Topic one: Computer system

A computer system is an interconnection (collection) of devices such as hardware and software

that are designed to receive, process, store, manage and present information in a meaningful
format. Sometimes the computer system may be connected to external computing devices (also
known as peripheral devices) to expand the computer functionalities.
Example: computer may be connected to the printer to allow users to print (transform the soft
copy document into a hard copy document).
Computer can also be connected to other peripheral devices such as the printers, scanners. Each
computer connected to the system can operate independently, but has the ability to communicate
with other external devices and computers.

Main Components of Computer System

Computer components are all the parts that make up a computer system. Computer components
work in close conjunction with each other to facilitate user functionalities. When one component
fails, many others are affected and sometime the entire system may not work as expected.
There are three major components of a computer system which includes;
a) hardware
b) software
c) humanware (Liveware)

Computer hardware
Computer hardware is the tangible physical elements (parts) that the computer requires to
function. Such components include the cabinet, central processing unit, monitor, keyboard,
computer data storage, graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard. Most of a
computer's hardware cannot be seen since they are not external elements of the computer, but
rather an internal element surrounded by the computer's casing (tower).
The computer hardware is comprised of many different parts and their differs from desktop PCs
from that of laptops due to their differences in size and sometimes capability. However, all
computers must have the same core components. Without computer hardware, there would be no
way of running the essential software such as operating system, word, excel application software
that makes computers so useful.

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computer hardware sub components
Computer hardware comprises (is made up) of the following sub components:
I. Input devices
II. Storage devices
III. Processing devices
IV. Output devices
Computer Input and output Devices
Computer Input Devices
An input device is a piece of equipment used to enter (provide) data and control signals to an
information processing system such as a computer.
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer.

Keyboard
A 'keyboard' is a computer interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. Each
button, or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer, or to call upon a
particular function of the computer.
It acts as the main text entry interface for most computing devices.

Most English language keyboards use the QWERTY layout for the alphabetic keys, which are
surrounded by number, symbol, function, and other key types. By pressing the relevant keys, a
user can feed data and instructions to the computer.

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Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys
that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of
the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control
keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse or touchpad (pointing device)

Plural mice
Mouse or touchpad are pointing derives that acts as human interface device in order to allow a
user to input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mouse and touchpads, this is usually
achieved by detecting movement across a physical surface like the top of the table.

data related to or containing information about a specific location on the Earth's surface. See
more: Why You Should Care About Spatial Data.

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Or mouse is hand held device that detects 2D motion on screen in relative to surface.

Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the pointer on the
physical surface, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's graphical user
interface (GUI).

Classification of pointing devices

Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can classified
according to:

Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with the
display space. For example, pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the pointer
appears. Touchscreens and light pens are good examples of direct input.

On the other hand, for indirect pointing devices, the position on the physical surface does not
coincide with display space. For example, the use of the mouse and trackball.
Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g. with
a mouse that can be lifted and repositioned)

Other examples of pointing devices includes:

pointing stick
touchscreen
trackball

A mouse can be wired or wireless. It allows the user to do the following:

1. Move the mouse cursor
2. Select
3. Scroll
4. Open or execute a program
5. Drag-and-drop
6. Hover
7. Perform other functions with the use of additional buttons

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Note that: A laptop uses a touchpad as the mouse. A smartphone and tablet use a
touchscreen as primary input device and the user’s finger is used as the mouse.

Question: explain the use of the mouse on computers.

Answer

A mouse interacts with a computer through a process known as "point and click." Essentially,
when a user moves the mouse on the mouse pad, the pointer moves in a corresponding direction
on the computer's monitor screen. The concept of a computer mouse has its roots in the trackball,
a related pointing device invented in 1946 that used a "roller ball" to control a pointer. Most
modern computer mice have two buttons for clicking and a wheel in the middle for scrolling up
and down documents and web pages.

Joy Stick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

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When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

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Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Graphic Tablet/Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.

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Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

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Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

OCR deals with the problem of recognizing all kinds of different characters. Both hand written
and printed characters can be recognized and converted into a machine-readable, digital data
format.

Think of any kind of serial number or code consisting of numbers and letters that you need
digitized. By using OCR you can transform these codes into a digital output. The technology
makes use of many different techniques. Put simply, the image taken is processed, the characters
extracted, and are then recognized.

What OCR does not do is consider the actual nature of the object that you want to scan. It simply
“takes a look” at the characters that you aim to transform into a digital format. For example, if
you scan a word it will learn and recognize the letters, but not the meaning of the word.

Show case:

Bar Code Reader

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Optical Mark reading (OMR) is a method of entering data into a computer system.
Optical Mark Readers reads pencil or pen marks made in pre-defined positions on paper forms as
responses to questions or tick list prompts. The OMR data entry system contains the information
to convert the presence or absence of marks into a computer data file.

The main advantages of OMR technology:

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OMR scanning is fast: An OMR scanner can maintain a throughput of 2000 to 10,000 forms per
hour. This activity can be controlled and processed by a single PC workstation, which can handle
any volume the scanner can generate. Increasing the throughput simply requires upgrading the
scanner. Double entry is not required.
OMR scanning is accurate: It consistently provides unmatched accuracy when reading data,
exceeding the accuracy of expert key-entry clerks because it eliminates transcription errors.
OMR scanning is cost effective: With OMR technology, organizations can accomplish a wide
variety of administrative tasks rapidly and accurately from a central location, with minimum
initial and ongoing outlay of funds.
OMR scanning is easy to implement and support : Compared to many PC network installations,
OMR scanners' need for ongoing technical support is minimal. OMR scanners also solve most
system availability issues: data can be recorded on an OMR form even when a PC or network
goes down. If questions arise, a source form is available to validate results.

Computer storage device (also known as digital storage/storage/storage

media)
Remember the main functions of computer?

some of the storage devices

Storing data and applications is one of them. Reason being, the need to store the end result e.g
information as well as the application software that helps in accomplishing tasks using a
computer e.g. creating a document such as a letters. Data and document storage needs to be
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stored on one of several available storage devices for later retrieval, printing and future
references.
Storage medium hold data and can maintain the data for a reasonable length of time (months to
centuries, depending on which type of storage it uses) even without power.
Computer storage capacity is measured in bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes
(GB) and increasingly terabytes (TB) and so on to yottabyte. One byte is one character of
information, and is comprised of eight bits (or eight digital 1's or 0's). Technically a kilobyte is
1024 bytes, a megabyte 1024 kilobytes, a gigabyte 1024 megabytes, and a terabyte 1024
gigabytes. This said, whilst this remains true when it comes to a computer's internal RAM and
solid-state storage devices (like USB memory sticks and flash memory cards), measures of hard
disk capacity often take 1MB to be 1,000,000 bytes (not 1,024,768 bytes) and so on. This means
that the storage capacity of two devices labelled as the same size can be different, and which
remains an ongoing source of debate within the computer industry.
The table below shows the hierarchy of computer's storage capabilities.

Bit
Bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer (also known as a Binary Digit). A bit has a single
binary value, either 0 or 1. In most computer systems, there are eight bits in a byte. The value of
a bit is usually stored as either above or below a designated level of electrical charge in a single
capacitor within a memory device.

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Nibble

Half a byte (four bits) is called a nibble. (Not commonly used)

Byte

A byte is a unit of data that is eight binary digits long. A byte is the unit most computers use to
represent a character such as a letter, number or typographic symbol (for example, “a”, “5”, or
“?”). A byte can also hold a string of bits that need to be used in some larger unit of application
purposes (for example, the stream of bits that constitute a visual image for a program that
displays images or the string of bits that constitutes the machine code of a computer program).

Octet

In some systems, the term octet is used for an eight-bit unit instead of byte. In many systems,
four eight-bit bytes or octets form a 32-bit word. In such systems, instructions lengths are
sometimes expressed as full-word (32 bits in length) or half-word (16 bits in length).

Kilobyte

A Kilobyte (KB or Kbyte) is approximately a thousand bytes (actually, 2 to the 10th power, or
decimal 1,024 bytes).

Megabyte

As a measure of computer processor storage and real and virtual memory, a megabyte
(abbreviated MB) is 2 to the 20th power byte, or 1,048,576 bytes in decimal notation.

Gigabyte

A Gigabyte (pronounced Gig-a-bite with hard G’s) is a measure of computer data storage
capacity and is “roughly” a billion bytes. A gigabyte is two to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824
in decimal notation.

Terabyte

A Terabyte is a measure of computer storage capacity and is 2 to the 40th power of 1024
gigabytes.

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Petabyte

A Petabyte (PB) is a measure of memory or storage capacity and is 2 to the 50th power bytes or,
in decimal, approximately a thousand terabytes (1024 terabytes).
Types of computer Storage
There are four type of storage devices.
•Primary Storage
•Secondary Storage
•Tertiary Storage

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F A picture showing main computer storage devices
primary storage device
A primary storage device is a medium that holds data that the computer needs to perform given
task. It is directly or indirectly connected to the computer CPU via memory BUS.
Primary storage devices are internal to the system and are the fastest of the memory/storage
device category. Typically, primary storage devices have an instance of all the data and
applications currently in use or being processed. The computer fetches and keeps the data and
files it in the primary storage device until the process is completed or data is no longer required.
Examples/ types of primary storage:
I. RAM
II. ROM
III. Cache
IV. Registers
Random Access Memory (RAM) (main memory)
RAM is the main memory in a computer, and it is much faster to read from and write to than
other kinds of storage, such as a hard disk drive (HDD).
RAM is used to temporarily store instructions, code and programs and their associated data, after
a device is already up and running.
RAM stores data and instruction that processor needs to process data. The processor read
instructions stored in the RAM and executes them as required. Random access allows the PC
processor to access any part of the memory directly rather than having to proceed sequentially
from a starting place.
RAM is volatile and therefore, when computer is powered off, all the data in the RAM are wiped
(RAM is wiped clean). The volatile nature of RAM means that additional storage devices are
needed to store and retain data after the computer is switched off.
RAM is located close to a computer’s processor to allow the computer to read data quickly to run
applications. It allows reading and writing. If your computer has a large RAM, it means that you
can load large volume of data to the RAM at once to avoid coming back to the secondary storage
often.

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Types of RAM
There are two main types
of RAM:
1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
2. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM)

DRAM is used to store data or program code that a computer processor needs to function.
DRAM stores each bit of data or program code in a storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a
transistor organized in a rectangular configuration of storage cells. A DRAM storage cell is
dynamic in that it needs to be refreshed (given a new charges) every few milliseconds to
compensate for charge leaks from the capacitor. The capacitors are constantly refreshed to help
maintain the contents of memory.

Main characteristics of DRAM

DRAM needs to be refreshed regularly (continuously) to retain the data it holds.

DRAM is slower and cheaper than SRAM.

Sensitive to disturbances.

Short data lifetime.

Less power consumption.

Used as RAM

Static random-access memory (SRAM)

SRAM retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the
power gets down i.e. when computer is switched off.

SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

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SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
No need to refresh
Faster than DRAM
Used as cache memory
Large size than DRAM
More expensive than DRAM
High power consumption than DRAM

cache
Cache is used to hold or store data/instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by
CPU. Data and commands that are often used over and over again for programs are mainly what
the computer stores in the cache memory.

It is faster than RAM since it is designed to speed up the transfer of data and instructions. It is
located inside or close to the CPU chip.

Read-Only Memory (ROM) (non-volatile primary storage)

ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It refers to computer memory chips that stores data
permanently. Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile, even after you turn off your computer, the
contents of ROM will remain (retained).

ROM contains the programs needed to start a PC, which are essential for boot-up processes.
This operation is referred to as bootstrap. it performs major input/output tasks and holds
programs or software instructions needed during computer booting. Such software are firmware
and BIOS.

In a simplified way we can say that: ROM stores the program required to initially boot the
computer. It only allows reading.

Personal computer comes with a small amount of ROM containing the boot firmware which
consists of a few kilobytes of code that tell the computer what to do when it starts up, e.g.,
running hardware diagnostics and loading the operating system into RAM.

On a PC, the boot firmware is called the basic input output system (BIOS).

Because ROM cannot be changed and is read-only, it is mainly used for firmware. Firmware is
software programs or sets of instructions that are embedded into a hardware device. It supplies
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the needed instructions on how a device communicates with various hardware components.
Firmware is referred to as semi-permanent because it does not change unless it is updated.

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

This type of ROM can be re-programmed by using a special device called a PROM programmer.
Generally, a PROM can only be changed/updated once. The user buys a blank PROM and enters
the desired contents using a PROM program.

Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.

PROM is manufactured as blank memory ready for accenting users to write the data. Once a
program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.

Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM).

EPROM is a special type of memory that retains its contents until it is exposed to ultraviolet
light.

The ultraviolet light clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the memory.

To write to and erase an EPROM, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or
PROM burner.

Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).

EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.

Register

Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions
that are being used immediately by the CPU.
The registers used by the CPU are often termed as Processor registers.

OR
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Registers are memories located within the Central Processing Unit (CPU). They are few in
number (there are rarely more than 64 registers) and also small in size, typically a register is less
than 64 bits; 32-bit and more recently 64-bit are common in desktops.
The contents of a register can be “read” or “written” very quickly. However, often an order of
magnitude faster than main memory and several orders of magnitude faster than disk memory.
Different kinds of register are found within the CPU. General Purpose Registers are available
for general use by the programmer. Unless the context implies otherwise, we’ll use the term
"register" to refer to a General Purpose Register within the CPU.
Most modern CPU’s have between 16 and 64 general purpose registers. Special Purpose
Registers have specific uses and are either non-programmable and internal to the CPU or
accessed with special instructions by the programmer.
Examples of such registers that we will encounter in the course include:
the Program Counter register (PC), the Instruction Register (IR), the ALU Input &
Output registers, the Condition Code (Status/Flags) register, the Stack Pointer register
(SP).
The size (the number of bits in the register) of the these registers varies according to
register type. The Word Size of an architecture is often (but not always!) defined by the
size of the general-purpose registers.
In contrast to main memory and disk memory, registers are referenced directly by specific
instructions or by encoding a register number within a computer instruction.
The contents of a register are lost if power to the CPU is turned off, so registers are unsuitable
for holding long-term information or information that is needed for retention after a power-
shutdown or failure.
Registers are however, the fastest memories, and if exploited can result in programs that execute
very quickly.

Types of Registers and their functions

Memory address Register:
Used to store memory address being accessed by the CPU. When the CPU wants is reading or
writing to a memory, is stores the address of that memory in Memory address Register.
Memory Buffer Register:
Used to store the data coming from the memory or going to memory.
Program counter:
Also known as instruction pointer, used to store the address of of the next instruction to be
fetched for execution. When the instruction is fetched, the value of the program counter is
incremented to refer to the next instruction.

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Instruction Register:
Used to store instructions fetched from the main memory. The control unit of the processor
takes instructions from instruction register. Decoding is also done in this register.
Accumulator Register:
The Accumulator (AC) register is a general-purpose processing register.

Register types, their size and type of data they store.

Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU.

There are various types of registers depending on the various purpose they are used for.

Some of the mostly used registers named are AC or Accumulator, Data Register or DR, the AR
or Address Register, program counter (PC), Memory Data Register (MDR), Index register,
Memory Buffer Register.

These Registers are used by the CPU for performing the various operations while users are
working on the system.

When user gives Some Input to the System then the Input will be Stored into the Registers and
when the system will give user the results after processing, the result will also be from the
registers. Therefore they are used by the CPU for Processing the Data which is given by the
user.

Registers Perform the following:

Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions that are given by the user and the
Instructions that are stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.

Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the instructions meaning to the computer.
After instructions are decoded the CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on the
instructions.
Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU and results that are produced by the
CPU are then stored into the Memory and after that they are displayed on the user screen.

Types of Registers

Memory Address Register (MAR)

This register holds the memory addresses of data and instructions. This register is used to access
data and instructions from memory during the execution phase of an instruction.
Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory or to read the data from the
memory. It places the address of the-required memory location in the MAR.
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Program Counter

The program counter (PC), commonly called the instruction pointer (IP) in Intel x86
microprocessors, and sometimes called the instruction address register, or just part of the
instruction sequencer in some computers, is a processor register is a 16 bit special function
register in the 8085 microprocessor. It keeps track of the next memory address of the
instruction that is to be executed once the execution of the current instruction is completed. In
other words, it holds the address of the memory location of the next instruction when the
current instruction is executed by the microprocessor.

Memory Data Register (MDR)

MDR is the register of a computer's control unit (UI) that contains the data to be stored in the
computer storage (e.g. RAM), or the data after a fetch from the computer storage. It acts
like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from the memory ready for the processor to use
it. MDR hold the information before it goes to the decoder.
MDR which contains the data to be written into or readout of the addressed location. For
example, to retrieve the contents of cell 123, we would load the value 123 (in binary, of course)
into the MAR and perform a fetch operation. When the operation is done, a copy of the contents
of cell 123 would be in the MDR. To store the value 98 into cell 4, we load a 4 into the MAR
and a 98 into the MDR and perform a store. When the operation is completed the contents of cell
4 will have been set to 98, by discarding whatever was there previously.
The MDR is a two-way register. When data is fetched from memory and placed into the MDR, it
is written to in one direction. When there is a write instruction, the data to be written is placed
into the MDR from another CPU register, which then puts the data into memory.
The Memory Data Register is half of a minimal interface between a micro program and
computer storage, the other half is a memory address register.

Index Register

A hardware element which holds a number that can be added to (or, in some cases, subtracted
from) the address portion of a computer instruction to form an effective address. Also known as
base register. An index register in a computer's CPU is a processor register used for modifying
operand addresses during the run of a program.

Memory Buffer Register

MBR stand for Memory Buffer Register. This register holds the contents of data or instruction
read from, or written in memory. It means that this register is used to store data/instruction
coming from the memory or going to the memory.

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 Data Register

Register Symbol Number of bits Function A register used

Data register DR 16 Holds memory operand(values) in
microcomputers
Address register AR 12 Holds address for the memory to temporarily
Accumulator AC 16 Processor register store data being
transmitted to or
Instruction register IR 16 Holds instruction code
from a
Program counter PC 12 Holds address of the instruction peripheral
Temporary register TR 16 Holds temporary data device.

Input register INPR 8 Carries input character

Output register OUTR 8 Carries output character Summary of
registers in a
table

Secondary storage
Secondary storage technology are storage media that stores data permanently and are not always
directly accessible by a computer processor. This differs from primary storage technology in that
they have a larger storage capacity than primary storage devices and they store data permanently.

Examples of secondary storage devices include both internal and external hard drives, USB flash
drives, and tape drives. These devices must be connected to a computer's external I/O ports in
order to be accessed by the system. They may or may not require their own power supply.

Hard disk
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It is the default storage device in a computer which stores data and programs.

Flash drive
A flash drive is a small external USB storage device that reads and writes to flash memory, a
solid-state storage medium that's both inexpensive and durable.

Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data may be stored. It can store a
large amount of data at a low cost. It requires a tape drive to read and write data on a tape.
Unlike hard disk, the accessing method of magnetic tape is sequential access. This slow storage
is mainly used for long-term storage and backup.

Solid-State Drives (SSD)

Solid-state drives emerged far more recently, in the ‘90s. SSDs don’t rely on magnets and disks,
instead they use a type of flash memory called NAND. In an SSD, semiconductors store
information by changing the electrical current of circuits contained within the drive. This means
that unlike HDDs, SSDs don’t require moving parts to operate.

Because of this, SSDs not only work faster and smoother than HDDs (HDDs take longer to
gather information due to the mechanical nature of their platters and heads), they also generally
last longer than HDDs (with so many intricate moving parts, HDDs are vulnerable to damage
and wear).

Outside of newer PCs and high-end laptops, you can find SSDs in smartphones, tablets, and
sometimes video cameras.

Optical Storage Devices

Optical storage medias are storage devices whose all read and write activities are performed by
light.
In the optical storage devices, all data is saved like as patterns of dots which can be easily read
with using of LIGHT. Laser Beam is used like as “Light Source”.
The data is read while bouncing laser beam on the surface of storage medium.
All recording information stores at an optical disk. Compact space is most useful for huge data
storage. Their big advantages are not more costly, light weight, and easy to transport because it is
removable device unlike hard drive.

Examples/types of optical disks

CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Ray disks are used for a lot more than just playing music and videos. They
also act as storage devices, and collectively they’re known as optical storage devices or optical
disk media.

Binary code is stored on these disks in the form of minuscule bumps along a track that spirals
outwards from the center of the disk. When the disk is in operation it spins at a constant speed,

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while a laser contained within the disk drive scans the bumps on the disk. The way the laser
reflects or bounces off a bump determines whether it represents a 0 or 1 in binary.

A DVD has a tighter spiral track than a CD, allowing it to store more data despite being the same
size, and a finer red laser is used in DVD drives than CD drives.

DVDs also allow dual layering to increase their capacity further. Blu-Ray took things to another
level, storing data on multiple layers with even smaller bumps that require an even finer blue
laser to read them.

CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, and BD-ROM refer to optical storage disks that are read-only, meaning
the data written on them is permanent and cannot be removed or overwritten. These are
commonly used for software installation programs, but cannot be used as a personal storage
device.

CD-R, DVD-R, and BD-R format disks are recordable, but cannot be overwritten. Whatever data
you save on a blank recordable disk will then be permanently stored on that disk. So, they can
store data, but they’re not quite as flexible as other storage devices.

CD-RW, DVD-RW, and BD-RE are re-writable, so you can continuously write new data on
them and erase unwanted data from them. While they’ve been largely overtaken by newer
technology like flash memory, CD-RWs were for a long time the top choice for external
storage—most desktop computers and many laptops have a CD or DVD drive.

CD can store up to 700 MB of data, DVD-DL can store up to 8.5 GB, and Blu-Ray can store
between 25 and 128 GB of data.

Summery
CD-ROM (CD Read-Only Memory)
Normally it can store 800MB of data. The contents inside cannot be changed or overwritten once
it is stored with data. It is cheap and durable so software publishers use them to distribute
software program. A CD-ROM drive is needed to read the data in CD-ROM.
CD-R (CD Recordable) and CD-RW (CD Rewriteable)
Both of them allow users to write data onto a CD-R or CD-RW disc. The difference of them is
that each disc area of a CD-R can be written only once, while a CD-RW can be write and
overwritten for many times.

DVD-ROM (DVD)
It is similar to CD-ROM but its capacity varied from 4.7GB to 17GB. A DVD-ROM drive is
needed to read data from a DVD-ROM. As its capacity is large, film companies use them to
publish high quality film.
DVD R and DVD RW
It is similar to CD-R and CD-RW, but has a much higher capacity. Unlike CD, there are different
standard for them, which are DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD+R, DVD+RW and DVD-RAM.

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Different disc drives and different discs are not compatible, so you have to use the specific kind
of disk drive and disc.

Floppy Disks

While they may mostly obsolete at this point, we can’t discuss storage devices without at least
mentioning the humble floppy disk. Floppy disks were the first widely-available portable,
removable storage devices. They work in the same way as hard disk drives, although at a much
smaller scale.

The storage capacity of floppy disks never exceeded 200 MB before CD-RW and flash drives
became the favored storage media. The iMac was the first personal computer released without a
floppy disk drive, in 1998, and from here the over 30-year reign of the floppy disk very quickly
declined.

Tertiary storage
Tertiary storage devices are used to provide huge storage capacity for archiving data ( storing
data that are not frequently accessed) at low cost.
Several types of storage devices are available to be used at the tertiary storage level in
Hierarchical Storage Systems (HSS).
They include:
Magnetic tapes, Optical disks and Optical tapes.
These storage devices are composed of fixed storage drives and removable media units. The
storage drives are fixed to the computer system. The removable media unit can be removed from
the drives so that the storage capacity can be expanded with more media units.
When data on a media are accessed, the media unit is accessed from their normal location. One
of the storage drives on the computer system is chosen. If there is a media unit in the storage
drive, the old media unit is unloaded and ejected. The new media unit is then loaded to the drive.
Each type of storage drive may handle the storage drives and media units differently.

Processing devices/components (processor/microprocessor).

Processing device is any device in a computer that handles intermediate stages between data
input and output (converting data into meaningful information). Processing devices also manages
the storage and retrieval of information.
For example, in the diagram below, the CPU as the processing device. Computer is fed with data
(sound), process that data with codes and produce results (audio file). Data is entered into a
computer via input devices, including a keyboard or mouse. This data is processed into
information and then output on such components as monitors or sets of speakers. The data
received from an input device first goes through an intermediate stage before being output on
appropriate devices. The CPU, for instance, takes entered data and performs necessary
processing, including calculations, and saves it on the computer's memory.

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Types of processing devices.
Some of the most common processing devices in a computer include the following: Some of the
most common processing devices in a computer include the following:
• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Graphics processing unit (GPU)
Essentially computer has one central processing device and it is that which executes the
programs that you want to run on your computer. There are several other processing units on
your computer but they are not modular. They do a very specific type of processing and you
don't have any control over their function as it is preset into a complex and well-orchestrated
mechanism to enable the various features of your computer.
So essentially the CPU is the central processing unit and it is physically located as the
microprocessor connected on computer's motherboard. The CPU in itself is a vastly complex
machine separated into several sub-sections, depending on the chip model and manufacturer. For
example, some processors have inbuilt graphics processors, which are built with specialised
capabilities of the to deal with graphics-related computations more effectively.
Concerning graphics, a graphics card is also a processing unit, but designed to compute graphics-
related work instead of general processing work. Thus you cannot use your graphics card to
run Windows or an application.
The Central processing unit (CPU)
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
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input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions passed to computer software or user.
OR
Microprocessor or the processor, the CPU is the computer hardware component responsible for
fetching, decoding, and executing program instructions as well as performing mathematical and
logical calculations. It processes all information from programs running in the computer. Most
modern CPUs are contained on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip and as such are called
microprocessors.
The ‘clock speed’, or the speed at which the processor processes information, is measured in
gigahertz (GHz). This means that a processor advertising a high GHz rating will likely perform
faster than a similarly specified processor of the same brand and age.
The processor chip is identified by the processor type and the manufacturer. This information is
usually inscribed on the chip itself. For example, Intel 386, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
386, Cyrix 486, Pentium MMX, Intel Core 2Duo, or iCore7.

A processor can have two or more CPUs or independent processing units called “cores” on a
single chip and such is called a multi-core processor. The single processor can run multiple
instructions on separate cores at the same time, increasing overall speed for programs to be
executed. The microprocessors currently used in almost all personal computers today are multi-
core.
A multi-core processor is actually a CPU that had two or more independent cores. Cores are
similar to usual processors. They execute program instructions. The main advantage of a multi-
core processor is that it can run several instructions at the same time. This feature increases
performance speed significantly. All programs that have parallel computing features can run on
multi-core processors.

The CPU architecture.

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Below is a simplified diagram describing the overall architecture of a CPU. You must be able to
outline the architecture of the central processing unit (CPU) and the functions of the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU) and the registers within the CPU. (all the following
diagrams represents the same architecture)

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Major Components of Processor
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The arithmetic logic unit executes all calculations within the
CPU .
Control Unit: control unit, coordinates how data and instructions moves around the processor (in
and out pf the processor). As well as controlling the operation of the ALU.
Registers, Used as internal memory location within the actual processor that work at very fast
speeds. It stores instructions which await to be decoded or executed. (it is volatile)
1. PC - program counter - stores address of the -> next <- instruction in RAM
2. MAR - memory address register - stores the address of the current instruction being
executed
3. MDR - memory data register - stores the data that is to be sent to or fetched from memory
4. CIR - current instruction register - stores actual instruction that is being decoded and
executed
5. ACC - accumulator - stores result of calculations
6. IR - interrupt register - manages requests from I/O devices. Be careful this was called the
instruction register in our video above.
Another storage location is the CPU cache that is a high speed volatile memory which is bigger
in size and helps the processor to reduce the memory operations.
System Bus: Acting as a pathway between processor, memory and I/O module it comprises of
the following;
1. address bus: function (carries the ADDRESS of the instruction or data)
2. data bus: function (carries data between processor and the memory).
3. control bus: function (sends control signals such as: memory read, memory write).

Functions of a CPU
Almost all CPUs follow the Fetch, Decode and Execute steps in their operation, which are
collectively known as the instruction cycle.
1. Fetch: Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes
this address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which
instructions the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode: All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.
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 3. Execute: While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a
different address.
4. Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction, and the output data is
written to the memory.

Computer output devices

An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment which represents or display
information into human read able form. The information can be be text, graphics, audio, and
video. Some of the output devices are Visual Display Units (VDU) like the Monitor, Printer,
Plotters and Speakers

The key distinction between an input device and an output device is that an input device sends
data to the computer, whereas an output device receives data from the computer.

Monitor (Visual mode)

A monitor consists of a screen, circuitry, a power supply, buttons to adjust screen settings, and a
casing that contains all of these components. A monitor displays data from a computer onto a
screen so that the user can interact with the data via a digital interface.
Popular Brands includes: Acer, Alienware, Apple, Asus, Dell, HP, LG, Lenovo, Samsung
Monitor Origin Story:
The first monitors used the same technology as early televisions, relying on a cathode ray tube
and a fluorescent screen. This technology was first utilized for computer monitors in 1965 in the
Uniscope 300 machine, which had a built-in CRT display.
CRT display lights up a series of dots with a beam on an active part of the screen. This resulted
in a maximum resolution of 1600 by 1200 pixels.
The LCD (liquid crystal display) entered the market in 2000 and outsold CRT monitors in 2007.
Nowadays, monitors incorporate flat display technology.
Plasma monitors are brighter than both CRT and LCD and function by illuminating tiny charged
gas bubbles, or plasma, in the screen.

The VDT (video display terminal) and VDU (video display unit) are alternative names for
monitors.

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Types of Computer Monitors

a. CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)

This is one of the most traditional computer monitors. It is big, bulky. Even though CRT
monitors are rare and no longer produced in large quantities, there are still some good sides to
them.

At the heart of the CRT monitor are a cathode ray tube at the rear end and a fluorescent screen at
the front.

The cathode ray tube is essentially a vacuum tube with an electron gun, which through process
called thermionic emission, generates a strong beam of electrons.

With the use of various electromagnetic devices, that beam of electrons can be controlled then
fired out of the tube at high speeds. The electrons finally hit the fluorescent screen at various
points to create an image.

Advantages

a) Since CRT monitors are deemed as “obsolete technology”, you can probably find a used
one at very affordable prices or even for free.
b) Very wide viewing angle; You can clearly see the image on a CRT monitor from almost
any angle.
c) Glare from the fluorescent screen.

Disadvantages

a) Big, bulky, occupies a lot of space.

b) Power-hungry. Consumes a lot of power
c) Produces some flickering on a CRT monitor due to the refresh rate.
d) Leave the same image on the screen for too long, and the electrons will burn it
permanently onto the fluorescent screen.
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 b. Liquid crystal display (LCD)

It is also known as the “flat panel display”. It is Small, lightweight, somewhat flexible, and
power-saving.

Typically, it consists of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a

couple of transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is made possible by
polarizing the light in varied amounts and making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. The
two types of LCD technology available are the active matrix of TFT and a passive matrix
technology. TFT generates better picture quality and is more secure and reliable. Passive matrix,
on the other hand, has a slow response time and is slowly becoming outdated.

The advantages of LCD monitors include their compact size which makes them lightweight.
They also don’t consume much electricity as CRT monitors, and can be run off of batteries
which makes them ideal for laptops.

Images transmitted by these monitors don’t get geometrically distorted and have little flicker.
However, this type of monitor does have disadvantages, such as its relatively high price, an
image quality which is not constant when viewed from different angles, and a monitor resolution
that is not always constant, meaning any alterations can result in reduced performance.

c. light emitting diodes (LED) monitors

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors on the market today. These are flat panel, or
slightly curved displays which make use of light-emitting diodes for back-lighting, instead of
cold cathode fluorescent (CCFL) back-lighting used in LCDs. LED monitors use much lesser
power than CRT and LCD and are considered far more environmentally friendly.

The advantages of LED monitors are that they produce images with higher contrast, have less
negative environmental impact when disposed, are more durable than CRT or LCD monitors,
and features a very thin design.

They also don’t produce much heat while running.

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The only downside is that they can be more expensive, especially for the high-end monitors like
the new curved displays that are being released.

Being aware of the different types of computer monitors available should help you choose one
that’s most suited to your needs.

d.Plasma Display Panel

Plasma display panel monitors use small cells of charged gases to create an image. These cells
are similar to household fluorescent light bulbs.

Each plasma cell creates its own illumination, which eliminates the need for a separate back light
and gives PDP monitors strong contrast.

A plasma monitor is typically heavier than an LCD display. Plasma screens also draw more
power than both LCD and LED monitors, and are susceptible to "burned in" images if they are
left on for long periods of time.

Printers
A printer is a peripheral device which makes a representation of
an electronic document on physical media.
It is an external hardware device which is responsible for taking
computer data and generating a hard copy of that data.
Printers are one of the most used peripherals on computers and
are commonly used to print text, images, and photos. Some
printers can print documents stored on memory cards or from
digital cameras and scanners.
The world's first computer printer was a 19th-century
mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for
his difference engine

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In terms of the technology utilized, printers fall into the following categories:
Impact printers and non-impact printers
Impact printers are further classified as:
a. Daisy Wheel Printer
b. Dot Matrix Printer

Non-Impact printers are further classified as:

1. Ink-jet Printer
2. Thermal Printer
3. Laser Printer

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Impact Printers
Printers that work by applying force in other words by striking upon an ink ribbon are called
impact printer.
An impact printer operates by striking a metal or plastic head (called print head) against an ink
ribbon. The inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper.
Then it is pressed against the paper to deposit the ink on the page in the desired shape, marking
the page with the appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol.
Daisy-wheel, dot-matrix, and line printers are impact printers.
Impact printers produces heavy noise.

Non-Impact Printers
The printers that prints on paper without striking the paper are known as non-impact printers
They do not work by applying force
Non-impact printers include laser printers and ink-jet printers.
Non-Impact printers are less quiet
Non-Impact can print up to 24 pages per minute
While impact printers still have some uses (such as printing carbon copies), most printers are
now non- impact printers.

Comparing Impact and Non-Impact

1. Impact printers functions by applying force, where non impact printers does not do so.
2. Non-Impact printers prints without touching the paper, where impact printers does not do
so.
3. Non-Impact printers are faster and produce high quality output than impact printers.
4. Non-Impact produce almost no noise during printing where impact printers produce loud
noise while printing.
5. Non-Impact printers print more pages per minutes

Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix were 1st introduced by Centronics in 1970. The term dot matrix refers to the process
of placing dots to form an image.
However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and
thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced

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Its speed is usually 30 to 1000 characters per second (cps).
This is the cheapest and the noisiest printer and has a low print quality.

Dot-Matrix working
Dot matrix printer uses a print head that runs back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the
page and prints by striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, like a typewriter.
The dot matrix prints one character at a time as the print head moves across the paper. Each dot
is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a
tiny electromagnet or solenoid.
This printer arranges dots to form characters and all kinds of images. The portion of the printer
containing the pins is called the print head.
The Dot Matrix printer, generally prints one line of text at a time.
There are two approaches to achieve this: serial dot matrix and line dot matrix printer.
The serial dot matrix printers use a horizontally moving print head. The print head can be
thought of a single character box with pins arranged in it. The pins are arranged in four
horizontally displaced columns, where each horizontal column contains seven pins in
vertical, which is the height of the character box. Thereby, up to 48 pins can be used to form the
characters of a line while the print head moves horizontally.
In a considerably different configuration, the line dot matrix printers use a fixed print head
almost as wide as the paper utilizing a horizontal line of thousands of pins for printing.
Sometimes two horizontally slightly displaced rows are used to improve the effective dot density
through interleaving. These printers print a whole line at once while the paper moves forward
below the print head.

Comparing Serial and Line Dot Matrix

The printing speed of serial dot matrix printers with moving heads varies from 50 to 550 cps. In
contrast to this, line matrix printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 cps resulting in
a throughput of up to 800 pages/hour.
Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, both of these types of printers can create
carbon copies and carbonless copies.

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Line dot matrix printers are used for the professional heavy-duty market printing. Every aspect
of the line matrix printer is designed to deliver higher reliability, faster throughput, and greater
resistance to rough handling and hazardous environmental conditions

A typical example of dot matrix printout

Problems Related to Dot Matrix

Problems generally found on the following issues:
Print head: The ink from the ribbon can clog the tiny pins. Pins can be bent. Electromagnet can
be damaged. Print heads are expensive.
Ribbon: Poor print quality can simply mean that the ribbon needs to be replaced. Cartridges
vary from printer to printer thus they are not interchangeable.
Overheating : Dot matrix printers are noisy. They are often kept under a padded, sound proofed
cover. Less ventilation lead to overheating.
Paper jams : Big problem. Perforated sides can be ripped off easily, jamming the printer.

Daisy Wheel Printer

A daisy wheel printer is basically an impact printer consisting of a wheel and attached extensions
on which molded metal characters are mounted. A daisy wheel printer produces letter quality
print and it can’t produce graphics output.

Daisy Wheel workings

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In a daisy wheel printer, a hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon which in turn makes an ink
stain on the paper in the form of a character mounted on the wheel extensions.
These printers are very noisy as there occur great movement during the printing. Its printing
speed is also very slow , less than 90cps.

Ink-Jet Printer
Inkjet technology was developed in the 1960s, but first commercialized by IBM in 1976.
Ink-jet printer is type of non-impact printer. It creates output on paper by spraying tiny drops of
liquid ink.
Inkjet printer has print-head that can spray very fine drops of ink. It consists of print cartridge
filled with liquid ink and has small nozzles in form of matrix.

Inkjet Printer workings

1. Print head having four ink cartridges moves .
2. Software instructs where to apply dots of ink, which color and what quantity to use.
3. Electrical pulses are sent to the resistors behind each nozzle.
4. Vapor bubbles of ink are formed by resistors and the ink is forced to the paper through
nozzles.
5. A matrix of dots called print head forms characters and pictures.
6. Characters and graphics are sprayed line by line as a print head scans horizontally across
the paper. An ink-filled print cartridge is attached to the inkjet's print head.
The print head contains 50 or more ink-filled chambers, each attached to a nozzle. An
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 electrical pulse flows through thin resistors at the bottom of each chamber. When current
flows through a resistor, the resistor heats a thin layer of ink at the bottom of the
chamber to more than 900 degrees Fahrenheit. The ink boils and forms a bubble.
7. As the bubble expands, it pushes ink through the nozzle to form a droplet at the tip of the
nozzle, and the droplet sprays onto the paper. The volume of the ejected ink is about one
millionth that of a drop of water from an eye-dropper. A typical character is formed
by an array of these drops 20 across and 20 high. As the resistor cools, the bubble
collapses.

Problems Related to Ink-Jet

Problems generally found on the following issues:
Cartridges: Ink can dry out over time. If large amounts of printing is done, the cost can be more
than a laser. They are also subject to mold growing in the ink, which forces ink out the nozzle.
Refills: Cartridges can be refilled, but the quality of refill ink is often less than OEM standards,
and after a few uses, the nozzles are worn out, and ink drips.
Cost: While the printer is usually cheap, the cartridges can be expensive, and often hard to find.
Paper jams: Moisture in paper often causes paper to misfeed.

Print Quality
The output produced by printers is said to be either
1. Near typeset quality: A Lower quality print similar to the output of a type-writer.
2. Letter quality: Print made up by fully formed (solid line) characters.
3. Near letter quality: A print of high quality formed by multiple passes of print head over
the same letter.
4. Standard quality: A high quality print formed by a single pass of the print head.
5. Draft quality: A print formed with minimum number of dots or lines and are
smaller than the standard quality characters.

Factors affecting print quality

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 1. DPI: It is a measurement of printer’s resolution indicating how many ink dots can be
placed by the printer in one square inch. The higher the DPI, the sharper is image.
2. Type of printer: Each type of printer has its own capabilities of printing. Some types
of printers produce high quality print while other produce low quality print.
3. Print Mode: The printing mode may also affect the quality. For example the draft mode
increases the print rate but quality is reduced.
4. Toner: The quality and amount of toner also affects print quality.

Printer Interfaces (port type)

There are several different interfaces or ways a printer can connect to the computer. Today the
most common way a printer connects to a printer is using USB.
1. Cat5
2. Firewire 3. MPP-1150
4. Parallel port
5. SCSI
6. Serial port
7. USB
Cat5: Category 5 is a network cable that consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire terminated
by a RJ-45 connector.
Firewire: also called IEEE-1394. It was developed by Apple and is a bus that has a
bandwidth of 400-800 Mbps. It is hot swappable.
Hot-swappable is the capability of being able to disconnect and connect devices while the
computer or other device is on and ability to detect devices without reboot the computer or
device. eSATA, FireWire, and USB are examples of Interfaces that are hot- swappable.
MPP-1150: it is a serial interface that connects to a printer 36-pin connector.
Parallel port: Found on IBM compatible computers and is a 25-pin (developed by Epson)
computer interface. Commonly used.
SCSI: Small Computer System Interface, SCSI is pronounced as"Scuzzy“.

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Virtual printer
A virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of
a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer.
When a user requests a document to printed by a virtual printer, then, instead of having the
document printed on paper or other material, the underlying software process its contents in
some other way, that it results in writing the document in a file.

Example: nitro pdf reader enables to print document in a pdf file or create a pdf file from a doc
file using virtual printing functionality.
Typical uses of virtual printers include: Saving a document to another format such as a PDF
file and Saving multiple documents into a single document

Factors to Considera While Buying a Printer

To choose a printer from a printer’s family following considerations are to be made.
1. What’s the budget?
2. Is color needed or just black& white?
3. What is the Volume of the output?
4. How important is the quality of the output?
5. What special features are needed?
6. Is the printer is to be used by a single user or a whole network?

Printer uses on Different environments

1. For home users: the quality of the print and the price of the printer both matter. So a
better choice in such case is a portable color Inkjet printer. If the budget of the user is
good enough then the best choice is a personal laser printer which enhances both the
speed and quality of the print.
2. For small and medium offices: a better option is a multi- function printer which is an
integrated device fulfilling various requirement of the office. For better output, a
laser printer is the best choice.
3. For banks, large business organizations: In banks, large size business environments
and companies printers with networking capabilities should be preferred which can
increase productivity and reduce the cost without compromising on the quality. Of

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 course laser printer is quite suitable choice but multi-functional printers and inkjet
printers can play the role.

Computer ports
A Computer Port is an interface or a point of connection between the computer and its peripheral
devices. A computer port is also called as a Communication Port as it is responsible for
communication between the computer and its peripheral device.

We can also say that, a port is a physical docking point which an external device can be
connected to the computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to the computer or over the Internet.

Some of the common peripherals are mouse, keyboard, monitor or display unit, printer, speaker,
flash drive etc.

The main function of a computer port is to act as a point of attachment, where the cable from the
peripheral can be plugged in and allows data to flow from and to the device.

Characteristics of Ports

External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

In general, a port has female end of the connector is referred to as a port and it usually sits on the
motherboard.

Computer ports can also be defined as connection points or interfaces with other peripheral
devices.
There are two main type of computer ports:
a. Parallel Ports
b. Serial Ports
Others types are also there
PS2, SCSI etc.

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Parallel port
Parallel port is used for data transfer between a computer and a peripheral device through a 25 or
36 pin connector.
In parallel communication multiple bits are transferred at a time.
By using the IEEE 1284 standard, the parallel port becomes a bidirectional data gateway (can be
used for transferring and receiving data packages).
The parallel port speed can range from 50 KBps to 150 KBps and can go up to 2 MBps.
The 2 MBps speed is achieved when the EPP and ECP modes are used as a 32 or 16 bit transfer
interface who uses a 8 bit IN / OUT hardware.

Serial port
Serial port is a electronic communication gateway used for transferring data one bit at a time.
Together with parallel port the serial port was used almost for all type of information transfer
between a computer and other peripheral devices.
Today the serial port has been replaced with dedicated ports like USB port (used for data transfer
and communication between a computer and other devices), vga port (video Graphic Array),
Ethernet port or internet port (used for network communication, any type of information) .
In our days the serial port is most used on industrial devices and programming.

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Serial port programming is done by using a serial port adapter to a USB port mostly because the
new computers are not equipped with db9 connectors.
The disappearance of the external serial communication doesn’t mean that this type of data
transfer is not used any more on the new PC’s because it migrated inside the computer and you
could know it by the name of SATA or serial ATA.
SATA is used for data transfer between optical devices (DVD drive), hard disk drives and the
motherboard.

PS2 port
The PS2 port is used for connecting keyboards and mice to a PC. This standard was introduced
in 1987 by IBM with main purpose of replacing the serial keyboard and mouse.

In our days ps/2 port was replaced by USB port, which is easier to implement on a PC even
though ps2 offers more capability and a greater speed.
When this standard was released the keyboard and mouse port had the same color, black like the
connector or white like the connecting cable. Modern ps2 ports are colored different event
thought the pinout configuration is the same.
PS2 connector color code
Purple – Keyboard
Green – Mouse
Ps2 Mini-DIN connector has 6 pins and carries a serial signal at frequencies starting from 10 up
to 16 kHz with one start bit, one stop bit and one parity bit.
Pin1 – Data
Pin2 – Not connected Pin3 – Ground
Pin4 – VDC +5V at 275 mA
Pin5 – Clock
Pin6 – Not connected

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USB port (Universal Serial Bus) is the most used connection point for data transfer in the world.
It was created in the mid-1990s with the intention of replacing all other PC ports like serial port,
parallel port, PS/2 port.
A standard USB connector is a simple socket with 4 pins: one for power, one for ground and two
for data transfer.
In 1996 USB 1 was released. It had a speed range between 1.5 Mb/s and 12 Mb/s. Four years
later USB 2.0 port was released and had a maximum speed of 480 Mb/s. The USB 2.0 brought
with it new devices like USB flash drive or memory stick, USB hard drive, USB camera and
many other.
Recent development in storage devices increase the need for higher transfer speeds and in 2008
USB 3.0 was release.
This technology can reach speeds of 5 Gb/s which is 10 times faster than USB 2.0
A usb port can be connected with almost all other port typelike Ethernet port or firewire port by
using a usb adapter. The usb adapter can be a circuit in a box with an usb port ant one end and a
compatible port at the other or a simple usb cable.

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Firewire port
Firewire port or IEEE 1394 was first developed in 1990 by Apple and worked as a serial bus
interface for high-speed data transfer. The standard was first introduced on computers in 2000
and became the main data connection port for apple
Firewire IEEE 1394 port supports the following operating systems: Mac OS 8.6, 9, Mac OS X,
Microsoft Windows, Haiku, Linux, FreeBSD and NetBSD.

Ethernet port
Ethernet port is a network hardware interface used for data transfer and control between at least
two devices that can support the IP protocol.
It was introduced in 1980 and, at first, coaxial cable was used. In 1985 the Ethernet port was
standardized and twisted pair cable replaced the coaxial cable.
Twisted pair cable is used only on short distances, like the connection between a computer
modem port or network port and a Ethernet switch or router. On long distances fiber optic links
are used as Ethernet cable.

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The Ethernet port speed can vary 10Mbps up to 10Gbps. High speeds are usually used in large
data transfer networks like a CCTV IP network or cable company but in the last case high speed
is only obtained between switches or routers in most cases the client receives only 10 or 100
Mbps.
The maximum Ethernet cable length between switches computers and routers is 100 meters or
328ft. After this the signal starts losing in amplitude and you could experience connection loss.
If you want to use internet cables on longer distances it is better to use signal boosters for every
100 meters. A more efficient way is to use fiber optic cable who with special equipment can go
up to 20 km without any signal booster.

Computer Motherboard
Motherboard is a printed circuit board part/element of a computer that connects all of the parts of
a computer together. It is one of the most essential parts of a computer system since it holds
together most of the crucial components of a computer, including the central processing unit
(CPU), memory and connectors for input and output devices thus acting as a back born of the
computer system.
The motherboard is mounted inside the computer case and is securely attached via small screws
through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components
of the computer. It provides a single socket for CPU, one or more slots for memory.
Motherboards also provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via
ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply within the
computer and allocates power where it’s needed, communicating with and coordinating across
all other components making it one of the most important pieces of hardware in a computer.
Motherboard is also known as backplane board, base board, main circuit board, system board, or
a logic board on Apple computers.

Motherboard main components

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 u A CPU socket: the actual CPU is directly soldered onto the socket. Since high speed
CPUs generate a lot of heat, there are heat sinks and mounting points for fans right next
to the CPU socket
u A power connector to distribute power to the CPU and other components.

u Slots for the system's main memory, typically in the form of DRAM chips.
u A chip forms an interface between the CPU, the main memory and other components. On
many types of motherboards, this is referred to as the Northbridge. This chip also
contains a large heat sink.
u A second chip controls the input and output (I/O) functions. It is not connected directly to
the CPU but to the Northbridge. This I/O controller is referred to as the Southbridge. The
Northbridge and Southbridge combined are referred to as the chipset.
u Several connectors, which provide the physical interface between input and output
devices and the motherboard. The Southbridge handles these connections.
u Slots for one or more hard drives to store files. The most common types of connections
are Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) and Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
(SATA).
u A read-only memory (ROM) chip, which contains the firmware, or startup instructions
for the computer system. This is also called the BIOS.

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 u A slot for a video or graphics card. There are a number of different types of slots,
including the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) and Peripheral Component Interconnect
Express (PCIe).
u Additional slots tWhat is a CPU (Central Processing/Processor Unit)?
u o connect hardware in the form of Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots.

Note that: Each type of motherboard is designed to work with specific types of processors and
memory, so they are not capable of working with every processor and type of memory. However,
hard drives are mostly universal and will work with the majority of motherboards, regardless of
the type or brand.
Factors to consider when selecting a motherboard
u The motherboard form factor. The form factor of the motherboard determines the
specifications for its general shape and size. It also specifies what type of case and power
supply will be supported, the placement of mounting holes, and the physical layout and
organization of the board. Form factor is especially important if you build your own
computer systems and need to ensure that you purchase the correct case and components.
u When choosing a motherboard, it’s important to check:
u What hardware ports the motherboard supplies.
u How many USB ports, and what grade (USB 2.0, 3.0, 3.1) they are.

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 u The display ports are available (HDMI, DVI, RGB) and how many of each there are.
u Compatibility with your computer peripheral devices and graphics. The ports on the
motherboard will help you define what other hardware will be compatible.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING COMPUTER HARDWARE

User requirements
For example, if the users require hard copy output then a printer will be acquired by the organization

Flexibility
The hardware should be able to meet new user requirements as they emerge

Cost
The hardware should be cost effective in terms of initial and maintenance costs

Reliability
The rate of breakdown should be minimal

Networking
The hardware should have networking capabilities so that it can be interfaced with other systems within
the company network.

Processing speed
The hardware should be able to process data fast

Compatibility
The hardware should be compatible with software and other hardware within the system

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE PROCESSING POWER OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER

• The microprocessor clock speed i.e the higher the microprocessor clock speed the better the
processing power of the computer
• Data bus size i.e the larger the data bus the better the processing power of the computer
• Size of RAM or primary storage i.e the larger the memory, the better the processing power
• The free space on the hard disk i.e a hard disk which is almost full will slow down the computer
systems processing power

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