Early America

In 1776, the United States became an independent country. Around 40,000 years
ago, during the last Ice Age, much of the world's water was frozen into ice sheets,
and a land bridge connected Asia and North America. By 12,000 years ago,
people lived all over the Americas.
The first people arrived from Asia, settling in what is now Alaska. Over time, they
moved south into the mainland United States, living along the Pacific Coast, in
the Southwest's mountains and deserts, and by the Mississippi River in the
Midwest.
Early groups in North America included the Hohokam, Adenans, Hopewellians,
and Anasazi. They built villages, grew crops. Family and community were very
important to them. They mainly shared stories and information through speaking,
and picture writing called hieroglyphics. By the time Europeans arrived, about
two million native people lived in what is now the United States.

Mound Builders and Pueblos

The Adenans were the first Native Americans to build mounds in what is now the
United States. They were later replaced or absorbed by the Hopewellians. By
around 500 A.D., the Hopewellians disappeared and they gave way to various
tribes known as the Mississippians or Temple mound culture.

Native American Cultures

When the first Europeans arrived in America, it was far from empty. It’s now
believed that around 40 million people lived in the Western Hemisphere, similar
to Western Europe at that time. Estimates of the Native American population in
what is now the United States ranged from 2 to 18 million.

Abstract
During the campaign, people had many questions about Donald Trump’s policies,
knowledge, language, and his views on political violence. Even though Hillary
Clinton got more votes overall, Trump’s surprising win shocked people of color,
women, immigrants, and disabled individuals, whom he often spoke about poorly.
Native Americans were especially worried because Trump had a history of
 Early America
disrespecting and attacking indigenous people during the 2016 campaign.
Therefore his winning was alarming for them.

Introduction
Barack Obama's policy toward Native American issues is generally seen positively
by American Indians. He gained their support by taking action on tribal concerns
and holding yearly meetings with tribal leaders. During his time in office, he
passed a tribal health care law that improved access to preventive care, mental
health resources, and helped bring more doctors to Native communities.
Journalist Mary Hudetz notes that the Interior Department, under Obama,
returned over 500,000 acres to tribal control—more than any recent
administration. The Justice Department also created a system allowing tribes to
prosecute non-Native Americans who assault Native women, closing a legal gap
that had let these crimes go unpunished before Obama.
Brian Cladoosby, president of the National Congress of American Indians, said
Obama has been the best president for Native Americans. He added that the
past eight years give hope for positive relationships with both political parties.
During his campaign, newly elected President Donald Trump rarely mentioned
Native Americans and hasn’t shared plans for U.S. relations with Native nations.
His choice for Interior Secretary, Ryan Zinke, supported giving tribes more control
over fossil fuel development. However, some of Trump's key promises, like
repealing health care laws and building a U.S.-Mexico border wall, conflict with
tribal interests.
The Dakota Access pipeline is another major issue where Trump and Obama
differ.
Since April 2016, members of 200 Native American tribes and environmentalists
have protested in North Dakota against a pipeline. They argue it crosses sacred
burial grounds and risks polluting nearby rivers, threatening their water supply.
On September 6, 2016, protesters stopped construction near the Standing Rock
Sioux reservation. Tribal chairman David Archambault said, "For 500 years,
we've warned that harming Mother Earth will harm us. Now, our voices are
louder."
 Early America
The Standing Rock Sioux Reservation is one of six in the Dakotas, once part of a
much larger Sioux territory, including the sacred Black Hills. The pipeline dispute
pushed the Obama administration to create guidelines for consulting tribes on
big projects. The Standing Rock Sioux said the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers didn’t
properly consult them before approving the pipeline under Lake Oahe, their main
water source. In September 2016, during Barack Obama’s presidency, his
administration held seven meetings with tribal leaders and started a report on
improving federal consultation with tribes.
In January 2017, President Trump signed an order for the army corps to quickly
approve the Dakota Access pipeline, allowing it to cross the Missouri River, the
tribe’s main drinking water source, near their reservation. Chairman David
Archambault II wrote to Trump, urging him not to skip the environmental review,
stating the issue was a lack of proper consultation with tribes. But, he got no
response. Over 150 Native American tribes united in protest, gathering near the
construction to oppose the risks to water and cultural sites.
In December, Obama’s administration stopped the pipeline construction on
federal land until an environmental review was done. Trump’s team wanted to
finish the Dakota Access and Keystone pipelines to boost U.S. energy. Trump had
invested in the company behind the Dakota Access pipeline, but his
spokesperson claimed he sold his shares to avoid a conflict of interest. Spicer
said Trump would work with everyone involved to move the project forward and
address their concerns.

Conclusion
These issues are causing tension in local communities and may lead to future
conflicts. Native Americans are determined to stand together and protect their
rights, as they have for centuries. They are committed to defending their
sovereignty and basic human rights. The younger generation of Native Americans
will be key in this effort, continuing to support each other and strengthen their
solidarity for themselves, their ancestors, and future generations.
 Early America
THE AZTECS
They moved south to the Valley of Mexico around 1200. They learned to farm,
build cities, and perform complex rituals. War was still important, so they fought
and conquered their neighbors. After mastering agriculture, they made corn their
main crop.

THE INCAS
The Inca Empire was in the Andes Mountains in South America, covering parts of
Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The Incas grew corn like the Maya
and Aztecs. Their leader, who claimed to be a descendant of the sun god, ruled
the empire. Unlike the Aztecs, the Incas welcomed conquered people into their
empire and shared their language, Quechua, and sun worship. They built and
maintained a vast network of roads, including bridges.
The Incas made terraced fields on hillsides for farming and created complex
irrigation systems. They built strong structures with large, closely fitted stones.
For record-keeping, messengers used a quipu, a tool with knotted strings to help
remember messages.

THE FIRST EUROPEANS

It took almost 500 years for Europeans to reach North America and another 100
years to build permanent settlements. The first explorers didn't know about
America; they were looking for a sea route to Asia. Later, Europeans—mainly
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British—came for land and wealth. The
first permanent European settlement in North America was Spanish, founded in
St. Augustine, Florida. Eventually, thirteen British colonies formed the United
States, with Virginia and Massachusetts being the earliest.