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 THE
NATIONAL PARKS
DISCOVER ALL 62 PARKS
OF THE UNITED STATES

Written by
Stefanie Payne
 Senior editors Carrie Love, Jolyon Goddard,
Roohi Sehgal
CONTENTS
Project editor Olivia Stanford
Editor Katie Lawrence
4 What is a national park?
Assistant editors Becky Walsh, Niharika Prabhakar
Project art editors Jaileen Kaur, Roohi Rais, Kanika Kalra 6 National parks of the United States
Art editor Mohd Zishan
Assistant art editor Bhagyashree Nayak
Executive editor, Americanization Lori Cates Hand
Jacket coordinator Issy Walsh
Jacket designer Sonny Flynn
8 Wrangell–St. Elias
DTP designers Sachin Gupta, Dheeraj Singh,
Nand Kishor Acharya
12 Gates of the Arctic
Picture researchers Sakshi Saluja, Rituraj Singh
Production editor Siu Yin Chan 14 Denali
Production controller Basia Ossowska
Managing editor Monica Saigal 16 Katmai
Managing art editor Ivy Sengupta
Delhi team head Malavika Talukder
Senior commissioning designer Fiona Macdonald
18 Lake Clark
Publishing manager Francesca Young
Creative director Helen Senior
20 Death Valley
Publishing director Sarah Larter
22 Glacier Bay
Illustrators Abby Cook,
Erin Brown c/o Collaborate Agency 26 Yellowstone
Subject consultants Dr Kim Bryan,
Mike Gerrard, Eric Peterson 28 Kobuk Valley
First American Edition, 2020
Published in the United States by DK Publishing 30 Everglades
1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018

Copyright © 2020 Dorling Kindersley Limited

32 Grand Canyon
DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC
20 21 22 23 24 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001–320926–Oct/2020
36 Glacier
All rights reserved.
Without limiting the rights under the copyright
37 Olympic
reserved above, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval 38 Sequoia and Kings Canyon
system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means
(electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise), without the prior written permission 40 Big Bend
of the copyright owner.

Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited

42 Joshua Tree
A catalog record for this book is
available from the Library of Congress.
44 Yosemite
ISBN 978-0-7440-2429-6
46 Kenai Fjords
DK books are available at special discounts when
purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums,
fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: 47 Isle Royale
DK Publishing Special Markets,
1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018
[email protected]
48 Great Smoky Mountains
Printed and bound in China 52 North Cascades
54 Canyonlands
For the curious

www.dk.com
56 Hawai’i Volcanoes 103 Acadia
60 Grand Teton 104 Carlsbad Caverns
62 Rocky Mountain 108 Bryce Canyon
66 Channel Islands 110 Wind Cave
68 Badlands 111 Haleakalā
69 Capitol Reef 112 Cuyahoga Valley
70 Mount Rainier 114 Black Canyon of the Gunnison
72 Petrified Forest 115 Pinnacles
74 Voyageurs 116 Congaree
75 Shenandoah 117 Indiana Dunes
76 Crater Lake 118 Virgin Islands
80 Biscayne 119 American Samoa
120 Hot Springs
82 Great Sand Dunes
121 Gateway Arch
86 Zion
88 White Sands
122 Wildlife spotting
89 Redwood
124 Glossary
90 Lassen Volcanic
126 Index
92 Saguaro
128 Acknowledgments
93 Guadalupe Mountains
94 Great Basin
96 Arches
98 Theodore Roosevelt
99 Dry Tortugas
100 Mammoth Cave
102 Mesa Verde
 WHAT IS A
American
kestrel

NATIONAL PARK?
National parks are areas of outstanding beauty. They are

Establ

d s in
established by acts of Congress and given the highest level

.
of protection by the Department of the Interior. Managed

ark
Ne w
ish

an
by the National Park Service, the parks’ vast landscapes, d S

lp
in e

e
9, W h i t

Me
wildernesses, forests, waterways, caves, cultural heritage, xi 201

na
co
is t a tio
and wildlife are safeguarded for the enjoyment of us all. he n e w e s t n

WHAT IS A PRESERVE?
Several national parks, especially those
in
Alaska, are coupled with a national pre
Harbor seals serve.
These areas often allow hunting, trappi
lounge on ng,
icebergs in and fishing, so that longstanding commu
Glacier Bay nities
can carry on a traditional way of life. Oil
National Park and
and Preserve. gas exploration and mining are also allo
wed
in some preserves.
ONAL PA
NATI

RK

National parks attract Look for this stamp

VE

hikers from all over in the book to see PRESER

&

the world. the parks with

preserves.
4
 CARING FOR THE PARKS
Starting in 1933 with the Civilian Conservation Corps
and continuing today with rangers and volunteers,
dedicated workers are responsible for maintaining the
parks. They construct new trails, roads, and buildings,
fight fires, control f loods, perform clean-ups, help in
rescue operations, and start conservation projects.

Volunteers at Saguaro National

Park remove invasive buffel
grass to protect native plants.

T H E FA C T S
tional parks;
How many are there?: 62 na
seven are also preserves
rk
When was the National Pa
Service founded?: 1916
84 million
Visitors each year: More than
blished in 1872
First park: Yellowstone; esta
oky Mountains
Most visited park: Great Sm
the Arctic
Least visited park: Gates of

Park rangers can provide

information about the best
places to see in a park.

Florida manatee

JOBS IN THE PARKS

National Park Service rangers provide many
important services in the parks, including
teaching classes and restoring habitats. Park
police protect visitors and the parks’ natural
resources. Managers and operational staff
ensure the best experience for all visitors.
5
 ARCTIC

NATIONAL PARKS OF
OCEAN
Kobuk Gates of
Valley ALASKA the Arctic
Wrangell–

THE UNITED STATES

Denali St. Elias
Lake Clark Glacier
Bay
Katmai Kenai Fjords The United States has 62 national parks, protecting a wide
Gulf of range of different habitats. There are parks across the country
Alaska
and also in the US Virgin Islands and American Samoa.

PACIFIC OCEAN North

Olympic Cascades
Haleakalā WASHINGTON Glacier
HAWAI’I NORTH
Hawai’i Mount Rainier DAKOTA
Volcanoes MONTANA
Theodore
Roosevelt
OREGON

IDAHO
Crater SOUTH
Lake Yellowstone DAKOTA

Grand Teton
Badlands
Redwood
Wind Cave

PACIFIC
Lassen Volcanic WYOMING
NEBRASKA
OCEAN
CALIFORNIA UTAH
NEVADA
Great COLORADO Rocky
Yosemite Mountain
Basin
Capitol
Reef Arches
Pinnacles Black Canyon
Death Zion Canyonlands
of the Gunnison
Valley Bryce
Sequoia and Canyon Mesa Great Sand Dunes
Kings Canyon Verde
Grand ARIZONA

Canyon
Channel
Islands Petrified NEW MEXICO
Joshua
Tree Forest TEXAS

White
Saguaro Sands Carlsbad
Caverns
National Park of Guadalupe
American Samoa Mountains
AMERICAN
SAMOA Big Bend
PACIFIC OCEAN

6
 SIZE KEY HABITAT KEY
Less than 100,000 acres (400 km2) Deciduous forest
100,000–500,000 acres (400–2,000 km2) Coniferous forest
More than 500,000 acres (2,000 km2) Temperate grassland
Scrubland
Desert
Tropical grassland
Wetland
Tundra
Ice MAINE

Tropical forest Acadia

Voyageurs Isle Royale
VERMONT

NEW HAMPSHIRE
MINNESOTA

NEW MASSACHUSETTS
WISCONSIN YORK RHODE ISLAND

MICHIGAN CONNECTICUT

NEW JERSEY
PENNSYLVANIA
DELAWARE
IOWA
Cuyahoga
Indiana Valley MARYLAND
Dunes
ILLINOIS
OHIO
INDIANA WEST
VIRGINIA
Shenandoah
MISSOURI

KENTUCKY VIRGINIA
Gateway
KANSAS Arch Mammoth
Cave NORTH
CAROLINA ATLANTIC
Great Smoky OCEAN
TENNESSEE
Mountains SOUTH
ARKANSAS
OKLAHOMA
CAROLINA
Congaree
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Hot
Springs GEORGIA
US VIRGIN
ISLANDS

MISSISSIPPI
ALABAMA Virgin
Islands
LOUISIANA

FLORIDA

Caribbean Sea

Gulf of Mexico
Biscayne
Everglades
Dry Tortugas 7
 WRANGELL–
ST. ELIAS NAL PA TH E FA CT S

NATIO

RK
Size: 13,175,791 acres

E
&
ALASKA ESTABLISHED 1980 (53,320.53 km2)

RV
PRESE
Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve is Highest point: 18,008 ft
home to sprawling glaciers, active volcanoes, (5,489 m) at Mount St. Elias
jagged mountains, and a variety of plants and Visitors each year:
animals. It is the largest national park in Almost 75,000
the United States. The park was named for the
Wrangell and the St. Elias mountain ranges,
which both run through the park.

THE WRANGELL
MOUNTAINS
nic,
These mountains were once volca
s
but only Mount Wrangell remain
no,
active. Wrangell is a shield volca
ed
which means that runny lava f low
huge
out of it in layers to create a
ks
dome shape. Its copper-rich roc
were once mined.

Male Steller
sea lions weigh
up to 2,500 lb
(1,134 kg).

STELLER SEA LION

Steller sea lions are the biggest sea lions. They propel
themselves through water with their front f lippers
and steer with the back ones. The f lippers can
also be used for moving on land. Sea lions
bark to communicate with each other.
8
 The

s n o w.
d
there
feet a
wil

on
ea
ct l

w ’
lo

sf
lk
s n p t a r m i g a n it
ik

wa
e

ow p HUBBARD GLACIER
s h o e s to hel
Glaciers cover more than a third of Wrangell–St. Elias.
Hubbard Glacier is 7 miles (11 km) wide and f lows
76 miles (122 km) to the sea. The ice falling off its
face is as much as 500 years old.

Meadows of fireweed
can be seen in
the park.

FUN IN THE SNOW

In the winter months, snowmobiles—
called snow machines in Alaska—hikers,
and skiers are regularly seen crossing
the snowfields of the park.

PA RK HA BI TA TS
Snow and ice Massive icefields in the
mountain ranges feed rivers
Mountain of ice in the park. In lower
areas, animals live in the
Coniferous forest lakes, streams, coniferous
forests, and grassy areas.
River
9
 ASTAL MOUNTAINS
CO ranges block tain
n g e ll a n d St. Elias moun nd behind
The Wra a k in g t h e la
the sea, m rt of a chain
warm air from ra n ge s a re pa
ld. These two anges, stretch
ing
them very co cif ic C oa st R
ed the Pa h America ,
of ranges, call o a st o f N o rt
stern c
along the we to Alaska.
from Mexico
G AT E S O F NAL PA
TH E FA CT S
T H E A R C T IC

NATIO

RK
E
&
Size: 8,472,506 acres

RV
PRESE
(34,287.01 km²)
ALASKA ESTABLISHED 1980 Highest point: 8,276 ft (2,523 m)
With no roads and no set campgrounds or trails, Gates at Mount Igikpak
of the Arctic National Park and Preserve is a completely Visitors each year: About 10,500
wild landscape. The park is the farthest north of all the
national parks—it’s a land of natural treasures and
extreme beauty, filled with wildlife, rivers, and mountains.

ARRIGETCH PEAK S
Mountaineers from all over
the world come to this cluster
of rugged peaks to test out
their wilderness skills. The
peaks have long been sacred
to the Nunamiut people The park attracts
some of the most
of northwest Alaska, who adventurous
still live in the area. hikers and
backpackers.
 WALKER LAKE
This 14-mile (26-km)
stretch of water allows
Alaska Natives, living
within the par k’s
boundaries, and visitors
to enjoy wilder ness
camping, paddling, and
fishing on its shores.

The musk ox’s

long hair keeps it
warm in the cold
Alaskan climate.
MUSK OXEN
Unique to the far north,
musk oxen are recognizable
by their long hair and
distinctive horns. They
can be spotted grazing
on the grassy f lats of
northern Alaska.

PA RK HA BIT AT S
Tundra Gates of the Arctic is located
almost entirely above the
Mountain Arctic Circle. Its rugged
Mo s

ing

mountains surround six Wild

k.

River and Scenic Rivers that f low

on

ow
par

am
sc

next to forests and tundra.

gr
the

Coniferous forest nd
he

oc p i o n is f s o
o u
ft
r

ks
an
d in t meadow
he
13
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Something
about sugar
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Something about sugar

Its history, growth, manufacture and distribution

Author: George M. Rolph

Release date: May 13, 2024 [eBook #73616]

Language: English

Original publication: San Francisco: J. J. Newbegin, 1917

Credits: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOMETHING

ABOUT SUGAR ***
SOMETHING ABOUT SUGAR

Refined Sugar Showing Form of Crystals

SOMETHING ABOUT SUGAR

ITS HISTORY
GROWTH, MANUFACTURE AND
DISTRIBUTION
 BY
GEORGE M. ROLPH

Sugar
is nothing more nor less
than concentrated
sunshine

SAN FRANCISCO
JOHN J. NEWBEGIN
PUBLISHER
1917

COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY GEORGE M. ROLPH

PRINTED BY TAYLOR & TAYLOR, SAN FRANCISCO

DEDICATION:
TO R. P. RITHET
 FOREWORD
The purpose of this book is to tell in simple language “Something
About Sugar.” It gives a brief history of the commodity and its
production in different parts of the world, and seeks to show, for the
information, especially, of the layman and the pupil in school, the
various steps by which sugar from cane and beets is prepared for
the consumer.
G. M. R.
 CONTENTS
PAGE

Part I
Growth, Manufacture and Distribution
What Sugar Is 3
The Growing of Sugar Cane 6
Soil Analysis 8
Entomology 8
Pathology 9
The Manufacture of Raw Sugar 22
Extraction 22
Purification 25
Evaporation 28
Concentration and Crystallization 31
Preparation of Crystals for the Market 33
Transportation and Delivery of Raw Sugar 37
Polarization 39
Refining of Raw Sugar 44
Washing 50
Melting 54
Defecation 54
Bone-char Filtration 59
Crystallization 65
Partial Drying 69
Final Drying of Crystals 69
Screening 71
Packing 73
Cube Sugar 77
 Powdered and Bar Sugar 79
Yellow Sugars 81
Mechanical Department 84
Laboratory 87
Cost of Refining 88
Shipping Department 91
Marketing 93
Beet Sugar 100
The Sugar Beet 102
Selection of the Soil 103
Planting 104
Thinning 106
Cultivation 107
Harvesting and Topping 107
Manufacture of Beet Sugar 110
Transportation and Cleaning 110
Extraction of Juice, Slicing and Diffusion 111
Purification of Juice, Carbonation and Filtration 112
Concentration of Juice 113
Sulfitation 114
Formation of Grain 115
Steffen Process 115

Part II
History of the Industry
Early History 119
Beet Sugar in Europe 128
Beet Sugar in the United States 148
Territory of Hawaii 163
Louisiana 175
Porto Rico 182
The Philippines 189
Cuba 201
Jamaica 213
Barbados 220
Trinidad 224
Santo Domingo 227
Guadeloupe and Martinique 233
Guadeloupe 233
Martinique 234
Guadeloupe and Martinique 236
Mexico 243
Peru 249
Brazil 256
British Guiana 264
Argentina 271
Formosa 276
Java 283
Australia 302
Mauritius 309
Natal 317
Egypt 320
Spain 324
India 330
Conclusion 338
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Part I
Growth, Manufacture and Distribution
Refined Sugar, showing form of crystals Frontispiece
Sugar Cane, showing eyes or buds To face page 4
Roots of Sugar Cane 6
Jungle-like Vegetation of Cane Field 7
Leaf-Hopper 10
Sugar Cane 11
Experiment Station 12
Plantation Scene in Hawaii—light-colored foliage is
sugar cane 13
Steam Plough 14
Planting Cane 15
Irrigation Ditch, showing tunnel 16
Irrigation Ditch 17
Young Sugar Cane 18
Ripe Sugar Cane, showing tassels 19
Cutting Cane 20
Loading Cane 21
Train-Load of Cane ready for the mill 22
A Modern Mill 23
Cane Carrier and Mechanical Unloader 24
Another Type of Cane Unloader 25
Twelve-Roller Mill 26
Modern Crushing Plant; two fifteen-roller mills and
crushers, capacity 105 tons per hour 27
Delivering Bagasse to Fire-Room 28
General Interior View of Modern Raw-Sugar Mill 29
Filter Presses 30
Set of Quadruple Evaporators 31
Vacuum Pans 32
Centrifugal Machines 33
Filling, Weighing and Sewing Sacks 34
Train-Load of Raw Sugar leaving mill 35
Steamer Loading Sugar Alongside of Dock 38
Loading Sugar at an Outport in Hawaii 39
Polariscope (in body of text) Page 40
A Modern Refinery, showing water and rail
transportation facilities To face page 46
Plan Elevation of a Modern Refinery 47
Steamer Discharging Raw Sugar at Refinery Dock 48
Sugar Stored in Warehouse—25,000 tons shown in
this picture 49
Cut-in Station, showing sugar first entering the
refining process 50
Centrifugal Machine, motor driven 51
Bag Filters, showing bags in place 56
Filter Presses 57
Making New Bags and Lining the Washed Bags 58
Printing the Empty Raw-Sugar Bags 59
Char Filters 60
Char Filters, showing outlet pipes 61
Top of Char Filters, showing pipe connections 62
Exterior View of Char Drier 63
Interior Arrangement of Char Drier 64
Exterior View of Char Kilns, showing oil-burning
apparatus 65
A Refinery Vacuum Pan and Pump 66
Arrangement of Steam Coils in a Vacuum Pan 67
Refinery Centrifugal Machines 68
Exterior View of Sweater 69
Front View of Sweater, showing steam coils for
heating the air 70
Interior View of Sweater 71
Separator, closed, ready for operation 72
Separators, one of which is open, showing three
screens for separating the sugar grains 73
Filling, Weighing and Sewing 100-pound Sacks 74
Filling, Weighing and Sewing 25-pound Sacks 75
Filling Barrels 76
Method of Handling Barrels 77
Cube Sugar Machine 78
Carton Machine 79
Filling, Weighing and Sewing 2-pound, 5-pound and
10-pound Bags 80
Laboratory 86
Oil-Burning Boiler Plant 87
Inland-Waterway Steamer Loading Sugar at Refinery
Dock 92
Car-Float Arriving at Refinery Dock 93
Sugar Beet[1] 100
Another Type of Sugar Beet 101
Ploughing with Caterpillar Engine 102
Planting Beet Seed 103
Thinning 104
Cultivating 105
Field of Ripe Beets 106
Topping Beets 107
Hauling Beets 108
Delivering Beets to the Factory by Wagon 109
Delivering Beets to the Factory by Train 110
General Interior View of Beet-Sugar Factory, 111
showing filter presses in foreground; pans and
 evaporators in rear
Diffusion Battery, showing diffusion cells in circular
arrangement 112
Diffusion Battery, showing diffusion cells in straight
lines 113
Weighing, Filling and Sewing Bags in a Beet Factory 114
Cattle Feeding on Beet Pulp 115
The First Successful Beet-Sugar Factory in America—
Alvarado, California 116

Part II
History of the Industry
A Modern Beet-Sugar Factory 117
Christopher Columbus 124
Olivier de Serres 128
Andreas Marggraf 129
Franz Carl Achard 130
First Beet-Sugar Factory in the World—Built at
Cunern, Silesia, 1802 131
Napoleon I 132
Building in Salt Lake City, Utah, in which the First
Beet-Sugar Machinery Brought to the West was
Installed 150
E. H. Dyer, the Father of Beet Sugar in America 151
Hauling Cane in the Fields, Louisiana 178
Hauling Cane in the Fields, Louisiana 179
Sugar Plantation Scene in Porto Rico[2] 182
Sugar-Shipping Port, Porto Rico 183
Ploughing Cane Field with Steam Plough, Porto Rico 184
Unloading Sugar Cane at a Mill, Porto Rico 185
Ploughing Field Before Planting Cane, Philippines 190
Ploughing at La Carlota, Occidental Negros,
Philippines 191
Hauling Cane, Philippines 192
Carabao Mill, Philippines 193
Old-Style Sugar Mill, Philippines, showing poor
crushing 194
Tinguian Cane Crusher, Lingayen, Philippines 195
Old Water-Driven Mill, Island of Negros, Philippines 196
Mill Driven by Water Power, Occidental Negros,
Philippines 197
Native Sugar Factory, Pampanga Province, Philippines 198
Interior of Camarin, Philippines 199
Luzon Sugar Refinery, Malabon, Rizal, Philippines 200
Loading Sugar on Lorchas, Philippines 201
Central Factory, General View, Cuba[3] 202
Cuban Central, General View 203
Cane Field, Cuba 204
Loading Cane on Ox-Carts, Cuba 205
Train-Load of Sugar Cane, Cuba 208
Self-Dumping Cane Car, Cuba 209
Morelands Sugar Mill, Vere, Jamaica. Photo by H. H.
Cousins 216
The Fleet, Morelands, Vere, Jamaica. Photo by H. H.
Cousins 217
Leveling a Cane Field, Peru 250
Leveling Ground by Steam, Peru 251
Planting Cane, Peru 252
Portable Branch Line of Field Railway and Cane
Cutters, Peru 253
Hauling Cane-Laden Cars with Ox-Team, Peru 254
Train-Load of Cane En Route to the Factory, Peru 255
Sugar Plantation between Rio de Janeiro and São
Paulo, Brazil 260
Train-Load of Cane En Route to the Ingenio La
Mendieta, Argentina 270
Unloading a Car of Cane, Tucumán, Argentina 271
Battery of Boilers, Ingenio, La Trinidad, Tucumán,
Argentina 272
Home of Superintendent of a Sugar Plantation,
Tucumán, Argentina 273
Ingenio Nueva Baviera, Tucumán, Argentina 274
Ingenio Nueva Baviera, Tucumán, Argentina 275
Kohekirin Mill, Formosa 280
Sugar Cane Affected by the Sereh, Java 296
Seedling Canes, Java 297
Cutting Cane, Maroochy River, South Queensland 302
Carting Cane to Mill, Ingham District, North
Queensland 303
Isis Central Mill, Childers, South Queensland 304
Cane Unloader, Mulgrave Central Sugar Mill, Cairns
District, North Queensland 305
Sugar Mill, Nahan Factory, India 330
Centrifugal Worked by Hand, India 331
Wooden Mill from Gorakhpur, India (in body of
text) Page 332
Boiling by Old Method, India To face page 332
Furnace and Pans for Making Rab, India 333
Stone Mill, Agra, India (in body of text) Page 333
Small Locomotive Used to Draw Cane-Cars, 2-foot
Gauge, India To face page 334
Loading Cane Carrier, Marhourah Factory, India 335
Water-Driven Centrifugals, Marhourah Factory, India 336
Champaran Sugar Company, Ltd., Barrah Chakia,
Champaran, India 337
 Part I
Growth, Manufacture and Distribution
 WHAT SUGAR IS
Among the many varieties of sugar the most important are the
sucroses and the glucoses. They form a natural group of substances,
chiefly of vegetable origin. Chemically considered, all sugars are
carbohydrates, that is to say, bodies composed of three elements:
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Sucrose contains twelve atoms of
carbon, twenty-two atoms of hydrogen and eleven atoms of oxygen.
Apart from sucrose, which is usually cane and beet sugar, the
variety most generally met with is dextrose—one of the glucoses. It
possesses less sweetness than sucrose and differs from the latter in
chemical composition. As an example: dextrose is found in the raisin
in small grains. It also occurs in other fruits and is the result of the
inversion of sucrose.
Glucose enters largely into the manufacture of candy, being
particularly necessary in the preparation of soft filling for creams, as
a certain amount of it added to cane-sugar syrup prevents
crystallization.
Sucrose is derived from sugar cane, maple sap, sorghum and the
sugar beet. It is a solid, crystallizing in the form of monoclinic
prisms, generally with hemihedral faces, which are colorless,
transparent, have a sweet taste, a specific gravity of 1.6 and a
melting point of about 320 degrees Fahrenheit. It is soluble in about
one-half its weight in cold water, and in boiling water in almost all
proportions. It is practically insoluble in alcohol, turpentine, ether,
chloroform and similar fluids.
The crop of 1914-15 showed a world’s production of 18,409,016
long tons of sugar, and in the chapters relating to the history of
sugar will be found a statement setting forth the amount produced
by each country. The total was derived about one-half from cane
and one-half from beets, produced as follows:
 CANE BEET
Total in America 5,017,375 660,236
” Asia 4,268,618
” Australia and Polynesia 348,408
” Africa 523,788
” Europe 7,376 [4] 7,583,215
10,165,565 8,243,451

Sugar cane, described in botany as Saccharum officinarum, is a

giant-stemmed perennial grass that grows from eight to twenty-four
feet long. When ripe it produces at the top of its stalk a large
feathery plume of flowers of a gray inflorescence called the “tassel,”
which is from two to four feet in length.
There are many kinds of cane, all of which are regarded as
varieties of one species, although some botanists have raised a few
to the rank of distinct species. The cultivated types are distinguished
by the color of the internodes, yellow, red, purple or striped, and by
other general characteristics.
 SUGAR CANE—SHOWING EYES OR BUDS

The stem of the cane is solid, with joints at intervals of three to six
inches. In diameter it ranges from one to two and a half inches, and
is unbranched, bearing in its upper part numerous long, narrow
grass-like leaves, arranged in two rows. The leaves spring from large
sheaths around the joints, and have a more or less spreading blade
from three to five feet in length and two inches or more in width.
The pith, of open cellular structure, contains the sugary juice. The
tops, which contain but little sugar, are not crushed, but are used for
seed, as the plant germinates from the eyes, or buds, which grow on
the stem around the joints. Practically no cultivated cane is
propagated from its seed. The roots that remain in the ground after
the cane is harvested throw up fresh canes or ratoons for many
seasons, after which replanting is necessary. Hawaiian growers do
not count on ratoons for more than a few crops, whereas in Cuba
this process can be repeated for many years.
As a rule, sugar cane consists of about eighty-eight per cent of
juice and twelve per cent of fiber, the juice content varying from
time to time, both as regards quality and amount. The quantity of
the juice pressed from the cane determines the efficiency of the
extraction, while quality is the main factor when the result of
subsequent manufacture is under analysis.
It is difficult to arrive at a fair average of the composition of the
juice of the cane, as it varies in different countries, on different
plantations in the same country, and at different periods in any one
year. The following is an approximation:

Water 80.8 per cent

Sugar 16.4 ”
Invert sugar 1.98 ”
Organic non-sugar .54 ”
Ash (mineral matter) .28 ”
 THE GROWING OF SUGAR CANE
Sugar cane grows almost exclusively in the tropical belt, extending
from twenty-two degrees north to twenty-two degrees south
latitude, where the three essentials for its successful culture, viz.,
fertile soil, hot sunshine and plenty of moisture, are present. It
flourishes in the islands of the Pacific ocean, particularly in the
Hawaiian group, in Cuba, Mexico, Central America, the islands of the
East and West Indies, Australia, China, India, along the shores of the
China sea and the Indian ocean, and in certain parts of Africa and
South America. In the low latitudes of the temperate zone it is
grown with only fair success.
Owing to peculiar climatic conditions, sugar cane has been raised
in southern Spain for generations, notwithstanding the fact that the
provinces in which the sugar cane is grown lie, roughly speaking,
between thirty-six degrees and thirty-eight degrees north latitude.
The Gulf Stream is no doubt largely responsible for this
phenomenon. The quantity of sugar produced in Spain, however, is
small, the crop of 1914-15 amounting to less than 8000 tons.
Sugar cane thrives best in a moist, warm climate, with moderate
intervals of dry, hot weather, and plenty of water for irrigation. It
requires marly soil, free from saline ingredients. As a rule, it is raised
on the lowlands, where the temperature is highest and where it is
easy to bring water for irrigation. In Hawaii it takes eighteen months
to ripen, and “tasseling” occurs about thirty days before it is ready to
be cut. In Louisiana and Texas, because of the short seasons, cane
is harvested in from nine to ten months from the time of sprouting,
and, consequently, before it has attained maturity. In Cuba it is cut
in twelve months, whether it is ripe or not.
ROOTS OF SUGAR CANE
 JUNGLE-LIKE VEGETATION OF CANE FIELD

As the scientific culture and manufacture of sugar is probably

further advanced in the Hawaiian islands than in any other part of
the world, a description of the industry as carried on there will serve
to illustrate the intensive cultivation and scientific methods of the
present day.
The Hawaiian islands are situated in the Pacific ocean, in latitude
nineteen degrees to twenty-two degrees north and in longitude one
hundred and fifty-four degrees to one hundred and sixty-one
degrees west, and are free from the destructive hurricanes of the
East and West Indies. They are of volcanic formation and, as a rule,
their centers are mountainous, in some instances reaching an
elevation of nearly fourteen thousand feet. During the ages,
torrential rains carried volcanic ash from the mountains toward the
sea, near which it was deposited, thus forming alluvial areas of vast
richness around the circumference of the islands. Parts of some of
the islands are fringed with coral reefs, barriers that retain the
washings from the mountains. In these low-lying areas the soil is
extraordinarily fertile, and it is on such ground that the most
generous crops are raised.
The soft, warm trade winds that blow from the northeast become
laden with moisture as they sweep over the ocean; when they strike
the cold mountain peaks the moisture condenses immediately into
copious rains. The precipitation in some places reaches the
astounding total of three hundred inches per annum. The rain water
is conserved and, when needed, is carried to the various plantations
by immense irrigation ditches.
In this tropical region there is an abundance of sunshine,
accompanied by humid heat, exactly the conditions needed. It
required only man’s ingenuity to utilize what nature so lavishly
provided.
The commercial cultivation of sugar cane in these islands began
about 1850, when a few hundred tons of raw sugar were produced,
but the methods of husbandry and manufacture were crude. Time
and experience worked great changes, until in 1914-15 the crop of
raw sugar totaled 646,448 tons of 2000 pounds each.
For many years past the sugar planters have maintained in
Honolulu an experimental station that is the marvel of the
agricultural world. The bulletins issued by it are recognized as
authoritative, and are read with interest in every sugar-producing
country.
The most important features of the work carried on at this station
are:

1. SOIL ANALYSIS

Skilled chemists examine the soils of the various plantations and,

when occasion demands, advise the planter what necessary element
is lacking, as well as how to obtain and apply it. A few years ago this
branch of the work was considered highly important. Recently,
however, the agriculturists have been depending more upon well-
defined systems of experimentation. Each plantation has on its own
lands plots of ground on which different methods of culture are tried
and on which various kinds of fertilizer are used. Experiments are
also made to determine the exact amount of water needed for
irrigation. Particular attention is paid to seed cane, and a number of
types of it are planted in order to obtain seed that will produce stalks
that grow rapidly, yield a large tonnage per acre, contain a
maximum amount of sugar, and have a high resistant power against
disease and insect pests. The success attending this practical
experimental work is such that soil analysis is being relegated to
second place.

2. ENTOMOLOGY

A staff of trained experts assiduously study the insect life and

eagerly watch for harmful, troublesome pests, which in the past
have wrought great damage. It is their duty to find the means of
eliminating these pests, and this they usually accomplish through the
skillful use of insect parasites.

3. PATHOLOGY

The pathologists attached to the station supplement the scientific

labors of the chemists and the entomologists by prescribing for any
disease that may attack the cane. Plant life is subject to as many ills
as the human family, and the work of these specialists in restoring
health to ailing cane is of the highest importance.
To fully illustrate the character and scope of their work, a
particular instance for each department may be cited:
A certain planter found that the amount of sugar obtained from
his cane was decreasing yearly, though he could see no good reason
for it. The land looked right; he ploughed deeply, harrowed well,
kept the weeds down, gave the cane plenty of water, could find no
reason to complain of climatic conditions, but still did not get
satisfactory results. Finally the head of the experimental station was
consulted and an agricultural chemist was sent to the plantation.
This chemist, after careful investigation, took samples of the soil
from various parts of the land; these were analyzed and the source
of the trouble was found to be the lack of potash. Just here it may
be explained that when the same crop is taken from the land many
years in succession, without adequate fertilization, some of the
essential properties of the soil become exhausted. Speaking
generally, these are lime, soda, potash, phosphates and nitrogen. In
this particular instance, as has been said, the land had been
gradually drained of its potash. The experimental station
recommended the planter to scatter a certain fertilizer over his
fields. This advice was followed and the next crop showed
remarkable improvement, the yield of cane and sugar per acre being
greater than ever before.
At one time the sugar industry of the Hawaiian islands was
threatened with annihilation by a little insect called the “leaf-hopper.”
The harm done by this pest was so enormous that one plantation
having an average yearly crop of 19,000 tons was so severely
affected that the yield dropped from 19,000 to 12,000, and then to
3000 tons in three successive crops. All the plantations on the
islands suffered to a greater or lesser extent, and the entire sugar
industry of Hawaii was jeopardized.
The hoppers punctured the stalks and leaves of the young cane,
and in the holes thus formed laid their eggs by thousands. When the
young hoppers hatched out, they fed on the juices in the stalk and
in the leaves, thus destroying the leaves and depriving the cane of
its protection and principal means of absorbing nourishment from
the air.
As soon as the leaf-hopper by its ravages made itself known in the
islands, the entomologists were consulted, and they were confronted
with the task of studying the life and habits of the hopper for the
purpose of finding, if possible, some other insects that would attack
and exterminate it. It is well known to entomologists that every
insect pest has natural enemies; the vital question in this case was—
what were the natural enemies of the leaf-hopper and where were
they to be found? Obviously, too, the problem was to discover
insectivorous enemies that would not themselves attack the cane
after they had destroyed the hopper.
After careful investigation it was concluded that the leaf-hopper
had been introduced in Hawaii in new varieties of seed cane
imported from Australia, and, as the hopper was not doing material
damage on the plantations in Australia, the inference was that it
must be controlled there by its natural enemy. The chief of the
Department of Entomology was sent to London. There in the
archives of the British Museum he found a full description of the leaf-
hopper and that its native habitat was Queensland, Australia. On his
return to Hawaii, entomologists were sent to Australia and the
search for the enemy of the hopper began.
LEAF-HOPPER (GREATLY MAGNIFIED)
 SUGAR CANE

For weeks the entomologists virtually lived in the cane fields,

undergoing extreme privations, but at last their faithfulness was
crowned with success. Several species of parasites that kept the
Queensland leaf-hopper in check were discovered, and later on more