13 Cooperative Language Learning 245

13 Cooperative Language Learning

students might fall behind higher-achieving students in this kind of learning environment. CL
in this context sought to do the following:

e raise the achievement of all students, including those who are gifted or academi-
cally handicapped
e help the teacher build positive relationships among students
e give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological, and
cognitive development
® replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools
Introduction
with a team-based, high-performance organizational structure
Language teaching is sometimes discussed as if it existed independently of the teach- (Qohnson, Johnson, and Holubec 1994: 2)
ing of other subjects and of trends in teaching generally. However, like teachers in
other areas of a school curriculum, language teachers too have to to create a posi- In second language teaching, CL (where, as noted above, it is often referred to as Cooperative
tive environment for learning in the classroom. They have to find ways of engaging Language Learning ~ CLL) has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative inter-
students in their lessons, to use learning arrangements that encourage active student action in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative
participation in lessons, to acknowledge the diversity of motivations and interests Language Teaching (Chapter 5). It is viewed as a learner-centered approach to teaching that
learners bring to the classroom, and to use strategies that enable the class to function is held to offer advantages over teacher-fronted classroom methods. In language teaching
as a cohesive group that collaborates to help make the lesson a positive learning expe- its goals are:
rience. In dealing with issues such as these, language teachers can learn much from
e to provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of
considering approaches that have been used in mainstream education. Cooperative
interactive pair and group activities;
Language Learning (CLL) is one such example. CLL is part of a more general instruc-
e to provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal and one that
tional approach, known as Collaborative or Cooperative Learning (CL), which origi-
can be applied in a variety of curriculum settings (e.g., content-based, foreign language
nated in mainstream education and emphasizes peer support and coaching. CL is an
classrooms; mainstreaming);
approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving
e to enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and com-
pairs and smail groups of learners in the classroom. It has been defined as follows:
municative functions through the use of interactive tasks;
Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent e to provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication
on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in strategies;
which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to e to enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective
increase the learning of others. classroom climate.
(Olsen and Kagan 1992; 8)
CLL is thus an approach that crosses both mainstream education and second
and foreign language teaching. CLL also seeks to develop learners’ critical thinking
Cooperative Learning has antecedents in proposals for peer-tutoring and peer-monitoring
skills, which are seen as central to learning of any sort. Some authors have even ele-
that go back hundreds of years and longer. The early-twentieth-century US educator John
vated critical thinking to the same level of focus as that of the basic language skills of
Dewey is usually credited with promoting the idea of building cooperation in learning into regu-
reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Kagan 1992). One approach to integrating
lar classrooms on a regular and systematic basis (Rodgers 1988). It was more generally promoted.
the teaching of critical thinking adopted by CLL advocates is called the Question
and developed in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the forced integration
Matrix (Wiederhold 1995). Wiederhold has developed a battery of cooperative
of public schools and has been substantially refined and developed since then. Educators were
activities built on the matrix that encourages learners to ask and respond to a deeper
concerned that traditional models of classroom learning were teacher-fronted, fostered com-
array of alternative question types. Activities of this kind are believed to foster the
petition rather than cooperation, and favored majority students. They believed that minority
development of critical thinking. (The matrix is based on the well-known Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives devised by Bloom [1956], which assumes a hierarchy of

244
246 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 247

learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming concep- depends on the ability to express and understand functions or speech acts, such as those
tual judgments.) Kagan and other CL theorists have adopted this framework as an used to express personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative mean-
underlying learning theory for Cooperative Learning. The word cooperative in ings. CLL activities can be used to develop fluency in expressing categories of functional
Cooperative Learning emphasizes another important dimension of CLL: it seeks meaning.
to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. © Language is a means of interpersonal and social interaction. In CLL learners are required
Advocates of CLL in general education stress the benefits of cooperation in promoting to interact through the use of both spoken and written language, and language is the
learning: means by which interaction is achieved and develops through the results of such inter-
action.
Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative e Language is a resource for carrying out tasks, The focus of many CLL activities is col-
situations, individuals seek outcomes beneficial to themselves and all other group laborating to complete different kinds of tasks. Language thus serves to achieve practical
members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups through which goals that relate to the learners’ needs.
students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. It may be
contrasted with competitive learning in which students work against each other to
achieve an academic goal such as a grade of “A.” Theory of learning
(Johnson et al. 1994: 4)
Learning theory that supports CLL draws on SLA-related theory as well as sociocultural
From the perspective of second language teaching, McGroarty (1989) offers six learn-
learning theory (Chapter 2).
ing advantages for ESL students in CLL classrooms: Learning results from conversational interaction
1. Increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of This strand of theory is central to some theories of second language acquisition, It is based
interaction on the assumption that as learners seek to achieve meaning, they engage in a joint process
2, Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive develop- of negotiation of meaning, during which various communication strategies are used to
ment and increased language skills maintain the flow of communication. These are such things as “repetitions, confirmations,
3. Opportunities to integrate language with Content-Based Instruction reformulations, comprehension checks, clarification requests etc” (Long 1996: 418), and
4, Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language it is these aspects of conversational interaction that serve as the basis for learning. CLL
as well as concept learning activities provide an optimal context for negotiation of meaning and hence should be
5. Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing beneficial to second language development. Abdullah and Jacobs (2004) suggest that CL
communication promotes interaction in the following ways:
6. Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other, thus assuming a more 1. The literature on Cooperative Learning recommends that students who are differ-
active role in their learning. ent from each other according to the variable of proficiency become groupmates.
This heterogeneity increases the likelihood that negotiation for meaning will be
Approach necessary. Furthermore, teachers often use the variable of second language pro-
Theory of language ficiency when creating heterogeneous groups. This means that more proficient
students will be available to facilitate comprehension of their less proficient peers.
Although CLL supports an interactional theory of language, it is not linked directly to any
2. In Cooperative Learning, teachers can encourage more negotiation for meaning by
specific theory and is compatible with several theories of language that inform approaches
allowing groups to try to sort out their own communication difficulties without teacher
to language teaching.
intervention, although teachers do stand ready to help, if, after trying, groups remain
e Language is a resource for expressing meaning. Language is not something that is deadlocked or confused.
acquired for its own sake but serves the goal of making meaning. Meaning is often reali- 3. Cooperative Learning activities provide a context in which students may be more likely
zed through a joint process of collaboration. to interact than in a whole class setting.
e Language is a means of expressing different communicative functions. CLL shares with 4. SLA researchers propose that group activities can encourage students to interact with
Communicative Language Teaching the notion that communicative competence each other in a way that promotes a focus on form ... Such a focus on form can be
 r 13 Cooperative Language Learning 245

13 Cooperative Language Learning

students might fall behind higher-achieving students in this kind of learning environment, CL
in this context sought to do the following:
e raise the achievement of alt students, including those who are gifted or academi-
cally handicapped
e help the teacher build positive relationships among students
e give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological, and
cognitive development
e replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools
Introduction
with a team-based, high-performance organizational structure
Language teaching is sometimes discussed as if it existed independently of the teach- (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec 1994: 2)
ing of other subjects and of trends in teaching generally. However, like teachers in
other areas of a school curriculum, language teachers too have to to create a posi- In second language teaching, CL (where, as noted above, it is often referred to as Cooperative
tive environment for learning in the classroom. They have to find ways of engaging Language Learning ~ CLL) has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative inter-
students in their lessons, to use learning arrangements that encourage active student action in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative
participation in lessons, to acknowledge the diversity of motivations and interests Language Teaching (Chapter 5). It is viewed as a learner-centered approach to teaching that
learners bring to the classroom, and to use strategies that enable the class to function is held to offer advantages over teacher-fronted classroom methods. In language teaching
as a cohesive group that collaborates to help make the lesson a positive learning expe- its goals are:
rience. In dealing with issues such as these, language teachers can learn much from
e to provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of
considering approaches that have been used in mainstream education. Cooperative
interactive pair and group activities;
Language Learning (CLL) is one such example. CLL is part of a more general instruc-
to provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal and one that
tional approach, known as Collaborative or Cooperative Learning (CL), which origi-
can be applied in a variety of curriculum settings (e.g., content-based, foreign language
nated in mainstream education and emphasizes peer support and coaching. CL is an
classrooms; mainstreaming);
approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving
to enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and com-
pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. It has been defined as follows:
municative functions through the use of interactive tasks;
Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent e to provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication
on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in strategies;
which each learner is hetd accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to ® to enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective
increase the learning of others. classroom climate.
(Olsen and Kagan 1992: 8) CLL is thus an approach that crosses both mainstream education and second
and foreign language teaching. CLL also seeks to develop learners’ critical thinking
Cooperative Learning has antecedents in proposals for peer-tutoring and peer-monitoring
skills, which are seen as central to learning of any sort. Some authors have even ele-
that go back hundreds of years and longer. The early-twentieth-century US educator John
vated critical thinking to the same level of focus as that of the basic language skills of
Dewey is usually credited with promoting the idea of building cooperation in learning into regu-
reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Kagan 1992). One approach to integrating
lar classrooms on a regular and systematic basis (Rodgers 1988). It was more generally promoted.
the teaching of critical thinking adopted by CLL advocates is called the Question
and developed in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the forced integration
Matrix (Wiederhold 1995). Wiederhold has developed a battery of cooperative
of public schools and has been substantially refined and developed since then. Educators were
activities built on the matrix that encourages learners to ask and respond to a deeper
concerned that traditional models of classroom learning were teacher-fronted, fostered com-
array of alternative question types. Activities of this kind are believed to foster the
petition rather than cooperation, and favored majority students, They believed that minority
development of critical thinking. (The matrix is based on the well-known Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives devised by Bloom [1956], which assumes a hierarchy of

244
246 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 247

learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming concep- depends on the ability to express and understand functions or speech acts, such as those
tual judgments.) Kagan and other CL theorists have adopted this framework as an used to express personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative mean-
underlying learning theory for Cooperative Learning. The word cooperative in ings. CLL activities can be used to develop fluency in expressing categories of functional
Cooperative Learning emphasizes another important dimension of CLL: it seeks meaning,
to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. e Language is a means of interpersonal and social interaction. In CLL learners are required
Advocates of CLL in general education stress the benefits of cooperation in promoting to interact through the use of both spoken and written language, and language is the
learning: means by which interaction is achieved and develops through the results of such inter-
action.
Cooperation is working tegether to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative e Language is a resource for carrying out tasks. The focus of many CLL activities is col-
situations, individuals seek outcomes beneficial to themselves and all other group laborating to complete different kinds of tasks. Language thus serves to achieve practical
members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups through which goals that relate to the learners’ needs.
students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It may be
contrasted with competitive learning in which students work against each other to
achieve an academic goal such as a grade of “A.” Theory of learning
(Johnson et al. 1994: 4)
Learning theory that supports CLL draws on SLA-related theory as well as sociocultural
From the perspective of second language teaching, McGroarty (1989) offers six learn- learning theory (Chapter 2).
ing advantages for ESL students in CLL classrooms: Learning results from conversational interaction
1. Increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of This strand of theory is central to some theories of second language acquisition. It is based
interaction on the assumption that as learners seek to achieve meaning, they engage in a joint process
2. Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive develop- of negotiation of meaning, during which various communication strategies are used to
ment and increased language skills maintain the flow of communication. These are such things as “repetitions, confirmations,
3. Opportunities to integrate language with Content-Based Instruction reformulations, comprehension checks, clarification requests etc.’ (Long 1996: 418), and
4. Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language it is these aspects of conversational interaction that serve as the basis for learning. CLL
as well as concept learning activities provide an optimal context for negotiation of meaning and hence should be
5. Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing beneficial to second language development. Abdullah and Jacobs (2004) suggest that CL
communication promotes interaction in the following ways:
6. Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other, thus assuming a more 1. The literature on Cooperative Learning recommends that students who are differ-
active role in their learning. ent from each other according to the variable of proficiency become groupmates.
This heterogeneity increases the likelihood that negotiation for meaning will be
Approach necessary. Furthermore, teachers often use the variable of second language pro-
Theory of language ficiency when creating heterogeneous groups. This means that more proficient
students will be available to facilitate comprehension of their less proficient peers.
Although’CLL supports an interactional theory of language, it is not linked directly to any
2. In Cooperative Learning, teachers can encourage more negotiation for meaning by
specific theory and is compatible with several theories of language that inform approaches
allowing groups to try to sort out their own communication difficulties without teacher
to language teaching.
intervention, although teachers do stand ready to help, if, after trying, groups remain
e Language is a resource for expressing meaning. Language is not something that is deadlocked or confused.
acquired for its own sake but serves the goal of making meaning. Meaning is often reali- 3 Cooperative Learning activities provide a context in which students may be more likely
zed through a joint process of collaboration. to interact than in a whole class setting.
e Language is a means of expressing different communicative functions. CLL shares with 4. SLA researchers propose that group activities can encourage students to interact with
Communicative Language Teaching the notion that communicative competence each other in a way that promotes a focus on form ... Such a focus on form can be
248 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 249

encouraged when grammar constitutes at least one aspect of group tasks. Examples of The syllabus
making grammar an aspect of groups’ tasks include: CLL does not assume any particular form of language syllabus, since activities from a
e noticing tasks in which students analyze how a grammar point functions and wide variety of curriculum orientations can be taught via this approach. Thus, we find
formulate their own rule; CLL used in teaching content classes, ESP, the four skills, grammar, pronunciation, and
® peer assessment in which students check each other’s writing or speaking for vocabulary. What defines CLL is the systematic and carefully planned use of group-
particular grammatical features, for example, in an English L2 class, the presence of based procedures in teaching as an alternative to teacher-fronted teaching. A sense of
plural -s. what a whole course design looks like organized around CLL, and the ways in which
it promotes a focus on critical and creative thinking, can be found in Jacobs, Lee, and
The teaching of collaborative skills can play a crucial role in promoting peer inter-
Ball (1995).
action, because the skills provide students with strategies for effective interaction.
Examples include collaborative skills that second language learners can use to repair
communication breakdowns, such as asking for repetition, slower speed of speaking, Types of learning and teaching activities
louder volume, and explanation of words. Collaborative skills also prove useful when Johnson et al. (1994: 4-5) describe three types of CLL groups.
students understand the input they have received but wish to disagree or ask for further
information. 1. Formal CLL groups. These tast from one class period to several weeks. These are
established for a specific task and involve students working together to achieve shared
Language learning is a sociocultural process learning goals.
This theory of learning, derived initially from the work of the Soviet psychologist 2. Informal CLL groups. These are ad-hoc groups that last from a few minutes to a class
Vygotsky ([2935] 1978) but elaborated considerably since its original formulation, makes period and are used to focus student attention or to facilitate learning during direct
use particularly of the notions of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffold- teaching.
ing (Chapter 2). Scaffolding refers to the assistance a more advanced learner or language 3. Cooperative base groups. These are long-term, lasting for at least a year, and consist of
user gives to a less advanced learner in completing a task and makes use of collaborative heterogeneous learning groups with stable membership whose primary purpose is to
dialogue (Swain 2000: 102) — a form of discourse in which new knowledge or skill is the allow members to give each other the support, help, encouragement, and assistance they
outcome of interaction. CLL tasks provide extended opportunities for these processes need to succeed academically.
to take place. Abdullah and Jacobs (2004) cite sociocultural learning theory as support
for CLL. The success of CLL is crucially dependent on the nature and organization of group
CLL overlaps with sociocultural learning theory by attempting to build an environ- work, This requires a structured program of learning carefully designed so that learn-
ment that fosters mutual aid. As Newman and Holtzman (1993: 77) note: “Vygotsky's ers interact with each other and are motivated to increase each other's learning. Olsen
strategy was essentially a cooperative learning strategy. He created heterogeneous groups and Kagan (1992) propose the following key elements of successful group-based learn-
of children (he called them a collective), providing them not only with the opportunity ing in CL:
but the need for cooperation and joint activity by giving them tasks that were beyond the e Positive interdependence
development level of some, if not all, of them.” e Group formation
e Individual accountability
Design e Social skills
Objectives e Structuring and structures
Since CLL is an approach designed to foster cooperation rather than competition, to Positive interdependence occurs when group members feel that what helps one
develop critical thinking skills, and to develop communicative competence through member helps all and what hurts one member hurts all, It is created by the structure of
socially structured interaction activities, these can be regarded as the overall objec- CLL tasks and by building a spirit of mutual support within the group. For example, a
tives of CLL. More specific objectives will derive from the context in which CLL group may produce a single product, such as an essay, or the scores for members of a
is used. group may be averaged.
250 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 251

Group formation is an important factor in creating positive interdependence. Factors 2. Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined input - evaluation and synthesis of facts and
involved in setting up groups include the following: opinions
e Deciding on the size of the group. This will depend on the tasks they have to carry out, the e Each group member receives a different piece of the information.
age of the learners, and time limits for the lesson. Typical group size is from two to four, e Students regroup in topic groups (expert groups) composed of people with the same
e Assigning students to groups. Groups can be teacher-selected, random, or student- piece to master the material and prepare to teach it.
selected, although teacher-selected is recommended as the usual mode so as to create e Students return to home groups (Jigsaw groups) to share their information with each
groups that are heterogeneous on such variables as past achievement, ethnicity, or sex. other.
e Student roles in groups. Each group member has a specific role to play in a group, such e Students synthesize the information through discussion.
as noise monitor, turn-taker monitor, recorder, or summarizer. e Each student produces an assignment of part of a group project, or takes a test, to
demonstrate synthesis of all the information presented by all group members.
Individual accountability involves both group and individual performance, for exam-
e This method of organization may require team-building activities for both home
ple, by assigning each student a grade on his or her portion of a team project or by calling
groups and topic groups, long-term group involvement, and rehearsal of presentation
on a student at random to share with the whole class, with group members, or with another
methods.
group.
e This method is very useful in the multilevel class, allowing for both homogeneous
Social skills determine the way students interact with each other as teammates,
and heterogeneous grouping in terms of English proficiency.
Usually some explicit instruction in social skills is needed to ensure successful interaction.
e Information gap activities in language teaching are jigsaw activities in the form of
Structuring and Structures refer to ways of organizing student interaction and differ-
pair work. Partners have data (in the form of text, tables, charts, etc.) with missing
ent ways in which students are to interact, such as Three-step interview or Round Robin
information to be supplied during interaction with another partner.
(discussed later in this section).
Numerous descriptions exist of activity types that can be used when transferring the
3. Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by students ~ discovery learning
above elements of cooperative learning to a language environment. Coelho (1992b: 132)
describes three major kinds of CL tasks and their learning focus, each of which has many Topics may be different for each group.
variations. Students identify subtopics for each group member.
Steering committee may coordinate the work of the class as a whole.
1, Team practice from common input - skills development and mastery of facts
Students research the information using resources such as library reference,
e All students work on the same material. interviews, visual media.
e Practice could follow a traditional teacher-directed presentation of new material and e Students synthesize their information for a group presentation: oral and/or written.
for that reason is a good starting point for teachers and/or students new to group Each group member plays a part in the presentation.
work. e Each group presents to the whole class.
e The task is to make sure that everyone in the group knows the answer to a question e This method places greater emphasis on individualization and students’ interests.
and can explain how the answer was obtained or understands the material. Because Each student’s assignment is unique.
students want their team to do well, they coach and tutor each other to make sure ® Students need plenty of previous experience with more structured group work for
that any member of the group could answer for all of them and explain their team’s this to be effective.
answer.
Olsen and Kagan (1992: 88) describe the following examples of CLL activities:
e When the teacher takes up the question or assignment, anyone in a group may be
called on to answer for the team. e Three-step interview, (1) Students are in pairs; one is interviewer and the other is inter-
e This technique is good for review and for practice tests; the group takes the practice viewee. (2) Students reverse roles. (3) Each shares with his or her partner what was
test together, but each student will eventually do an assignment or take a test learned during the two interviews.
individually. e Roundtable. There is one piece of paper and one pen for each team. (1) One student makes
e This technique is effective in situations where the composition of the groups is a contribution and (2) passes the paper and pen to the student on his or her left. (3) Each
unstable (e.g., in adult programs). Students can form new groups every day. student makes contributions in turn. If done orally, the structure is called Round Robin.
252 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 253

e Think-Pair-Share. (1) Teacher poses a question (usually a low-consensus question). control (Harel 1992). The teacher may also have the task of restructuring lessons so that
(2) Students think of a response. (3) Students discuss their responses with a partner. students can work on them cooperatively. This involves the following steps, according to
(4) Students share his or her partner's response with the class. Johnson et al. (1994: 9):
¢ Solve-Pair-Share. (1) Teacher poses a problem (a low-consensus or high-consensus item
1. Take your existing lessons, curriculum, and sources and structure them cooperatively.
that may be resolved with different strategies). (2) Students work out solutions individu-
2, Tailor cooperative learning lessons to your unique instructional needs, circum-
ally. (3) Students explain how they solved the problem in Interview or Round Robin
stances, curricula, subject areas, and students.
structures.
3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together and intervene
e Numbered heads. (1) Students number off in teams. (2) Teacher asks a question (usu-
to increase learning groups’ effectiveness.
ally high-consensus). (3) Heads Together - students literally put their heads together
and make sure everyone knows and can explain the answer. (4) Teacher calls a number
and students with that number raise their hands to be called on, as in a traditional The role of instructional materiais
classroom. Materials play an important part in creating opportunities for students to work coopera-
tively. The same materials can be used as are used in other types of lessons, but variations
Learner roles are required in how the materials are used. For example, if students are working in groups,
‘The primary role of the learner is as a member of a group who must work collaboratively each might have one set of materials (or groups might have different sets of materials),
on tasks with other group members. Learners have to learn teamwork skills. Learners are or each group member might need a copy of a text to read and refer to. Materials may be
also directors of their own learning. They are taught to plan, monitor, and evaluate their specially designed for CLL learning (such as commercially sold jigsaw and information
own learning, which is viewed as a compilation of lifelong learning skills. Thus, learning gap activities), modified from existing materials, or borrowed from other disciplines.
is something that requires students’ direct and active involvement and participation. Pair
grouping is the most typical CLL format, ensuring the maximum amount of time both Comparison of Cooperative Language Learning and traditional
learners spend engaged on learning tasks. Pair tasks in which learners alternate roles approaches
involve partners in the role of tutors, checkers, recorders, and information sharers.
Zhang compares CLL and traditional approaches in Table 13.1. In practice, many classrooms
Teacher roles
may fall somewhere between CLL and traditional approaches, where teaching is not neces-
sarily teacher-fronted and elements of CLL are incorporated, but where the approach does
‘The role of the teacher in CLL differs considerably from the role of teachers in traditional not form the basis for the organization of the course.
teacher-fronted lessons. The teacher has to create a highly structured and well-organized
learning environment in the classroom, setting goals, planning and structuring tasks, estab- Table 13.1 Comparison of Cooperative Language Learning and traditional language
lishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to groups and roles, teaching (from Yan Zhang 2010)
and selecting materials and time (Johnson et al. 1994). An important role for the teacher is
that of facilitator of learning. In his or her role as facilitator, the teacher must move around oe Traditional fanguage Cooperative Language
the class helping students and groups as needs arise: teaching. Learning S
Independence None or negative Positive
During this time the teacher interacts, teaches, refocuses, questions, clarifies, supports, Learner roles Passive receiver and performer | Active participator, autonomous
expands, celebrates, empathizes. Depending on what problems evolve, the following learners
supportive behaviors are utilized. Facilitators are giving feedback, redirecting the group Teacher roles The center of the classroom, Organizer and counselor of
with questions, encouraging the group to solve its own problems, extending activity, controlier of teaching pace group work, facilitator of the
encouraging thinking, managing conflict, observing students, and supplying resources. and direction, judge of communication tasks, intervener
(Harel 1992: 169) students’ right or wrong, the to teach collaborative skills
major source of assistance,
Teachers speak less than in teacher-fronted classes. They provide broad questions feedback, reinforcement and
to challenge thinking, they prepare students for the tasks they will carry out, they assist support
students with the learning tasks, and they give few commands, imposing less disciplinary (Continued)
254 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Leaming 255

Traditional tanguage ; Cooperative Lang lage * :

4. The students individually research the material they need for their compositions, each
: teaching #38 Learning ee eee ee keeping an eye out for material useful to their partner.
5. The students work together to write the first paragraph of each composition to ensure
Materials Complete set of rristerials for Materials are arranged
that they both have a clear start on their compositions.
each student according to purpose of fesson.
Usually one group shares a 6. The students write their compositions individually.
complete set of materials. 7. When the students have completed their compositions, they proofread each other's
Types of Knowledge recall and review, Any instructional activity, compositions, making corrections in capitalization, punctuation, spelling, language
activities phrasal or sentence pattern mainly group work to engage usage, and other aspects of writing the teacher specifies. Students also give each other
practice, role play, translation, learners in communication, suggestions for revision.
listening, etc. involving processes like 8. The students revise their compositions.
information sharing, negotiation 9. The students then reread each other’s compositions and sign their names to indicate that
of meaning, and interaction each composition is error-free.
Interaction Some talking among students, Intense interaction among
mainly teacher-student students, a few teacher-student Daring this process, the teacher monitors the pairs, intervening when appropriate to help
interaction interactions students master the needed writing and cooperative skills.
Room Separate desks or students Collaborative small groups
arrangement placed in pairs Conclusion
Student Take a major part in evaluating | All members in some way
expectations own progress and the quality of | contribute to success of group.
This chapter has reviewed the principles underlying Cooperative Language Learning and
own efforts toward learning. Be | The one who makes progress is some ways in which the approach can be implemented. The use of discussion groups,
a winner or loser. the winner. group work, and pair work has often been advocated in teaching both languages and other
Teacher-student | Superior, inferior or equal Cooperating and equal subjects. Typically, such groups are used to provide a change from the normal pace of class-
relationship room events and to increase the amount of student participation in lessons. Such activities,
however, are not necessarily cooperative. In CLL, group activities are the major mode of
learning and are part of a comprehensive theory and system for the use of group work in
Procedure
teaching. Group activities are carefully planned to maximize students’ interaction and to
The procedure for a CLL lesson follows from going through the steps involved in determin- facilitate students’ contributions to each other's learning. CLL activities can also be used in
ing the lesson objective and choosing appropriate cooperative activity types for teaching collaboration with other teaching methods and approaches, for example, Communicative
and learning. Johnson et al. (1994: 67-8) give the following example of how a collaborative Language Teaching, as mentioned earlier.
learning lesson would be carried out when students are required to write an essay, report,
Unlike most language teaching proposals, CLL has been extensively researched and
poem, or story, or review something that they have read. A cooperative writing and edit- evaluated, and research findings are generally supportive (see Slavin 1995; Baloche 1998;
ing pair arrangement is used. Pairs verify that each member's composition matches the
Crandall 2000; Jia 2003; McGafferty and Jacobs 2006), although little of this research was
criteria that have been established by the teacher; they then receive an individual score on conducted in L2 classrooms. CLL is not without its critics, however. Some have questioned
the quality of their compositions. They can also be given a group score based on the total
its use with learners of different proficiency levels, suggesting that some groups of students
number of errors made by the pair in their individual compositions. The procedure works (eg., intermediate and advanced learners) may obtain more benefits from it than others.
in the following way: In addition, it places considerable demands on teachers, who may have difficulty adapting
1, The teacher assigns students to pairs with at least one good reader in each pair. to the new roles required of them. Proponents of CLL stress that it enhances both learning
2. Student A describes what he or she is planning to write to Student B, who listens care- and learners’ interaction skills.
fully, probes with a set of questions, and outlines Student A’s ideas. Student B gives the
written outline to Student A. Discussion questions
3. This procedure is reversed, with Student B describing what he or she is going to write 1, CLL emphasizes pair and group work and extensive collaboration and learning through
and Student A listening and completing an outline of Student B's ideas, which is then interaction. Do you think that the benefits of this are age-related? For example, might
given to Student B. such an approach work better with younger learners? Why (not)?