.

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CONVERSION ANGLE AT A EQUAL TO CONVERSION ANGLE AT B

NOTE
• THE GREAT CIRCLE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE POLE

• THE RHUMB LINE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE EQUATOR

The Rhumb Line is a constant direction. If the Rhumb Line track from A to B is 100º, then the Rhumb
Line track from B to A is 100º+180º = 280º. You can always take the reciprocal of a Rhumb Line;
never take GC reciprocal because GC is regular curved line. After applying conversion angle we can
find initial GC track.

Example The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 255 The Rhumb Line bearing of B from A is 084
find?
1. GC bearing of B from A,
2. R/L bearing of A from B,
3. Conversion angle,
4. Convergency,
5. Hemisphere in which they are located.

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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Solve

R/L Bearing of B from A = 084

R/L Bearing of A from B = 084 +180 = 264 , Now, G/C Bearing of A from B = 255

Then, CA =R/L-G/C = 264 -255 = 9 ,Convergency = 2×CA = 18

G/C Bearing of B from A =084 +9 = 093 , they are in Southern Hemisphere

Example The Great Circle bearing of X from Y is 072 .The Rhumb Line bearing of Y from X is 259
What is the great circle bearing of Y from X? If they are in Northern Hemisphere.

Solve

Now, R/L Bearing of X from Y = 259 -180 = 079 , CA = 079 -072 = 7

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G/C Bearing of Y from X = 259 +7 = 266 .

Note

• The Convergency of the meridians determines the direction of a great circle.

• The great circle direction is continuously changing because the meridians are not straight line
they are converging.

• The Rhumb line always closer to the equator between two point then the great circle track.

• Convergency is zero at the Equator and maximum at the pole.

• The difference between the initial and final track is also the angle between the two meridians,
which is their Convergency.

• If the two position are on the same parallel of latitude the R/L track will be 090 /270

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9. SCALE
Scale is defined as the ratio of chat length and corresponding earth distance.

SCAL = CHART LENGTH / EARTH DISTANCE (both are in same unit)

REPRRESENTATIVE FRACTION(RF)

It is the Ratio between unit length of Chart and corresponding number of similar units on the Earth.

Example - RF = 1/100000, it means 1 unit length on Chart corresponding 100000 same unit length
on the Earth.

1”---------100000”

1 CM------100000 CM

Representative Fraction

1
1000 000 or 1/1 000 000 or 1:1 000 000

STATEMENT IN WORD

It gives the corresponding value of two different units for the chart and other for earth

¼” on chart = 1 NM

½” on chart = 1 NM

1” on chart = 10 KM

GRADUATED SCAL LINE

Graduated Scale line gives the actual length of chart corresponding to various distances on Earth

Example A chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000. How many nautical miles are represented by 4 cm on
the chart?

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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Solve

Chart Length (CL) 1 4 cm

Scale = = =
Earth Distance (ED) 2 500 000 ED

ED = 2 500 000 x 4 cms

2 500 000 x 4 cms Divide by 2.54 = Inches

= 53.96nm Divide by 12 = Feet
2.54 x 12 x 6080 Divide by 6080 = Nautical Mile;

Example 32 centimetres on a chart represents 468 nm. The scale of the chart is?

CL 32 cms 1
Scale = = =
ED 468 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54 2 710 282

Example Chart A has a scale of 1:2 500 000, Chart B has a scale of 1:1 750 000.Which
chart has larger scale?

Solve B the smaller denominator is the larger scale

Note

• Sectional charts such as the ICAO Aeronautical Charts, scale 1:500 000 (half-million)

• World Aeronautical Charts such as the Operational Navigation Chart series (ONC),
scale 1:1 000 000 (one million)

• The ICAO and ONC series charts are based on the Lambert's Conformal Conic
projection. The Topographical Air Chart is based on Transverse Mercator projection .

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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10. map and chart projection

PROJECTION

A chart projection is a method of representing the surface of a sphere or other Three-Dimensional

body on a plane paper.

PROSPECTIVE CHART

When the features of global surface are projected directly on a plane paper is called prospective
projection or Geometric projection.

NON-PROSPECTIVE CHART

When the features of global surface are projected on a plane paper with some mathematical methods
are called non-prospective projection.

MAP OR CHART

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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A map is a visual representation of an area, containing latitude and longitude with some geographical
feature and some symbol is called map or chart but especially for map they contain both latitude,
longitude and ground features.

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Aeronautical chart with some geographical feature also include information of radio aids some information
regarding navigation.

SCALE FACTOR

When the reduce earth Graticule is projected onto the paper to make the chart, the scale on flat paper
and the scale on the reduce earth will be the same wherever the paper touches the reduce earth. In
this situation, the scale factor is 1.

Scale Factor = chart length/reduce earth length

When chart length = reduce earth length so, scale factor = 1

This scale situation is known as a scale is correct. All the chart use by the pilot are not constant it
varies. Scale is correct wherever the paper touches the reduce earth.

PROPERITES OF IDEAL CHART

1. Area should be represented with their true shape on the chart and equal areas on the Earth’s
surface should be shown as equal area on the chart.

2. Scale should be constant and correct.

3. Rhumb and Great circle should be straight line.

4. Latitude and longitude should be easy to plot.

5. Adjacent sheet should be fit correctly

6. Coverage should be worldwide.

7. Each cardinal direction should point in the same direction on all part of the chart.

8. Bearing and distance are correctly represented.

Note Scale is never constant and correct over large area and the shape of large area can never be
fully correct.

⃰The earth needs to be reduced in size to required scale. This is known as reduce earth

ORTHOMORPHISM/CONFORMALITY

A Chart is said to be Conformality if,

A. Scale variation about a given point is uniform in all direction.

B. Bearing are correct represented.

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C. Shapes are correctly represented.

Note Orthomorphism is a Greek word meaning correct shape but now a day we widely use the term
Conformality in the place of Orthomorphism.

The Lambert’s conformal, Mercator, and polar Stereographic charts are example of Conformal chart.

TEST OF CONFORMALITY

• Meridians and parallel of latitude cuts each-other at right angle.

• At any point on a chart, scale should be the same in all directions, or should be change at the
same rate in all direction.

ICAO Annex 4 recommends that when using conformal chat then a straight line approximates a great
circle should be used but on many conformal chat, a great circle will not be a straight line all over the
chart. However, it may approximate to straight line in a specific area.

11. MERCATOR PROJECTION

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A cylinder of paper wrapped around the reduce earth at the equator. Using a light source at the centre
of reduce earth the Graticule was projected onto the cylinder, and it opened up to a flat sheet of
paper. It is also called Cylindrical Projection.

This projection is perspective projection but scale variation was not constant in all direction so it has
been modified so the rate of change of scale is same in the north-south direction as in the Eat- West
direction. This modification was some mathematical basic so this chart is Non-Prospective
Projection. R tanØ means distance from the equator it shows the maximum limit of Mercator chart.

PROPERTIES OF THE MERCATOR CHART

1. Meridians are straight line parallel and equidistance to each other.

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2. Parallels of latitude are straight line but not equidistance to each other. The distance between
them increases with distance from equator.

3. It is Orthomorphic projection.

4. Rhumb line is straight line because meridians are parallel to each other.

5. Great circle is curved line convex towards nearer pole and concave towards the equator except
the meridians and the equator, which are straight lines.

6. Shape will along N/S and E/W expansion will be as Secant Ø.

7. Polar reason cannot be projected; limitation is 75 N/S. shape and area approximately correct,
excellent between 12 N and 12 S becoming distorted with increasing Latitude.

8. Adjacent sheet feet each-other in N/S, E/W direction accurately.

9. Point of projection is centre of the reduce earth and point of tangency is Equator.

10. Convergency constant value is Zero and correct at Equator.

11. Rhumb line is straight line so plotting is easy.

Uses- Rhumb line flying, plotting map series, Topographical maps between 12 N and 12 S, to
represent the world map.

Disadvantage - The radio bearing travel by shortest path i.e along Great Circle Track hence radio
bearing cannot be blotted and a correction of conversion angle has to be applied to convert them into
R/L before being plotted on the chart.

SCALE ON MERCATOR CHART

Scale is correct at the Equator and expands away from the Equator as the secant of the Latitude.
Every Parallel of Latitude has its own scale

• Equator 1:2 000 000

• 5S 1:1 992 389

• 10 S 1:1 969 615

• 30 S 1:1 732 051

• 60 S 1:1 000 000

Scale is correct where scale factor is 1.

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Now, scale factor = chart length÷ reduced earth length,

The length of the 90 latitude is Zero on the Earth and also on reduce earth.

So at pole, scale factor = chart length ÷ 0 = ∞ (infinity)

Now, On Mercator chart the scale factor varies between 1 and infinity.
The expansion away from the equator is constant and is proportional to the secant of the latitude.

SCAL AT Ø LATITUDE = SCALE AT EQUATOR × SECANT LATITUDE

Example If the scale at the equator is 1:1000000, what is the scale at 60 N?

Solve

Scale at 60 N=scale at equator × (1/cos60 ), (1/1000000) × (1/cos60) =1:500000

Example On a Mercator chart, the scale at 54 S is 1:2000000. What is the scale at 25 N?

Solve

Let scale at equator = 1/X,

Now, scale at 54 = scale at equator × sec54

Put the value of scale at 54 , 1/2000000 = (1/X) × (1/cos54 ) now, X = 3402603

So, scale at 25 N = scale at equator × sec25 , again, 1/3402603 × (1/cos25 ) = 3083806

Scale is 1:3083806

Remember If scale expands the denominator decreases, if scale contracts the denominator increase.

GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE ON MERCATOR CHART

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The Rhumb line between two points will always be nearer to the Equator than the corresponding Great
Circle. Conversely, the Great Circle between two points will always lie nearer the pole than the Rhumb
line.

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PLOTTING ON MERCATOR CHART

PLOTTING RADIO BEARINGS VDF & VOR

Radio bearings are Great Circle bearings. They have to be converted into Rhumb Line bearings by
applying Conversion Angle before they can be plotted.

Both VDF and VOR bearings are measured at the station, thus station variation must be applied.
Conversion angle is also applied where the bearing was measured, that is the VDF or VOR station.

In other words, QDR, QUJ, QDM or VOR Radial are first converted into QTE at QTE apply conversion
angle to convert into R/L because R/L is straight line on Mercator chat. A position line plotted on
Mercator chart is straight line.

VDF & VOR APPLY STATION VARIATION APPLY CA TO QTE

Note VOR RMI readings are QDM's. Apply VOR station variation, but not compass deviation PLOTTING
ADF/NDB BEARINGS

ADF bearings are presented to the pilot by either a RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI) or by a
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI).

RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI)

ADF bearings are measured Clockwise from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft and are termed
RELATIVE BEARINGS; ADF Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before
they can be plotted on a chart,

RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = GC QUJ ± CA = RL QUJ ± 180 = RL QTE

• The G/C QUJ must be converted into a RL QUJ before the reciprocal is taken.

• The reciprocal of a Rhumb Line can always be taken, never the reciprocal of a Great Circle.

• MAGNETIC VARIATION AT THE AIRCRAFT IS ALWAYS USED WITH ADF BEARINGS

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VOR & VDF APPLY STATION VARIATION

DO NOT APPLY DEVIATION
APPLY CA TO QTE

RMI READING QDM

ADF NDB APPLY AIRCRAFT DEVIATION & VARIATION

GC QUJ CA = RL QUJ 180 = RL QTE

Example An aircraft obtains a magnetic bearing of 270° off an NDB. The variation at the
aircraft position is 17W. The aircraft is in the Northern Hemisphere. What is the RL bearing
to plot from the NDB position on the chart if the Convergency between the aircraft and the
NDB is 12°?

Solve
The G/C bearing to the NDB is 270 M ‒ 17 W = 235 T
Convergency is 12 so conversion angle will be 6

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The R/L direction to the NDB is 253- 6 = 247 T

Now to plot from the beacon (QTE), use the reciprocal of 247 which is 067T

NOW THE SAME CASE IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

The R/L direction to the NDB is 253 + 6 = 259 T

To plot from the beacon (QTE), use the reciprocal of 259, which is 079 T

SUMMARY OF PLOTTING

FOR AN NDB
• Convert magnetic bearing to the beacon to a true bearing using the aircraft variation.
• Apply conversion angle.
• Take reciprocal to get RL from beacon.

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FOR A VOR/VDF
• Take reciprocal of RMI reading to get radial (magnetic).
• Apply conversion angle.
• Convert into a true bearing using the station variation.

MAPS AND CHARTS SUMMARY

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12. RELATIVE VELOCITY

The velocities of a body with respect to the velocity of the observer are called Relative velocity .

Example
If the plane is traveling at a velocity of 100 km/hr with respect to the air, and if the wind velocity is 25
km/hr, then what is the velocity of the plane relative to an observer on the ground below? The
resultant velocity of the plane (that is, the result of the wind velocity contributing to the velocity due
to the plane's motor) is the vector sum of the velocity of the plane and the velocity of the wind. This
resultant velocity is quite easily determined if the wind approaches the plane directly from behind. As
shown in the diagram below, the plane travels with a resulting velocity of 125 km/hr relative to the
ground.

Suppose a plane traveling with a velocity of 100 km/hr with respect to the air meets a headwind with
a velocity of 25 km/hr. In this case, the resultant velocity would be 75 km/hr; this is the velocity of
the plane relative to an observer on the ground. This is depicted in the diagram below.

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AIRCRAFT ON THE SAME OR OPPOSITE TRACKS

1. Aircraft Closing-facing each other

It means if we observe from 90kts aircraft to other aircraft the speed will be 210 of other aircraft and
vice versa.

2. Aircraft Opening-far from each aircraft

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3. Overtaking

Here overtaking speed is 30knots.we will study later that how much time takes for overtake

Example
The distance between Aerodrome A and Aerodrome B is 1000 nm. At 0900, Aircraft 1 leaves A for B at
a groundspeed of 300 knots. Aircraft 2 leaves B for A at 0930, flying at a groundspeed of 400 kt.at
what time will the aircraft pass each other? At what distance from A will the aircraft be?

Solve

Aircraft 1 leaves for B at 0900 but the aircraft 2 leaves for B at 0930.now we have to check
the position of aircraft 1 at 0930

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Actually aircraft 1 leaves at 0900 so in 30 minutes at 300knots he travels 150nm

Now, the remaining distance is 1000nm-150nm=850nm

And aircraft facing each other so relative velocity will be 300+400=700knots

We have to find time to travel for 850nm at the speed of 700knts = 72.85minutes

So time for meeting is 0930+72.85minutes=1042 approx

The distance from A is:

150 nm + 365 (72½ minutes @ 300 kt)

515 nm from A

Example
Aircraft 1 leaves point A at 1015, with a groundspeed of 250 kt. Aircraft 2 leaves A at 1045,
groundspeed 350 kt. At what time will Aircraft 2 overtake Aircraft 1? At what time will the
aircraft be 30 nm apart?

Solve

Aircraft 1 will travel 125nm in 30minutes and relative speed will be 350-250=100nm Now
aircraft 2 has 125nm at 100knots relative speed to overtake the other aircraft Time to
overtake 125 nm / 100 Knots=75minutes and time will be 1200

To find where the aircraft are 30 nm apart: Aircraft 2 would have 125 – 30 nm to close = 95 nm

95 nm @ 100 Knot = 57 minutes

Time that the aircraft are 30 nm apart is 1142

SPEED ADJUSTMENT

Example
An aircraft flying a groundspeed of 300 knot estimates manila at 1200.ATC tells the captain to delay
arrival by 5 minutes. The planned reduction in groundspeed is to 240 knot. What is the latest time to
reduce speed and at what distance from manila?

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In this type of problem we first consider the initial speed

300kts means 300nm in 60 minutes

So now we have distance to go manila is 300nm (let)

The actual time take if we fly 300kts will be 1hr

We have to delay 5 minutes it means arrival time will be 65 minutes=1.08hr

P is the point where aircraft will reduce speed to 240kts

Let distance from P to Manila = X

Then distance from A to P = 300-X

Now, this equation

Time to AP + Time to P,Manila = 1.08

(300-x)/300 + x/240 =1.08

After solving this equation x = 100nm

Distance speed should be reduced is 100 nm from manila

13. CP AND PNR

The Critical point (CP) is the decision point between two airfields from which it would take to same
time to fly to either airport.

In the emergency case in the aircraft like cabin fire passenger with heart attack etc.we calculate where
we should go quicker continue to departure or return to the base. Basically it related with time.

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Critical point also known as point of equal time

Remember

1. CP is independent of fuel Endurance.

2. In still air CP is midway between Departure and Destination

3. With headwind cp moves towards destination and with tailwind CP moves towards back
departure point. Put simply, CP always moves into wind

4. CP always moves towards the still air condition that is midpoint.

Formula

Time back to home from CP = Time go to Destination from CP

But time = Distance/Speed

Let Total distance is D, Homebound GS is H and Outbound GS is O

A x Cp D-x B

Now,
X/H = (D - X) / O

OX = DH - HX

OX + HX = DH

X (O + H) = DH

Finally:

DH
X= The Critical Point formula
(O + H)

Example
An aircraft is flying from A to B at a TAS of 500 Knots with a headwind component of 50 Knots If the
distance between A and B is 2000nms, what is the distance to the Critical Point (CP) And how long
after leaving A will the aircraft take to reach the CP?

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D = 2000 Nms, O = 450kts, H = 550kts, O + H = 1000kts

Using the CP formula above:

2000 x 550
X=
1000

X = 1100nms

The time taken to reach the CP is the distance to CP(X) divided by the outbound
groundspeed (O)
Distance (X) 1100
Time to CP = = = 2.44hrs = 2hrs 26mins
Outbound GS 450

POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR)/ POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR)

The Point of No Return (PNR) is defined as that point furthest removed from departure point to which
an aircraft can fly and still return to its departure point within its Safe Endurance.

Let the Safe Endurance of the aircraft be E hrs and, as before, let O be the outbound groundspeed and
H the homebound groundspeed. In this case, we will use the time to reach the PNR, (T), to derive the
basic formula.

We know that the distance out to the PNR equals the distance back from the PNR.

DISTANCE OUT TO PNR = DISTANCE BACK FROM PNR

(But DISTANCE = SPEED x TIME)

Therefore:
SPEED OUT x TIME OUT = SPEED BACK x TIME BACK

If the speed out is O and the time out is T, then the time back is (E-T) and the speed back is H. The
above equation can be written:

O x T = H x (E-T)

OT = HE - HT

OT + HT = HE

T (O+H) = E (H)

Finally: Time to PNR is given by:

ExH
T= this gives the time (T) in hours to the PNR

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(O + H)
Alternatively, Distance to PNR is given by:
ExOxH
Distance to PNR =
(O + H)
Some simple PNR rules are:

1. Maximum distance to PNR is achieved in still air conditions. All wind components, head or tail,
reduce the distance to PNR.

2. If a wind component increases, the distance to PNR decreases.

3. If a wind component decreases, the distance to PNR increases.

4. An increase in TAS has the same effect as a reduction in wind component - an increase in the
distance to PNR. Conversely, a decrease in TAS has the same effect as an increase in wind
component - a decrease in the distance to PNR.

5. Any wind component no matter it is head or tail wind will cause PNR to be closer to departure
point or distance to PNR will decrease in wind.

6. Abeam wind also reduce distance to PNR

7. If head wind chance to tailwind distance to PNR will remain same

8. Distance will vary direct with endurance

9. Carriage of extra fuel distance to PNR will increase and distance to cp remain same

10. Any improvement in performance will increase distance to PNR.

11. If fuel flow decrease , distance to PNR will increase

12. X% increase in flight fuel will cause PNR to increase by X%.

13. PNR will usually beyond CP.

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14. PAYLOAD
Payload (Traffic Load)

Load is the total mass of passengers, baggage and cargo, including any non-revenue load.

Basic Empty Mass (Basic Mass) Is an Aircraft mass plus standard items

• Unusable fuel and other Unusable Fluids

• Lubricating oil in the engine and auxiliary unit

• Fire Extinguisher

• Pyrotechnics

• Emergency Oxygen Equipment

• Supplementary electric equipment

Basic Empty Mass or Tare Weight

the mass of aircraft with all its basic equipment plus a declared quantity of unusable fuel and oil

Dry Operating Mass (DOM)

Dry Operating Mass is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation excluding
all usable fuel and traffic load.

This mass includes

• Crew and baggage

• Catering and removable passenger service equipment

• Potable (drinking) water and lavatory chemicals

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Zero Fuel Mass

The total mass of Dry Operating Mass plus the Traffic Load

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM)

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass is the maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no usable fuel. The
MZFM is a structural limit based on the bending moments of the wing root .

Take-Off Mass

The mass of aircraft Including everything and everyone in it at the start of take-off run.

Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass(MSTOM)

Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass is the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass at the start of
the take-off run.
Performance Limit Take-Off Mass

It is take-off mass limited due to Performance Factor such as wet runway, high Temperature.

Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MLSM)

Maximum Structural Landing Mass is the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass upon landing
under normal circumstances.

Regulated Take-off Mass (RTOM)

This is defined as the TOM which is regulated by accelerated stop distance; take off climb
requirements, obstacle clearance requirements, En-route obstacle and landing mass requirements.

It is lowest of take-off mass and performance limited take-off mass.

Regulated Landing Mass (RLAM)

This is defined as the Landing mass regulated by limitations of runway in use and landing and climb
requirements.

Maximum Ramp Mass ( Maximum Structural Taxi Mass)

The maximum Approved mass for commencement of ground manoeuvres. A mass greater then the
maximum Take off Mass, to allow for fuel used in start-up and taxi.

Useful Load

The total of Traffic load plus useable fuel (Payload + FOB)

Fuel On Board (FOB)

Total Fuel = Burn off (Flight Fuel, Trip Fuel) + Reserve Fuel

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To Calculate Pay Load

RTOW--------------------------------(A)

MLM + Flight Fuel--------------------(B)

MZFW + FOB-------------------------(C)

Take minimum value among A, B, C and apply

Lowest of three = A.P.S + F.O.B + PAYLOAD

Note A.P.S is Aircraft Prepared for Service. It is the Dry Operating Mass. Add to this the fuel we have the
Wet Operating Mass

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Redbird Ground Instructor
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16. TIME
Our measures of time are based on

• The Earth’s rotation about its own axis

• The Earth’s rotation around the Sun,
• The movement of the solar system in our galaxy and
• The movement our galaxy in the Universe.

KEPLER’S LAWS

First law

• The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci.

• The line joining the planet to the sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps out equal areas in
equal time.

Perihelion

When the earth is nearest to the sun in orbit it is Perihelion (Greek peri-near, helios - sun). Point P
indicates Perihelion.

Aphelion

The Earth is at a point furthest from the Sun known as ‘Aphelion’.

Perihelion occurs in early January (approx 4th). Aphelion occurs in early July (approx 3rd).

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Kepler’s Second Law

In an elliptical planetary orbit, the orbital speed is fastest at perihelion and slowest at aphelion

Means -Earth move faster near perihelion and slower near aphelion.

• The earth rotates about its geographic N/S axis in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed
from the NCP

• North Celestial Pole (NCP), i.e. the point in the sky directly above geographic North Pole This
rotation determines our measurement of a ‘day

• The Earth orbits the Sun in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from the NCP. The orbital
period determines our measurement of a ‘year’.

THE SEASONS

• The predominant cause of the Seasons is the inclination (tilt) of the earth.

• The Earth’s axis is inclined (tilted) at an angle of 66.5° to its orbital plane and this is
often stated as 23.5° to the normal to the orbital plane (90°- 66.5° = 23.5°).

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Adding the inclination of the Earth to a diagram of the Earth’s orbit as in the figures below illustrates
the annual seasonal changes.

• The sun appears vertically above 23½°S on the 21st of December. This is known as:-
NH - Winter Solstice SH - Summer Solstice

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• The sun will appear above 23½°N on the 21st of June at the:- NH - Summer
Solstice SH - Winter Solstice

• The sun crosses the equator from South to North on about 21st March. This is known
as:- NH - Spring Equinox SH - Autumn Equinox

• Six months later it crosses the equator from North to South on about 21st September.
NH - Autumn Equinox SH - Spring Equinox

During the period of one day the sun appears to move along a parallel of latitude from East to West

• The plane of the equator is called the ‘Plane of the Equinoctial

• The plane of the Earth’s orbit around the sun is called ‘Plane of the Ecliptic’

• The Plane of the Ecliptic and the Plane of the Equator are inclined to each other at an
angle of
23.5°. This angle is called the obliquity of the ecliptic

• At a given time of year, the angle that the Sun is above or below the equator
determines the season and affects the length of daylight/night. The angle is known as
DECLINATION.

• Declination is analogous (similar) in the sky to latitude on the Earth.

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The Sun’s declination changes annually

between 23.5°N (Sun overhead the tropic of Cancer) through 0° (Sun overhead the Equator) to
23.5°S (Sun overhead the Tropic of Capricorn) and then back through 0° to 23.5°N.

• The length of daylight/night at a given latitude varies with the declination of the Sun

• The rate of change of the length of daylight will therefore be greatest when the rate of
change of declination is greatest. this situation occurs at the equinoxes (about Mar 21 and
Sep 21)

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MEASUREMENT OF DAYS AND YEARS

A ‘day’ may be defined as the length of time taken for the Earth to rotate once about its axis
measured against a celestial body, (the Sun or a star). Measurements against a star are called’
sidereal’ and against the Sun are called ‘solar’.

‘Civil’ Day

A ‘civil’ day should be:

• the period of time, the calendar day, of 24 hours' duration calculate from one midnight to the
next. The civil day should therefore be based on the Sun.

• Civil day should be a constant length.

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Sidereal Day

A Sidereal Day is measured against a distant star and is of nearly constant length. However, it is not
related to light and dark and is not suitable as a civil day. It is approx 23hrs 56 min

Apparent Solar Day

• An apparent Solar Day is measured against the real or apparent Sun (the one that ‘appears’
to you). But it not in constant length ( because Earth’s orbital speed changes throughout the
year)

• Length varies from 23 hour 44 minutes to 23 hour 14 minutes (max difference 16 min)

• An apparent solar day is longer than a sidereal day.

Mean Solar Day

• The Mean Solar Day is the average length of an apparent solar day (averaged over the year).

• It is of constant length and related to light and darkness; it is used as the ‘civil’ day and is

• Divided into hours, minutes and seconds of ‘mean’ time. It has exact 24 hour

In Other Words The time interval between two successive transits of the mean sun across the same
meridian is Called a mean solar day. In one mean solar day, the mean sun moves westward from the
meridian and completes one circuit of 360° longitude in the 24 mean solar hours into which the day is
divided. The rate of travel is 15° of longitude per mean solar hour. The mean solar hour (called an
hour for short) is further divided into 60 minutes. These are then divided into 60 seconds.

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• The maximum difference between Mean Time and apparent (real) sun time is about
16 minutes and occurs in mid-November

• A second maximum occurs in mid-February at about 14 minute’s difference.

• A Sidereal Year is the time taken by the Earth to complete an orbit of the Sun measured
against a distant star. Its length is 365 days 6 hrs.

• A Tropical Year (an apparent solar year) is the length of one cycle of the seasons. Its length is
365 days, 5 hrs and 48.75 minutes.

• The Earth spins in an easterly direction, 360° in every 24 hours

• The Hour Angle of a celestial body is defined as the arc of the Equator (equinoctial)
intercepted between the meridian of a datum and the meridian of the body, measured
westwards from 0°to 360°.

• Before sunrise there is a period when it becomes light and after sunset there is a period when
it remain light these period are called generally TWILIGHT

• With increase in latitude the twilight period increases.

• Visual Horizon is below the Sensible horizon.

• CIVIL TWILIGHT sun 6o or less below sensible Horizon (duration 21 minutes near equator)

• NAUTICAL Sun 6o – 12o below Horizon

• ASTRONOMICAL Sun 12o – 18o Horizon

Important Points

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• In the plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun is labelled the Plane of the Ecliptic’.

• The plane of the ecliptic and Plan of the Equator are inclined to each other at an angle of 23.5 o

• The angle that the sun is above or below the equator determines the season and affect the
length of daylight/night

• Sun cross equator twice in a year.

CONVERSION OF ARC (ANGLE) TO TIME

Convert angular arcs to time in hours and minutes.

The earth rotates 360° in 24 hrs, we can convert angular arc to time as follows:

360° = 24 hrs

15° = 1 hour

1° = 4 minutes

15’ of a degree of arc = 1 minute of time

15” (seconds of arc) = 1 second of time

Example: Convert 127° of arc into time.

Divide 127° by 15 = 8.4667 hours

The answer is now in hours but the hours must be converted to minutes.

Convert the decimals of hours (.4667) to minutes by multiplying by 60 - .4667 x 60 = 28

Answer: 8 hrs 28 minutes( use scientific calculator)

Example: Convert 137°36’ of arc to time.

These problems are most easily solved using the DMS function of a scientific calculator.

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The actual buttons to be pressed depend on which particular calculator you have bought. With the
Casio series , the dms button is marked ° ’ ” To convert arc to time,

Press the following sequence:

1 3 7 (dms) You will then see 137° in the window.

3 6 (dms) You will then see 137° 36° in the window.

÷ 1 5 = You will then see 9°10°24 - 9 hours, 10 minutes, and 24 seconds.

LOCAL MEAN TIME

• When the mean sun transits (crosses) a particular meridian, the Local Mean Time (LMT) at all
places on that meridian is 1200 hrs (midday, noon).

• Similarly, when the mean sun transits the anti-meridian of a point, the LMT at the point is
0000hrs (2400hrs) or midnight.

• It takes the Sun 1 hour to travel 15° of longitude.

• All places on same meridian will have same LMT

• LMT changes with change of meridian

• LMT uses local meridian of longitude as its reference point

• Further east to the place is further ahead is LMT

• LMT at the Greenwich Meridian is known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) also called Zulu ‘Z’,
which used to be the Earth’s standard time. The present standard time is called Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) which for all practical purposes is the same as GMT.

• Travelling westward across the 180° meridian, the LMT date increases by one day. Travelling
Eastward across the 180° meridian, the LMT date decreases by one day.

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CO-ORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC)

Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) changes at a constant rate and is regulated against International Atomic
Time (IAT) derived from atomic clocks.

• Local mean time at Greenwich is GMT

• UTC and GMT is same for all particular purpose

• When flying, UTC is maintained, UTC is the datum for world time.

• It remain same all over the world at a particular time

Convert LMT into UTC or vice versa

Longitude east, UTC least

Longitude west, UTC best

Example:

Find the UTC if the LMT in Cairo (longitude 30E) is 0900 hours.

LMT Cairo 0900

Arc/Time (Long.30E) - 0200

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UTC 0700 (UTC LEAST)

Find the UTC if the LMT in Madrid (longitude 04W) is 0400 hours.

LMT Madrid 0400

Arc/Time (Long.04W) + 0016
UTC 0416 (UTC BEST)

Find the LMT in Berlin (longitude 13E) if the UTC is 1345 hours.

UTC 1345 (UTC LEAST)

Arc/Time + 0052
LMT Berlin 1437 (Long East)

Find the LMT in San Francisco (longitude 122W) if the UTC is 2115 hours.

UTC 2115 (UTC BEST)

Arc/Time - 0808
LMT San Francisco 1307 (Long West)

Every Longitude will have a different LMT

India maintain LMT at 82o30’ E as standard time and is termed INDIAN STANDARD
TIME(IST)

IST= UTC + 5 Hour 30 Minutes

Zone Number + Zone Time = GMT

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INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

An anomaly occurs at 180°W/E. Places east of Greenwich are ahead of UTC, places west behind UTC.
The LMT at 180° is, therefore, 12 hours ahead or behind UTC, and there is a 24-hour time difference
between two places separated by the Greenwich anti-meridian.

The local date must change when crossing 180°; this is called the International Date Line. The change
of date depends upon whether the aircraft is travelling west or east:

• For an aircraft on a westerly track, a day must be added to the calendar. The
14th becomes the 15th

• For an aircraft on an easterly track, a day must be subtracted from the calendar.
The 14th becomes the 13th

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