The Effect of Parental Interventions on Food Buying

Behaviour of Children Subjected to Social Media Food

Advertising

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

By

Amani A.Karim Al Abbas

Brunel Business School

Brunel University
United Kingdom

2018
 Acknowledgments

My deepest gratitude goes to all who made this study possible, Dr. Weifeng Chen and

Dr. Maria Saberi, my supervisors, for their continuous support, advice and guidance

throughout my PhD.

Also, I would like to thank all Ahlia University staff members for the support provided

to me during the last few years.

Finally, my warm and heartfelt thanks go to my family for their never-ending love and

support which kept me going in the years it took to complete this work.

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 Abstract

Children are considered important targets by companies. Advertisers are constantly

searching for new and innovative ways to encourage children to purchase. However,

children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of advertising, including the negative

effects of unhealthy food advertising that may have severe consequences on children's

overall health (Harris and Kalnova, 2018). In addition, commercials are evolving with

the introduction of social media. Current social media food commercials are fully

integrated with the content of the platform used, highly engaging and viewed repeatedly

by children. This poses an additional challenge when it comes to protecting children

from the negative effects of advertising. This thesis addresses the effect of social media

unhealthy food advertising on children's buying behaviour, raises the question

regarding the effectiveness of current interventions and proposes alternative measures

to lessen the effect of social media food advertising . Additionally, this thesis discusses

the need to consider a dual-step dual process model when suggesting interventions to

mitigate the effects of these advertisements. The suggested interventions in this thesis

are those exercised by parents at the two steps of advertising effects process (during

advertising exposure and during purchase decision stages) and utilizing the two systems

of information processing (implicit and explicit processes).

The conceptual model was developed and validated using online and hard copy surveys

randomly targeting parents of children between the ages of 8 and 12 years old that are

exposed to social media advertising. Based on 622 responses, the findings of this

research suggest that children are affected negatively by unhealthy food advertising

displayed on social media, which ultimately influence their purchase decisions. The

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study found five out of six suggested parental interventions are effective in mitigating

the negative effects of these advertisements. The research offers multiple theoretical

contributions and policy implications. From theoretical point of view, this study is a

unique addition to the body of literature especially with the consideration of social

media advertising and the dual-step dual process when proposing interventions. Also,

it is sheds the light on the current status of parental interventions and children's buying

behaviour when it comes to social media food advertising in the Gulf Cooperation

Council (GCC) region. From a policy perspective, this study provides an overview of

the alarming status of children in the GCC region, voicing concerns to policymakers in

the marketing industry to impose laws and provide support to protect children from

unhealthy food advertising on social media platforms.

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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 : Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background of the Study ................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Research Problem and Gap ............................................................................................. 4
1.4 Research Aim and Objectives .......................................................................................... 8
1.5 Research Methodology.................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Research Outline ........................................................................................................... 10
1.8 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2 Literature Review.................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Public Health Literature: A Review of Factors Affecting Children's Food Preferences,
Consumption and Unhealthy Eating Habits ........................................................................ 14
2.3 Marketing Literature: Advertising and Consumer Behaviour Theories and Models..... 17
2.3.1 Children's Consumer Socialization Theories and Models....................................... 17
2.3.2 Advertising Models and Dual Process Models in Consumer Psychology ............... 20
2.4 Digital Marketing Targeting Children ............................................................................ 26
2.5 Social Media Advertising: Definitions and Impact on Children ..................................... 28
2.6 Children's Understanding of Social Media Advertising ................................................. 31
2.7 Summary........................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 3 : Conceptual Model ................................................................................................. 36
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 36
3.2 Children's Vulnerability Towards Advertisements: Call For Interventions .................... 36
3.3 Children's exposure to food advertising on social media.............................................. 39
3.3.1 Dual Processes at the Exposure Stage .................................................................... 40
3.3.2 Dual Processes and Consumption Decisions .......................................................... 42
3.4 The Moderating Effect of Parental Interventions in Mitigating the Effect of Social
Media Food Advertising ...................................................................................................... 44
3.5 Summary........................................................................................................................ 54
Chapter 4 : Research Methodology ......................................................................................... 55
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 55
4.2 Research Philosophy...................................................................................................... 57

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 4.3 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 60
4.4 Operationalization of Variables ..................................................................................... 65
4.5 Data Collection Procedures ........................................................................................... 66
4.5.1 Primary Sources...................................................................................................... 66
4.5.2 Secondary Sources.................................................................................................. 67
4.5.3 Questionnaire.......................................................................................................... 67
4.6 Population and Sampling ............................................................................................... 74
4.6.1 Target Population ................................................................................................... 76
4.6.2 Sample Size ............................................................................................................ 76
4.6.3 Sampling Technique ............................................................................................... 77
4.6.4 Sources of Error in Survey Research ...................................................................... 79
4.7 Data Analysis Procedure ................................................................................................ 80
4.8 Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................... 84
4.9 Pilot study ...................................................................................................................... 87
4.10 Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................... 91
4.11 Summary...................................................................................................................... 94
Chapter 5 : Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 96
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 96
5.2 Respondents’ Profile ..................................................................................................... 96
5.3 Factor Analysis ............................................................................................................. 103
5.3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis .............................................................................. 103
5.3.2 KMO and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity ................................................................. 108
5.4 Descriptive Analysis ..................................................................................................... 117
5.4.1 Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) .......................... 118
5.4.2 Imitation of Parents (IP) ....................................................................................... 118
5.4.3 Goal Setting (GS) ................................................................................................. 119
5.4.4 Advertising-Based Defensive Formation (ABMF) .............................................. 120
5.4.5 Advertising Defensive Memory Application (ABMA) ........................................ 121
5.4.7 Co-viewing ........................................................................................................... 122
5.4.7 Parent-Child Communication (PCC) .................................................................... 123
5.4.8 Rules of Use (RU) ................................................................................................ 124
5.4.9 If, then heuristic Strategy (IH).............................................................................. 125
5.5 Correlation Matrix ....................................................................................................... 126
5.6 Path Analysis................................................................................................................ 129

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 5.7 Mediation Effect .......................................................................................................... 130
5.8 Moderation Effect ....................................................................................................... 132
5.8.1 Testing Moderation Hypotheses at Exposure Stage ............................................. 133
5.8.2 Testing Moderation Hypotheses at Consumption Stage....................................... 138
5.9 Summary...................................................................................................................... 144
Chapter 6 : Discussion ........................................................................................................... 146
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 146
6.2 Results and Analysis of Research Variables ................................................................. 146
6.3 Mediation Effect of Advertising-Based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF) ......... 147
6.4 Moderation Effect of Parental Intervention at Exposure Stage and Purchase Stage . 149
6.5 Discussion Hypotheses Testing Results ....................................................................... 150
6.6 Summary...................................................................................................................... 163
Chapter 7 : Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 165
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 165
7.2 Summary of Analysis Results ....................................................................................... 165
7.3 Research Aims and Objectives Revisited ..................................................................... 169
7.4 Contribution to Knowledge ......................................................................................... 173
7.5 Implications for Practice .............................................................................................. 175
7.6 Limitations of this Research ........................................................................................ 178
7.7 Further Research ......................................................................................................... 180
7.8 Summary...................................................................................................................... 181
References and Bibliography ................................................................................................. 183
Appendix 1: Survey (English Version) .................................................................................... 219
Appendix 2: Survey (Arabic Version) ..................................................................................... 230

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN ADVERTISING MODELS IN EACH STAGE OF THE ADVERTISING PROCESS ..................... 23

TABLE 4.1 POSITIVISM VS. INTERPRETIVISM ........................................................................................... 57

TABLE 4.2ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE (SOURCE: PHELLAS, BLOCH AND SEALE, 2011) ....... 70

TABLE 4.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND EVIDENCE FROM THE LITERATURE ............................................................... 72

TABLE 4.4 CRONBACH’S ALPHA FOR QUESTIONNAIRE......................................................................................... 86

TABLE 5.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS ..................................................................... 98

TABLE 5.2 MEASURES OF GOODNESS-OF-FIT AND THEIR ACCEPTABLE THRESHOLDS ............................................... 104

TABLE 5.3 FACTOR LOADING AND AVE OF CONSTRUCT .................................................................................... 108

TABLE 5.4 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR SOCIAL MEDIA UNHEALTHY FOOD

ADVERTISEMENT EXPOSURE (ESM) ..................................................................................................... 109

TABLE 5.5 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR SOCIAL MEDIA UNHEALTHY FOOD ADVERTISEMENT EXPOSURE (ESM).... 109

TABLE 5.6 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR IMITATION OF PARENTS (IP) ..................... 110

TABLE 5.7 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR IMITATION OF PARENTS (IP) ............................................................ 110

TABLE 5.8 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR GOAL SETTING (GS) ............................... 111

TABLE 5.9 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR GOAL SETTING (GS) ....................................................................... 111

TABLE 5.10 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY

FORMATION (ABMF)........................................................................................................................ 112

TABLE 5.11 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF)......... 112

TABLE 5.12 : THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR ADVERTISING DEFENSIVE MEMORY

APPLICATION (ABMA) ...................................................................................................................... 113

TABLE 5.13 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR ADVERTISING DEFENSIVE MEMORY APPLICATION (ABMA) ................. 113

TABLE 5.14 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR CO-VIEWING (CV) ................................ 113

TABLE 5.15 : TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR CO-VIEWING (CV) ..................................................................... 114

TABLE 5.16 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR PARENT-CHILD COMMUNICATION (PCC) .. 114

TABLE 5.17 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR PARENT-CHILD COMMUNICATION (PCC) ......................................... 115

TABLE 5.18 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR RULES OF USE (RU) ............................... 115

TABLE 5.19 TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR RULES OF USE (RU) ..................................................................... 116

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TABLE 5.20 THE KAISER-MEYER OLKIN (KMO) AND BARTLETT'S TEST FOR IF, THEN HEURISTIC STRATEGY (IH) .......... 116

TABLE 5.21: TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED FOR IF, THEN HEURISTIC STRATEGY (IH) ................................................ 117

TABLE 5.22 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SOCIAL MEDIA UNHEALTHY FOOD ADVERTISEMENT EXPOSURE

(ESM) ........................................................................................................................................... 118

TABLE 5.23 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF IMITATION OF PARENTS (IP) ............................................ 119

TABLE 5.24 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF GOAL SETTING (GS) ....................................................... 120

TABLE 5.25 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF)

..................................................................................................................................................... 121

TABLE 5.26 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF ADVERTISING DEFENSIVE MEMORY APPLICATION (ABMA) ... 122

TABLE 5.27 : THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF CO-VIEWING (CV) ....................................................... 122

TABLE 5.28 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PARENT-CHILD COMMUNICATION (PCC) ........................... 123

TABLE 5.29 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF RULES OF USE (RU) ...................................................... 124

TABLE 5.30 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF IF, THEN HEURISTIC STRATEGY (IH) .................................... 125

TABLE 5.31 THE CORRELATION MATRIX ........................................................................................................ 128

TABLE 5.32 STANDARDIZED REGRESSION WEIGHTS ......................................................................................... 131

TABLE 5.33 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF ESM*PCC ON ABMF ...................................................................... 134

TABLE 5.34 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF ESM*RU ON ABMF ....................................................................... 136

TABLE 5.35 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF ESM*CV ON ABMF ........................................................................ 138

TABLE 5.36 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF ABMF*IH ON ABMA...................................................................... 140

TABLE 5.37 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF ABMF*GS ON ABMA ..................................................................... 142

TABLE 5.38 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF ABMF*IP ON ABMA ...................................................................... 143

TABLE 6.1 THE MEAN OF RESEARCH VARIABLES .............................................................................................. 147

TABLE 6.2 STANDARDIZED REGRESSION WEIGHTS ........................................................................................... 148

TABLE 6.3 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF PARENTAL INTERVENTION AT EXPOSURE STAGE ........................................ 150

TABLE 6.4 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF PARENTAL INTERVENTION AT PURCHASE STAGE ....................................... 150

TABLE 7.1 RESULTS SUMMARY FOR HYPOTHESES TESTING ................................................................................. 169

TABLE 7.2 MEETING THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ...................................................................... 172

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.1 PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN HAVING SOCIAL MEDIA PROFILE BY AGE IN 2017 ............................................. 7

FIGURE 1.2 ESTIMATED WEEKLY HOURS OF INTERNET COMMUNICATION BY AGE ........................................................ 7

FIGURE 2.1 ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILDHOOD OVERWEIGHT ................................... 16

FIGURE 2.2 PIAGET THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT CHART ......................................................................... 18

FIGURE 2.3CONSUMER SOCIALIZATION STAGES ................................................................................................ 20

FIGURE 2.4 THE ADVERTISING PROCESS .......................................................................................................... 21

FIGURE 3.1 DUAL-STEP AND DUAL-PROCESS MODEL OF ADVERTISING EFFECTS ......................................................... 40

FIGURE 3.2 SUGGESTED CONCEPTUAL MODEL .................................................................................................. 53

FIGURE 4.1 THE PROCEDURE FOR THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 64

FIGURE 5.1 GENDER OF RESPONDENTS............................................................................................................ 99

FIGURE 5.2 AGE OF RESPONDENTS ................................................................................................................. 99

FIGURE 5.3 NATIONALITY OF RESPONDENTS ................................................................................................... 100

FIGURE 5.4 EDUCATION OF RESPONDENTS ..................................................................................................... 100

FIGURE 5.5 MONTHLY INCOME OF RESPONDENTS ........................................................................................... 101

FIGURE 5.6 CHILDS’ GENDER ....................................................................................................................... 101

FIGURE 5.7 CHILD’S AGE ............................................................................................................................ 102

FIGURE 5.8 SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORM USED BY THE CHILD ............................................................................... 102

FIGURE 5.9 CHILD’S TIME SPENT ON SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS ....................................................................... 103

FIGURE 5.10 THE MEASUREMENT MODEL ..................................................................................................... 105

FIGURE 5.11 PATH ANALYSIS MODEL ........................................................................................................... 129

FIGURE 5.12 TOTAL EFFECTS OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT PATHS ON ADVERTISING- BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION

(ABMF) ......................................................................................................................................... 132

FIGURE 5.13 TOTAL EFFECTS OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT PATHS ON ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY APPLICATION

(ABMA)......................................................................................................................................... 132

FIGURE 5.14 THE MODERATING ROLE OF A PARENTAL INTERVENTION AT EXPOSURE STAGE (PCC, RU, AND CV) BETWEEN

ESM AND ABMF ............................................................................................................................. 133

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FIGURE 5.15 THE MODERATING ROLE OF PARENT-CHILD COMMUNICATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL

MEDIA UNHEALTHY FOOD ADVERTISEMENT EXPOSURE (ESM) AND ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY

FORMATION (ABMF)........................................................................................................................ 134

FIGURE 5.16 THE MODERATING ROLE OF RULES OF USE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL MEDIA UNHEALTHY

FOOD ADVERTISEMENT EXPOSURE (ESM) AND ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF)

..................................................................................................................................................... 136

FIGURE 5.17 THE MODERATING ROLE OF CO-VIEWING ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL MEDIA UNHEALTHY FOOD

ADVERTISEMENT EXPOSURE (ESM) AND ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF) ....... 137

FIGURE 5.18 THE MODERATING ROLE OF A PARENTAL INTERVENTION AT PURCHASE STAGE (IH, GS, AND IP) BETWEEN

ABMF AND ABMA .......................................................................................................................... 139

FIGURE 5.19 THE MODERATING ROLE OF IF, THEN HEURISTIC STRATEGY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADVERTISING-

BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF) AND ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY APPLICATION

(ABMA)......................................................................................................................................... 140

FIGURE 5.20 THE MODERATING ROLE OF GOAL SETTING ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE

MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF) AND ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY APPLICATION (ABMA) ............ 141

FIGURE 5.21 THE MODERATING ROLE OF IMITATION OF PARENTS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADVERTISING-BASED

DEFENSIVE MEMORY FORMATION (ABMF) AND ADVERTISING-BASED DEFENSIVE MEMORY APPLICATION (ABMA)

..................................................................................................................................................... 143

FIGURE 7.1 CONCEPTUAL MODEL (FINAL) ..................................................................................................... 168

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 Chapter 1 : Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This opening chapter provides an overview of the research covering the rationale and

motivations for conducting it, identifies the gap, aim and objectives. This research

contributes to the body of knowledge and presents implications for practitioners and

policymakers . A quantitative research methodology is used for the research along with

adopting a survey that was distributed randomly to parents with children between the

ages of 8 and 12 across the GCC. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was selected as

a multivariate technique and path analysis was conducted on the empirical data

collected.

This chapter is structured as follows. Sections 1.2 and 1.3 provide a background of the

study and highlight the research problem and gap. This is followed by the research aim

and objectives in section 1.4. Then, in section 1.5, the research methodology selected

for this research is presented. The thesis structure is described in section 1.6 and finally,

section 1.7, summarizes the overall chapter.

1.2 Background of the Study

The World Health Organization (WHO) has indicated that advertising of unhealthy

food to children is one of the main reasons of childhood obesity (World Health

Organization, 2006). Additionally, public health specialists stated that an environment

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Amani Al Abbas
characterized by strong and effective food advertising that encourages consumption of

unhealthy products is a major contributor to obesity epidemic (Mazur et al., 2018;

Brownell and Horgen, 2004; Kraak, Gootman and McGinnis, 2006). In the European

Region 21.3% of boys and 23.3% of girls between the ages of five and nine years are

overweight, and in the Americas these percentages are 23.4% boys and 22.6% of girls

(Boyland and Whalen, 2015). Research found that these numbers have more than

doubled in the last 40 years. For children, having all this excess weight is associated

with so many health and psychosocial costs. Early interventions are critical as

highlighted through this thesis.

Overweight children become overweight adults who raise the probability of suffering

from heart diseases, diabetes, cancers, anxiety, depression, social stigma, and premature

death (Reilly et al., 2002.). Food marketing has a significant role in the increase of

children obesity because of the fact that children are a favourable target by marketers

(Linn, 2004; Jordan and Chernin, 2010). This is due to their effect on sales in 3 aspects:

in many cases, they are independent consumers with pocket money or allowance spent

often on snacks that are considered unhealthy; they have substantial impact over family

purchases and they can pester their parents; and they are also future consumers when

they become adults with brand loyalty established at a young age which can be lucrative

for the organization over the lifespan (Story and French, 2004).

It is important to note that food and beverage marketers spend $15 billion each year

targeting the US children market alone (Eggerton, 2007), and thus it is not surprising

that children are exposed to advertisements through multiple channels including

sponsorship of events, magazines, outdoor advertising and at point of sale in shops

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(Linn and Novosat, 2008). However, research in this regard has been focused on

conventional media (mainly television) and, recently, new media channels (mainly the

Internet and social media) have been the most important in terms of impact and reach

(Hudders et al., 2017).

Food commercials are now much more than just ‘spot ads’ on TV. New media channels

(which refer to technologies that are digital in nature including the internet and social

media) are expanding and changing (Kelly et al., 2015). Recent years witnessed

children becoming increasingly capable and consistent users of the Internet, social

media (Rideout, Foehr and Roberts, 2010) and food marketers jumped on trend to target

children. Companies that promote food target children via so many venues such as

websites, third party advertising (i.e., banner placement on other websites), online video

sites (i.e., YouTube), social media, and advergames (commercials embedded within an

online game) (Faber, Lee and Nan, 2004). In a recent study, Freeman and colleagues

(Freeman et al., 2014) analysed the marketing tactics utilized by most food and

beverage brands on Facebook in Australia. It was found that many were unique in that

they could potentially increase user's engagement and interaction, with young people

seemingly the most interested in this type of content.

In another research, a content analysis was performed of websites that had been shown

and advertised on Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon (Culp, Bell and Cassady, 2010).

Researchers looked at 290 pages across 19 websites and found that games (showing on

81% of websites), were the major promotion tactic used and all games had a minimum

of one brand reference (e.g., a logo). Also, the content analysis showed that children

would be exposed to an average of just one healthy commercial for every 45 exposures

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to brand reference (Culp, Bell and Cassady, 2010). Another study revealed that out of

24 websites that had been judgmentally sampled (these websites were sponsored by 10

companies that market products to children), more than 80% targeted children under

the age of 12 (Brady et al., 2010).

Research acknowledges that social media marketing differs from conventional

marketing in many ways (Kelly et al., 2015). Past research illustrated that new media

advertising enables peer pressure, and establishes personal relationships with food

brands (Mangold and Faulds, 2009). These characteristics of new media are very

effective at establishing and growing brand awareness that eventually lead to product

purchases (Sprott, Czellar and Spangenberg, 2009). In addition, young people have

generally been found to have much lower cognitive skills that aid in ad recognition and

more so on new media than adults do (Ali et al., 2009).

1.3 Research Problem and Gap

There have been recurring questions for consumer policymakers as well as other

concerned parties on how to lessen the negative influence of advertising on children

and how to increase children's abilities and skills as consumers to make better food

purchase decisions (e.g., Kline 2010; Graff, Kunkel, and Mermin, 2012). Due to that,

it is crucial to understand the processes that control how commercials affect views,

judgments, and behaviour of children. Knowledge about these processes can facilitate

proper instruments to shield children from the influence of these commercials and to

reinforce their consumer abilities and skills.

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Previous research suggested that advertising literacy can be used as a defence

mechanism which is, basically, educating and training young people on how to detect

and react to advertisements (Rozendaal et al., 2011; Rozendaal, Buijzen and

Valkenburg, 2011). In a study done by Roberts et al. (1980), it was found that children

were more doubtful about commercials after explaining or describing some advertising

tactics. However, research suggests that a specific cognitive skills have to be

established in order to resist the influence of commercials and that advertising literacy

could aid in lessening the effects of advertising at or shortly afterwards exposure.

Nevertheless, research that focuses on limited capabilities of children when it comes to

processing of information and self-control as well as research involving implicit

processes questions these assumptions (Buijzen, Van Reijmersdal, and Owen, 2010;

Livingstone and Helsper, 2006). Research has indicated that certain level of cognition

and understanding must be present in order for a child to activate his/her advertising

literacy training. This leads to the assumption that advertising literacy might not be as

effective for younger children as they are yet to develop such cognitive skills (Piaget

1952; John, 1999). Interventions should include the implicit processes in order for these

interventions to be effective; as children can learn implicitly at a very young age

(Janacsek, Fiser and Nemeth, 2012). This was identified as a gap investigated in this

thesis.

In addition, there is an increasing concern that children nowadays are exposed more

and more to unhealthy food products. This is a part of a much broader debate regarding

the growing use of digital media. The use of the Internet by children is increasing as a

result of children gaining access to smartphones, tablets and other internet-enabled

devices.

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There are implications for the growing use of digital media by children according to

Ofcom (2017). Outcomes from Ofcom’s yearly survey, published in November 2017

(Ofcom, 2017), show that 39% of children between the ages of 8 and 11 have their own

smartphone and 52% of them own a tablet. The use of a smartphone or a tablet to access

the internet is increasing among children. Around 42% of children from the same age

group (8 to 11 years old) use tablets and 22% use smartphones. Children aged 8-11 now

spend on average 13.5 hours online per week. Communicating, gaming and watching

videos are the most common activities carried out by children. Children in this age

group utilize social media (around 23%) as seen in Figure 1.1 (Ofcom, 2017). These

numbers are increasing when compared to previous years as presented in Figure 1.2.

The above-mentioned statistics have increased concerns regarding children's use of

digital media. The implications of the effects that these technologies may have on

children are physiological, social, emotional and cognition development is questioned

(Choudhury and McKinney, 2013). In addition, there is a growing concern that

excessive digital media use by children can lead to some sort of addiction. There is

some research indicating that a small percentage of children show pathological signs

regarding digital media use (Smahel and Blinka, 2012). Despite all of these risks that

children are facing online, there has been some research showing that digital media

actually might have positive effects on the social development of children (Valkenburg

and Peter, 2009; Livingstone et al., 2011; Livingstone, Ólafsson and Staksrud, 2011;

Pea et al., 2012).

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Figure 1.1 Percentage of children having social media profile by age in 2017

Figure 1.2 Estimated weekly hours of internet communication by age (source: ofcom, 2017)

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Due to these alarming statistics, researchers argue that parents can play a significant

role in the development of children’s food purchase behaviour, as a big portion of media

use by children takes place at home (Büttner, Florack and Serfas, 2014; Buijzen 2007).

In particular, parents have the power to restrict media use by children, monitor what

they watch over social media as well as use effective communications to discuss

advertising content (Shin, Huh, and Faber, 2012). Additionally, parents should function

as role models to be imitated in consumption situations. Parents can also set goals for

their children to attain as well as training them implicitly to use if-then heuristic

strategies in consumption environments even when the parents are not present (Büttner

et al., 2014). This research examines the role of parental interventions in mitigating the

effect of social media food advertising on children.

1.4 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to investigate the impact of parental interventions on food

buying behaviour of children between the ages of 8 to 12 that have been subjected to

social media advertising.

The above aim is achieved by pursuing the following objectives:

a. Exploring the recent literature related advertising targeting children and

examining the relationship between advertising effects and unhealthy eating

habits.

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 b. Examining the current literature and reviewing the models and theories that aid

in understanding concepts related to social media advertising, children's buying

behaviour and parental interventions, as well as suggesting hypotheses

supporting the proposed conceptual model.

c. Outlining the framework for the methodology utilized throughout the research

for testing the proposed hypotheses.

d. Analyzing the outcomes and emphasizing the significant relationships between

the constructs proposed in the hypothesized model.

e. Discussing the outcomes and findings and linking them to the literature,

drawing the major theoretical and practical implications of the study and

offering directions for future research.

1.5 Research Methodology

A quantitative research methodology has been adopted. This research investigates the

influence of parental interventions on children's food buying behaviour from parent's

perspectives, which is a phenomenon that is examined in this research through testing

current theories, validating the developed conceptual model and proposed hypotheses.

Hence, the philosophy adopted in this research deemed to be positivism within which

parents perceptions are gathered to validate the proposed research model and associated

constructs and hypotheses. Since the target audience of this research are parents of

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children between the age 8 and 12 that are exposed to social media food advertising in

the GCC region, a quantitative methodology is appropriate to capture a large portion of

the parents' general perception on the proposed hypotheses. The use of a quantitative

methodology in this research is used with similar studies conducted previously in

advertising research (Buijzen et al., 2010; Livingstone and Helsper, 2006; Büttner,

Florack and Serfas, 2014). This was carried out by online and hard copy questionnaires,

for the purposes of capturing the views of a large number of parents from different

places in the GCC as well as variety of backgrounds. Following the data collection,

SEM was chosen as a multivariate technique for this research to validate the fitness of

the conceptual model and test the hypotheses through performing path analysis.

1.7 Research Outline

This thesis includes seven chapters which are arranged as follows:

Chapter 1 is the opening chapter of the thesis introduced the research background in

order to scope the study and outline the research problems which the study will address.

Chapter 2 reviews the relevant concepts and focal theories in literature, to improve the

understanding of advertising to children management. The reviewed literature in this

chapter helped to inform the theoretical framework and methodology guiding this

study.

Chapter 3 which is built upon Chapter 2, it provides the introduction of the concepts

that led to the development of the theoretical and conceptual framework.

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Chapter 4 outlines the research design and methodology guiding this study. This

research adopted a quantitative methodology. Questionnaires were used to collect data.

Chapter 5 presents the data analysis including different tests performed and findings

and path analysis. The roles of the mediator and the moderators in the conceptual model

are clarified as well as the direct and indirect effects of all paths. SEM is chosen as a

multivariate technique for this research to validate the fitness of the conceptual model

and test the hypotheses. Before performing path analysis, a number of tests were

conducted to prepare a clean data for the SEM, which included factor reduction,

reliability and validity of the research instrument as well as normality of the data

distribution and correlation.

Chapter 6 discusses the findings of the data analysis as well as maps the findings to the

gap identified for this research. In this chapter, the results of the 8 hypotheses are

thoroughly discussed, justified, explained and linked to practical outcomes.

Chapter 7 identifies a number of research contributions as well as practical implications

to parents, policymakers and practitioners. The research limitations and suggestions

for future research are presented and discussed. Finally, the aim and objectives of the

research are revisited.

1.8 Chapter Summary

This chapter provided an overview of this thesis including the significance and

motivations for starting the research, presented several key literatures to support the

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research gap and outlined the aim and objectives of the study. The key gap found in the

literature is the need for better interventions to mitigate the unintended effects of food

advertising on children, especially with the introduction of embedded formats of

advertising via social media platforms.

Therefore, this research aims to investigate the role of parental interventions in reducing

the unwanted social media food advertising effects on children by means of explicit and

implicit strategies that bolster self- control in children.

This research and its outcomes synthesize and enrich the marketing literature and in

particular the areas of children consumer behaviour, social media advertising. A

number of theoretical and practical contributions were illustrated, which will be

expanded in the remaining chapters.

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 Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Much of the current literature in the advertising discipline pays particular attention to

the aggregate effects of commercials on children’s eating habits. As noted throughout

the literature, commercials for food that are high in sugar and calories are the main

products pushed to children. A considerable amount of literature has documented that

these commercials are effective in persuading children into requesting or buying such

harmful products (Galst & White, 1976; Goldberg, Gorn, & Gibson, 1978;

Borzekowski and Robinson, 2001). In a study of advertising effects on children's eating

habits, Gorn and Goldberg (1982) reported that commercials shown to children between

the ages of 5 and 8 during a two week camp can influence their preferences. In the

study, the children were split into two groups: one was shown ads for fruit and fruit

juice while the other group viewed ads for a sugary drink, Kool-Aid. The children's

actual food and drink preferences were influenced remarkably by the ads they saw.

Critics of unhealthy food advertising face a difficult task in that many parents, and

paediatricians find the use of such high sugary food and fast food occasionally is not

harmful. However, these non-nutritious foods may replace or be consumed more

frequently than nutritional food in a child's diet. (Barcus, 1980; Kunkel and Gantz,

1993; Atkin and Heald, 1977).

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Taken together, these studies suggest that these acquired eating habits during childhood

most probably will continue throughout a child's life. This accentuates the serious

consequences of the advertising of unhealthy food (Jacobson and Maxwell, 1994).

Scholars have connected the dramatic escalation in the prevalence of childhood obesity

to the targeted advertising of unhealthy foods to children (Troiano and Flegal, 1998;

Horgen, Choate, and Brownell, 2001).

2.2 Public Health Literature: A Review of Factors Affecting Children's Food

Preferences, Consumption and Unhealthy Eating Habits

There are several models and theories discussing the learning process of children when

it comes to food and nutrition in the public health discipline. Social Cognitive Theory

(SCT) has been employed to assess acquisition of behavioural patterns and social norms

by individuals (Bandura, 1986)

SCT suggests that individual's behaviour encompasses inherited and learned

behavioural patterns. Human behaviour is mostly learnt by observational means as the

environment an individual is immersed in forms and controls the individual's behaviour

(Bandura, 1986). According to this, children learn about various aspects from their

observations as well as models presented to them in their social environment, varying

from parents to mass media (Bandura, 2002)

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The SCT also gives an explanation of how individuals validate their thoughts and

actions. This is done by comparing those thoughts and actions with those presented in

the social environment (other individuals and the media) (Bandura, 2002)

Biased and distorted mass media concepts can mess with the behaviour of individuals,

meaning that communicating false claims or distorted massages about a specific brand

or a product might result in changes in values (Hawkins and Pingree, 1982). In the

context of the current research, the SCT theory has been utilized to suggest that food

advertising targeting children may have a negative impact on their values and

behaviours by leading them to think that eating unhealthy food and excessive eating is

socially acceptable (Harris and Graff, 2012).

Ecological Systems Theory (EST) is another theory utilized to explore factors

contributing to children's learning process about food (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). EST was

employed previously in research of the eating behaviour of children and childhood

obesity (Story, Neumark-Sztainer, and French, 2002; Jones et al., 2009). This theory

highlights that an individual's development consists of a hierarchy of factors in one's

environment. However, different to SCT, EST suggests that these factors influence the

individual via environmental sublevels consisting of the microsystem (the immediate

environment), mesosystem (parents, peers, school) and the exosystem (indirect effects

such as social and demographic characteristics) as shown in Figure 2.1 (Davidson and

Brich, 2001)

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Figure 2.1 Ecological Framework of Factors Influencing Childhood Overweight (Davison and Birch 2001, p. 161)

Comparable to the theories discussed, a framework to explore food preferences and

health implications and outcomes was developed by Livingstone and Helsper (2004).

This framework introduces the direct as well as the indirect effects of food advertising

and the influence of parents. It also outlined the impact of advertising literacy

(children's understanding of persuasive messages and content) and the interactions

between factors operating in various levels (Livingstone and Helsper, 2004).

Research has indicated that children acquire information and learn naturally on daily

basis and parents play an important role in that (Bandura 1977). Thus, parents possess

an important influence the preferences and the purchase behavior of young children

(Martin and Bush, 2000). Parents provide the first experiences with food that can be the

determinant factor in their lives later on (Ferreira et al., 2007; Story et al., 2002).

Furthermore, parents lay the value foundation in children through their own behaviour

and association, choices, and attitudes (Jacobs and Eccles 2000). Early childhood

overweight is now considered a risk element for as children progress from childhood to

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being adults (Singh et al., 2008). Till recently, parents are often not necessarily involved

in current interventions that targets children eating behaviour, while it is known better

overall eating behaviour can be attained when interventions utilize parental

participation as stated by previous research (Hingle et al, 2010; Stice et al.,

2006; Niemeier et al, 2012). The comprehension of the 'why' and 'what' determines

parents influence on children's eating behaviour can help guide interventions.

2.3 Marketing Literature: Advertising and Consumer Behaviour Theories and

Models

2.3.1 Children's Consumer Socialization Theories and Models

The Era of the 1970s witnessed a large interest in the research of consumer socialization

of children as stated by John (1999). The term consumer socialization refers to the

method by which young people obtain knowledge, skills and behaviours in the context

of their upcoming role as a consumer in the market (Ward, 1974). The socialization

concept is drawn from SCT (social component) and Piaget's theory of cognitive

development (cognitive and psychological component) as stated by Moschis and

Churchill (1978). Piaget's theory (1952) was utilized to explain the process by which

children develop and acquire their skills as consumers.

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 Figure 2.2 Piaget theory of cognitive development chart

Other theories were considered in the context of marketing to understand how children

develop as consumers. Selman (1980) developed the social perspective approach which

suggests that biological age is linked to the overall social development (the ability to

take into account other's perspective).

Another theory related to biological age is information processing theory (IPT). This

theory discusses how children of different age stages store and retrieve information,

thus explaining how children process information given to them by mass media or

parents. IPT suggests three classifications based on age to analyse consumer

development of children. Children under the age of 8 have limited processing abilities

which means that they face difficulties in storing and retrieving information. Children

between the age of 8 to 12 years old are called cued processors as they can strategically

store and retrieve information. However, they need to be motivated or "cued" to process

information stored. Finally, children over 13 years old are strategic processors meaning

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they use multiple strategies for information storage, retrial and processing (Roedder,

1981).

The concept of consumer socialization of children was re-considered and three stages

were introduced to explain children's consumer development (John, 1999). Age was

used as a proxy to distinguish between the various stages (Figure 2.3 ) In the first stage

(perceptual stage, age around 3 to 7 years old), children focus on only one attribute,

Children are aware of brands but do not fully comprehend them. Their decision is based

on limited data and their own conception and perception. The second stage (analytical

stage, age around 7 to 11 years old), children are able to process more information and

this results in a complex understanding of brands and advertising and more than one

attribute is considered when making a decision or taking an action and built upon the

child's own experience. The third stage (reflective stage, age around 11 to 16 years old),

children become more and more complex and they can reflect and reason their

behaviours with conclusions based on adaptations and conceptualization of own and

others' experiences (John, 1999).

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 Figure 2.3Consumer Socialization stages (source: John, 1999)

By combining social and cognitive development, the socialization approach discussed

highlights that children develop and acquire skills with time. John (1999) emphasized

that the socialization process evolves in the context of family, mass media and other

various marketing institutions.

2.3.2 Advertising Models and Dual Process Models in Consumer Psychology

There are many theories within the advertising field and external marketing

communication that have been impactful on the academic and professional realms

(Hackley, 2005). According to Kitchen (1994) advertising are made to progress

individuals through three stages (Figure 2.4) before they buy the products: (1) The

cognitive stage (the exposure to advertising stage where individuals are made aware of

the product /brand), (2) The affective stage (the stage where preferences and attitudes

are formed towards the product/ brand) and (3) The behavioural stage (where

individuals turn those preferences to action) ( Mackay, 2005).

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 Cognitive Affective Behavioural
Stage Stage Stage

Figure 2.4 The Advertising Process

Many models have been suggested on what happens in each stage of the advertising

process. One of these models is AIDA which stands for: A: Attention, I: Interest, D:

Desire, A: Action. The AIDA model suggests that marketers must draw the attention of

a potential customer to get him/her intrigued or interested by showing its favourable

characteristics, advantages and components. Interest is trailed by the desire to have the

product. It is marketers’ obligation to make a yearning in a consumer to purchase a

particular item. Every one of the four stages of AIDA will help to motivate the activity

towards buying an item (Hanlon, 2013).

Another model with the name DAGMAR has been more used than the AIDA model

due to its comprehensiveness compared with AIDA. DAGMAR stages are more

defined and a bit easier to relate to. According to Hanlon (2013), the term DAGMAR

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stands for Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results. DAGMAR

model states that an advertisement must carry a potential customer through four steps:

(1) Awareness, Which is basically transforming the customer from not being aware of

the brand or the product into knowing them, (2) Comprehension, Which refers to

transforming the awareness of the products into a better understanding of the brand or

the product and their benefits, (3) Conviction, which means that marketers must

convince customer by telling them the benefits of the brand or the product and (4)

Action, which is not controlled by marketers. If marketers have been able to convince

the customer and have answered them satisfactorily then the action of buying will

occur. The Hierarchy of Effects Model was originated by Robert J. Lavidge and Gary

A. Steiner in 1961which is another model with similar outcomes of the AIDA and

DAGMAR. This model of marketing advertising model suggests that individuals go

through several steps before purchasing a product (Barry and Howard, 1990). This

model consists of 6 steps that can be mapped to the three stages of the advertising

process as well as other models (Table 2.1). It is important to state that individuals has

to pass through these stages in a linear way, but an individual can moved up several

steps simultaneously (Lavidge and Steiner, 1961, p. 60), which is in line with Munoz

(2002) research which suggests that individuals do not switch immediately from being

uninterested to fully convinced buyers. Lavidge and Steiner (1961) admit that this order

do not apply to impulse buying but rather to higher economical products which is true

to AIDA and DAGMAR as well. This is due to the existence of dual processes of

thinking in each of the abovementioned stages of advertising process.

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 AIDA Hierarchy of DAGMAR

Effects

Cognitive Stage Attention Awareness Awareness

Knowledge Comprehension

Affective Stage Interest Liking Convection

Desire Preference

Convection

Behavioural Stage Action Purchase Action

Table 2.1 Comparison between advertising Models in each stage of the advertising process

These two thinking systems have been recognized by psychologists have recognized

with different capabilities and processes (Smith and DeCoster, 2000; Kahneman and

Egan, 2011; Kahneman and Frederick, 2002; Evans, 2003; Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999;

Strack and Deutsch, 2004). These systems are called System 1 (S1) (also referred to as

the implicit system) and System 2 (S2) (so referred to as the explicit system) (Stanovich

and West, 2000). S1 comprises high-capacity instinctual thoughts, relies on links that

are developed through experience, and processes information automatically and

quickly. On the other hand, S2 comprises low-capacity reflective thinking, relies on

guidelines that are learnt through formal learning or culture, and processes information

in a rather controlled and slow manner. The dual system standpoint has gained

popularity since Kahneman's and Egan's book, Thinking, Fast and Slow, was published

in 2011 and this popularity spread even outside the academic word (Kahneman and

Egan, 2011).

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The S2 or the explicit system has some shortcoming that are specifically linked to its

restricted capability. The Explicit thinking process is restricted to a single thought at a

specific time, since resources are required to exercise cognitive processes. However, In

the S1 or the implicit system, the association process facilitates learning , links and

probabilities and needs numerous experiences. Therefore, the implicit system learns in

a slow manner. Still, the implicit system is built on parallel unconscious processing,

with a large capability to handle large amount of data at a time. One of the main

differences between the two systems is that the explicit or S2 processes encompass

higher-order formations located in the brain's prefrontal cortex, as opposed to implicit

or S1 processing (Casey, Galvan and Hare, 2005). Also, a main difference is that

explicit or S2 processes are based on a memory structure that is involving neurons from

the hippocampus (episodic memory), while implicit or S1 processes relies on the

stimulation of neurons in the basal ganglia (associative memory) (Frank, O'Reilly and

Curran, 2006). The differences between the two systems can be explained with an

example of a child confronted with two brands of potato chips. The explicit system

gives the child information regarding prior consumption or advertising encounter of the

brand. On the other hand, the implicit system supplies behavioural impulses while not

providing an understanding into the root of the impulses. Therefore, if the child was

subjected to advertisement for one of the potato chips brands, and the implicit system

created links of this brand with consumption and taste, later on, the child follows the

automatic impulse to the brand without being aware of the prior exposure to the

commercial (the origin of the impulse).

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Explicit system is considered more new and distinctive to humans from an evolutionary

stance point. On the other hand, the implicit system is older and humans have it in

common with animals (Reber, 1989; Barrouillet, 2011). In addition, these two systems

exist and mature at different ages. The explicit system evolves and matures throughout

childhood, while the implicit system is presumed to function from early childhood and

on (Reber, 1989; Barrouillet, 2011). Even though the human brain is fully developed in

general structure and size (Giedd et al., 1996), white and grey matter keep on evolving

(Nagy, Westerberg and Klingberg, 2004). Areas that are related to cognitive control

(e.g., delivering cognitive tasks, working memory), which are integral parts of explicit

processing; evolve moderately late (Sowell et al., 2004). Additionally, a big part of

explicit processing is not only the maturation of the brain in size and structure, but the

development of links and connections between different regions of the brain (Edin et

al., 2007). These stated differences in the working of the human brain give an

explanation to the more efficient and faster processing of information by the explicit

system of adults compared to the processing abilities of those of children (Gaillard et

al., 2011), as well as giving a reason to children's' explicit system reaching its limits

much faster than adults do (Posner and Rothbart, 2000).

In order to further explain how children process advertisements and commercialized

messages, Buijzen, Van Reijmersdal, and Owen (2010) developed a model called the

processing of commercialized media content (PCMC). This model highlights three

categories of processing that children have: systematic (which entails high elaboration),

heuristic (which entails moderate elaboration), and automatic (which entails low

elaboration). The PCMC model explains that the level of elaboration is connected to

the ratio between required resources and allocated resources to process an ad, a

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commercial or a persuasive message. The systematic processes which involve high

elaboration will take place if and only if the allocated resources as well as the required

resources to processes persuasive messages are both high, otherwise, heuristic or

automatic processing will take place. Heuristic processing suggests that children are

affected by less complicated decision rules (like high price leads to high quality)

(Gigerenzer, 2008). When automatic processing takes place, children are not processing

and elaborating the message features but are swayed by peripheral cues. Under these

circumstances, persuasion occurs in an implicit and automatic manner via affect-based

learning methods, such as mere exposure, if-then conditioning, and emotional

associations conveyed by media context that is entertaining and fun (De Houwer,

Thomas, and Baeyens, 2001; Dijksterhuis et al., 2005; Chartrand, 2005; Evans and

Park, 2015). Additionally, Lang’s (2000) limited capacity model states that resources

available are limited when it comes to processing a message and these resources and

have to be divided and allocated to three underlying processes: message encoding,

message storing, and retention. Therefore, the occurrences in which a child will process

the persuasive message or the media content in an explicit and systematic way is

limited. This raises the concerns as to social media being so integrated and consuming

to young children (as discussed in chapter 1) leaving them more impressionable and

vulnerable to falling for advertisements claims.

2.4 Digital Marketing Targeting Children

The main issue with marketing to children using digital media is that the advertising

and marketing materials are designed to be integrated and highly interactive thus

concealing the boundaries between marketing and entertainment. Rideout (2014)

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argues that new advertising formats such as banners, integrated games and videos,

branded content, product placement, giveaways and links to social media sites are

regularly used by companies to get more exposure and engagement with their brand on

websites which children visit. Websites use immersive and entertaining content to

encourage positive attitudes towards their brands rather than a specific product or a

product line, therefore increasing the probability of children recalling and requesting

the brand as opposed to the competing brands (Staiano and Calvert, 2012).

Children often find it hard to recognize an attempt at persuasion or an advertisement

when these are integrated into the overall content, as was found when Australian

magazine websites targeted at children were reviewed. These websites used a mixture

of banner ads, and commercial messages that were included in an editorial content, like

sponsored games or recipes (Kervin, Jones and Mantei, 2012). Another study which

was conducted to review "children-friendly" websites showed that increased use of

animations, cartoon figures, YouTube videos, giveaways and competitions built around

a food brand or a product is a common method to persuade children and increase

consumption (British Heart Foundation, 2011). Also, a study of the use of cartoon

figures to market products online that are aimed at children argued that there is a

development of emotional attachment to these cartoon characters which in turn creates

the opportunity to interact with the cartoon figures through games and competitions

(Bucy, Kim and Parks, 2011). This type of engagement being non-linear (when

compared to television) can cause a much deeper and longer association with the brand.

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2.5 Social Media Advertising: Definitions and Impact on Children

Social media platforms are dramatically changing how people communicate (Obeidat

et al., 2016). Social media networking sites promote the idea of the creation of personal

relations as well as business leads and contacts that can break boundaries allowing

messages to circle the world. These social media networking platforms facilitate

feedback, comments, discussion, and self-expression, voting and sharing of various

information with others. There are many examples of such platforms such as:

Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, Wiki, LinkedIn, Facebook, Blogs and YouTube.

Technological development paved the way for these platforms to become an integral

part of people's daily lives (Al-Ghafri and Al-Badi, 2016; Alenezi et al., 2017; Mangold

and Faulds, 2009). Nevertheless, social media is a broad term and scholars have several

definitions for it (Yadav Sharma and Tarhini, 2016; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). A

widely recognized definition can be difficult to find especially with the existence of

other terms and concepts that came along with social media such as User Generated

Content (UGC) and Web 2.0. These terms are closely related, however, not exactly the

same (Morgado, 2011; Nusair, Bilgihan and Okumus, 2013; Al-Badi and Al-Qayoudhi,

2014). According to Kaplan and Haenlein (2010), the understanding of the concepts of

UGC and Web 2.0 is fundamental to grasp the concept of social media. These

researchers define social media as internet-based applications that use Web 2.0 as their

conceptual and technological platform by which users can create and share User-

Generated Content. Ranjha (2010) stated that social media users, regardless of

boundaries, religion or culture, are connected. This entails social media being the new

normal way for the new generations to connect, comment, interact and share

information (Tussyadiah and Zach, 2013). Adding to that, social media are now

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considered the most used platform to share interests and personal day to day activities

(Al-Mukhaini, Al-Qayoudhi and Al-Badi, 2014; Al-Harrasi and Al-Badi, 2014).

Due to the increase in popularity of social media, there is a consensus among

researchers in the marketing field that children are subjected to advertising and

commercialized content on social media and social networking sites (O'Keeffe and

Clarke-Peatson, 2011; Wilking et al., 2013; Dietz, 2013). These persuasion attempts

can be in the form of sponsored messages, product placement, banners that are

integrated into the overall content or that pop-up in the user's feed, which raises the

concerns of researchers as they see the huge presence of children-oriented brands on

social media (Rideout, 2014; Gottlieb et al., 2013). The British Heart Foundation (2011)

conducted a content analysis that showed the majority of food companies in the review

had some sort of presence on social media.

Harris, Schwartz and Munsell (2013) reviewed social media food marketing in the US

and found that fast- food restaurants placed 19% of their online advertising on

Facebook. The review also indicated that other brands such as McDonald’s, Starbucks,

Subway and Pepsi had a major presence on social media platforms such as Twitter,

YouTube and Facebook, with millions of followers. Authors also pointed out the rise

in publishing content on these platforms, giving more opportunities to users to interact

and engage with these brands. Engagement strategies included competitions,

giveaways, posting images or videos, or posting links to company or third-party other

social media platforms or websites.

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Advertising methods that are criticized include access to personal data, location of user

or requesting users to press the ‘like’ button before gaining access to the content

(Wilking et al., 2013).

Other concerns were raised over behavioural and demographic targeted advertising,

(Wilking et al., 2013; Dietz, 2013), and it is expected that children will have difficulties

recognizing these as persuasive attempts (O'Keeffe and Clarke-Peatson, 2011).

It should be noted that most social media platforms have an age limit of 13. However,

children often bypass these age limits (lie about their age) to open an account and set

up profile on social media (Hargittai, Schultz and Palfrey, 2011; Clarke, 2009).

A survey was conducted by the British Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) to test

the compliance of advertisers on social media. It was found that advertisers, for the

most part, complied with the regulations for advertising using social media platforms

(ASA, 2013). It was, nevertheless, noted that those children who lied about their age

on those platforms will be subjected to commercials which may not be appropriate nor

intended for their age, and the ASA argues that this poses a real challenge for

advertisers, companies, social media providers, caretakers, parents, and policymakers

(ASA, 2013).

According to Lupianez-Villanueva et al. (2016) deciding which party is held

responsible in the event of a child viewing something he or she was not meant to is

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considered to be far more complex compared to print media or broadcasts. The authors

also argued that a better understanding of the degree to which children are in fact

subjected to advertisement meant to older viewers and its implications is needed to

effectively impose policies.

Another aspect of social media is video sharing, the most popular platform with

children being YouTube (Ofcom, 2017) and, consequently, a likely platform in which

to be exposed to advertising. Martinez, Jarlbro and Sandberg (2013) stated the 9 and 10

years olds included in their study were mostly familiar with and usually annoyed by the

commercials they see on YouTube. They were frequently subjected to the same

commercials repeatedly which they stated to be irritating. In addition, almost all fast-

food companies included in a review done by the Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy

and Obesity were found to have a YouTube presence (Harris, Schwartz and Munsell,

2013). These Fast- Food companies argue that because of children’s extensive use of

YouTube, it is considered to be a crucial area for them to occupy.

2.6 Children's Understanding of Social Media Advertising

It is crucial to consider children's understanding of marketing and persuasive messages

when online and social media food advertising is studied. As mentioned before,

children are considered to be vulnerable to advertising due to their underdeveloped

understanding of advertising and its persuasive intent. Brian Young (1990) has stated

that children must acquire advertising literacy (e.g. children's understanding of

advertising's tactics and intent) in order to defend themselves cognitively against

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advertising negative effects (Livingstone and Helsper, 2006). The acquiring of

advertising literacy depends on both consumer socialization and cognitive development

often influenced by parents, media or peers (De la Ville and Tartas 2010; John, 1999).

Despite the fact that the process of acquiring advertising literacy is a gradual one

(Gunter, Oates and Blades, 2004; Kunkel et al., 2004), there has been an on-going

debate on the age at which children possess mature levels of advertising literacy, mostly

since the growth of social media marketing. Previous research stated that children can

recognize television advertisements around the age of 7 or 8, as an indicator of children

acquiring advertising literacy (Donohue, Henke and Donohue, 1980; Macklin, 1987).

Researchers since then pointed out the difference between advertisement recognition

and advertising understanding (advertisement role, persuasive nature and

communication style) (Andronikidis and Lambrianidou, 2010). Research on newer

marketing formats such as social media advertising, advergames, endorsements,

product placements, and viral marketing, has shown that children will acquire mature

levels of understanding of persuasion tactics when they are older, usually during

adolescence (Rozendaal et al., 2011; Oates, Blades and Gunter, 2002; Owen et al.,

2007; Oates, Blades and Gunter, 2003; An, Jin and Park, 2014; Kunkel, 2010; Oates,

Li and Blades, 2014). It has also been argued that possessing advertising literacy does

not necessarily lead to children being able to identify advertising, especially when the

persuasive message is embedded or if the child is distracted by the entertaining or

engaging nature of the content (Waiguny, Nelson and Terlutter, 2014).

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According to Van Reijmersdal et al. (2017), there is insufficient research on children-

targeted advertising online. The researchers conducted an experimental study

examining the relationship between brand recall and targeted advertising, purchase

intention and brand attitude. Results showed that there is a positive relationship between

brand attitude and purchase decision with targeted advertising but not with brand recall.

Although research with adults being the participants has shown a negative effect of

recognizing a targeted attempt at advertising, these results were not replicated in the

case of research with children. The results show that children may process targeted

commercials in a different manner than adults. Due to the limited capacity of children

to process messages in a systematic way, as mentioned before, it is more likely for them

to process targeted commercials using low levels of elaboration, depending more on

the emotional and more implicit system to assess advertising.

Part of the concern regarding social media marketing is due to the belief that it is

essentially different than traditional marketing. Social Media marketing is deemed to

offer a more integrated or immersive environment (Montgomery and Chester, 2009)

where children are subjected to brands or products through a range of formats and

platforms which enable children to engage with brands. Cheyne et al. (2013) performed

a content analysis of 17 websites targeted at children and they argued that there was a

positive relationship between the popularity and engagement of these websites with

immersive environments. Researchers stated that websites with higher levels of

multimedia content, engagement and personalization had higher visits and more

interaction time. The highly interactive content is believed to make engagement of

children with marketing material more significant, personal and entertaining (Wilking

et al., 2013; Bucy, Kim and Parks, 2011). Other studies have also found that interactive

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commercialized content can create positive brand associations (Waiguny, Nelson and

Terlutter, 2012; Rideout, 2014; Sandberg, Gidlöf and Holmberg, 2010; Cheyne et al.,

2013). The two-way communication that happens when children interact with the

advertising content will lead to an increase in brand engagement causing more positive

attitudes towards those brands (Hang and Auty, 2011). It is also believed that the two

way communication facilitates data collection, which in turn enables marketers to better

target their audience as well as to measure the effectiveness of their advertising

activities (Wilking et al., 2013). Researchers also suggested that the internet enabled

marketers engage in cross-media promotions due to the increase in use of smartphones

(Cheyne et al., 2013). For instance, social media is used to increase awareness of a

brand's other marketing channels (Wilking et al., 2013).

Social media marketing is thought to be global and, because much social media

marketing for children mainly depends on visuals such as cartoon characters, images,

videos and games and less on text, it can be translated easily into other languages,

possibly making it challenging to regulate (Flowers, Lustyik and Gulyás, 2010).

However, there is little reliable proof from literature to demonstrate the mechanism by

which social media marketing is understood by children, as their critical processing of

persuasive messages will be complicated by both the nature of social media advertising

and the widely-believed notion that advertising literacy develops according to age.

Additionally, in order for children to activate their advertising literacy, they must be

able to recognize the persuasive intent of the message, which is challenging considering

the embedded nature of the social media advertising (Van Reijmersdal et al., 2017). It

is also argued that social media marketing will gradually evoke unconscious and

emotional choices (Montgomery et al., 2011), and therefore research must take into

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account the implicit effects of this type of marketing on children's food choices

(Calvert, 2008).

2.7 Summary

Chapter 2 offers a broad and in-depth review of the literature, and is dedicated to

reviewing the previous models and theories employed by researchers in the field of

children's consumer behaviour and social media food advertising targeting children.

More studies are needed to elaborate the process by which children process embedded

advertising in social media platforms. Past literature emphasized the need for methods

to further protect children from the negative effects of advertising (unhealthy food

advertising included). In addition, it remains uncertain what steps should be taken to

help children in order to protect them when confronted with these embedded formats.

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 Chapter 3 : Conceptual Model

3.1 Introduction

Recently, big companies were fined for illegally tracking websites that consider

children as their targeted audience (Hudders et al., 2017). In addition, Martijn and

Tokmetzis (2016) conducted an analysis on 72 children's websites, and the findings

showed that more than 179 data agents track and analyse children's behaviour, which

in turn aids advertisers to target children more efficiently and effectively. This shows

the extent to which marketers are willing to go to influence children's purchase

behaviour.

3.2 Children's Vulnerability Towards Advertisements: Call For Interventions

Research on the effects of advertising on children in recent years has considered the

implicit effects of advertising. However, these studies have some shortcomings. First,

commercial messages usually influence behaviour even in a setting where the

commercial message is not there. Advertising-based memory and behaviours mainly

influence buyer decisions in settings (in the market) that are different from the settings

of exposure to the commercial message (when browsing through social media). This

suggests that children as consumers can fail or succeed in protecting themselves against

commercial messages in two different situations: at the time of exposure to the

commercial messages and at the time of making the purchase decision and

consumption. Researchers pointed out that even when children judge a commercial

message correctly, they might act against that judgment upon entering the market place

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(Moses and Baldwin, 2005). Therefore, results of research for a link between

advertising exposure and actual decision making and consumption are not surprisingly

mixed (Livingstone and Helsper, 2006; Hastings et al., 2003). Accordingly, Young

(2010) challenges the validity of studies in which children are required to select a

product/brand right after being subjected to some sort of content that includes a

commercial for one of the products/brands. Adding to that, interventions aimed at

shielding children against the negative effects of advertising, such as advertising

literacy, target settings in which advertising-based memory structures affect the

purchase behaviour of children. Considering this, interventions in the proposed model

target both situations (at the time of exposure to advertisement and at the time of

consumption) since advertising effects are usually unconscious (Fang, Singh and

Ahluwalia, 2007; Gibson, 2008) and children may not remember the origin of the

commercial messages while still being affected by the commercial itself (Kumkale and

Albarracin, 2004; Florack et al., 2002; Pratkanis et al., 1988; Hovland and Weiss, 1951;

Gillig and Greenwald, 1974).

Second, as stated by Strack and Deutsch (2006), the existence of explicit and implicit

processes has to be considered both for advertising understanding and reception as well

as for buying decisions . Buijzen, Reijmersdal and Owen (2010) suggest that behaviours

based on implicit (S1) processing lead to impulsive and automated buying decisions,

whereas behaviours based on explicit (S2) processing lead to measured and systematic

buying decisions (Florack, Friese and Scarabis, 2010; Scarabis, Florack and

Gosejohann, 2006).

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Third, current models emphasize mostly explicit processes as a method to guard

children against persuasion, and suggest that resistance to these persuasion attempts by

advertisement entails the capability and motivation to process information in a

systematic more explicit way and to show self-control (Moses and Baldwin, 2005;

Harris, Brownell and Bargh, 2009). Rozendaal, Buijzen and Valkenburg (2010) argue

that automatic and implicit negative attitudes towards advertisements can act as a

defence against commercials. However, this defence mechanism will work only at the

exposure stage and not during decision making and consumption stage.

Fourth, existing models mainly focus on television advertising. The introduction of

digital media and its different nature makes the reception and the reaction to such

commercials different. The problem as mentioned in the previous chapter is that

children may not resist nor process advertising systematically due to the lack of

cognitive abilities and consumer socialization maturation as well as the highly

integrated and engaging nature of the social media platforms used to deliver those

commercials.

The above-mentioned gaps led to proposing the model in this thesis as the researcher

elaborates suggested interventions to protect children from social media food

advertising, taking into consideration the gaps in the existing literature.

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3.3 Children's exposure to food advertising on social media

Past research examined the relationship between exposure to unhealthy food

advertising and increased consumption leading to increased obesity levels (Charry and

Demoulin 2012; Charry, 2014; Hota, Cáceres, and Cousin, 2010). Folkvord et al. (2016)

suggested a model that highlights that this relationship is influenced by biological and

psychological responses that ultimately lead to a relationship with food (i.e. cognitive

development and consumer socialization processes). Additionally, previous research

showed evidence for the effect of food advertising on food preferences, buying

behaviour and consumption among children and also showed that most food advertising

which children are subjected to is that which promotes unhealthy and sugary food

(Livingstone and Helsper, 2004; Hastings et al., 2003).

According to Büttner, Florack, and Serfas (2014), advertising affects behaviour in two

steps. In the first step, advertising generates memory structures (e.g., knowledge about

the brand, attitude towards the product or the brand) which are mapped to the progress

from the cognitive stage to the affective stage of the advertising process. In the second

step, these advertising-based memory structures affect buying decisions later on which

is mapped to the progression from the affective stage to the behavioural stage of the

advertising process (Figure 3.1).

In both steps, implicit (and S1) and explicit (S2) processes are important. Children build

memory that is advertising- based through implicit and explicit learning. Impulses from

the implicit system with the help and consultation with the explicit system affect the

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buying and consumption decisions (Munakata, Snyder and Chatham, 2012; Garon,

Bryson and Smith, 2008; Welsh and Pennington, 1988).

Figure 3.1 Dual-step and dual-process model of advertising effects

Figure 3.1 suggests that interventions in the two stages act as moderators that affect the

relationship between advertisement exposure, memory formation and the final

consumption decision (memory application).

3.3.1 Dual Processes at the Exposure Stage

The advancement of explicit processing can be mapped to children's processing of

advertising in the model proposed by John (1999) as discussed in the previous chapter.

The model suggests that children between the age of 3 and 7 years are considered to be

“limited processors” who process commercials on a perceptual level. Children between

the age of 7 and 11 are considered to be “cued” processors. They are capable of

processing advertising messages systematically and critically, but still need assistance

in doing so until adolescence. Children from the age of 12 years and above are

considered to be “strategic processors” who have the ability to process commercials

effectively.

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The implicit system, in contrast, is highly competent for information processing from

early childhood. Reber (2013), states that the implicit system is independent from the

operative of higher-order structures of the brain; therefore, it is independent from the

evolving paths of these structures. Research on the implicit system and learning support

the suggestion that the implicit system's functionality is independent from age (Vinter

and Perruchet, 2000; Vinter and Perruchet, 2002; Meulemans, Van der Linden and

Perruchet, 1998; Saffran et al., 1997). Research showed that, via implicit processes, 6

and 7 year-old children demonstrated the same ability as adults in the learning of an

artificial language. More research indicated children's high efficiency in learning

implicitly compared with adults (Janacsek, Fiser and Nemeth, 2012).

Commercials influence buying and consumption behaviour through learning. Exposing

children to advertising leads to a learning process due to implicit processing consisting

of different memory structures. Conditioning evaluation and learning by association

(Shimp, Stuart and Engle, 1991), as well as memory activation via mere exposure

(Zajonc 1968; Baker, 1999) are the learning processes that are relevant for the effects

of advertising on children. Most of these studies have been applied to adults. However,

the work done by Janacsek, Fiser and Nemeth (2012) suggests that children will be

influenced more by implicit learning than adults. For example, Sullivan et al. (1991)

have found that conditioning evaluation can be detected in children from birth on.

Mere exposure effects are based on previous activations, not on associations (Grimes

and Kitchen, 2007). For instance, a child who is exposed to a brand logo creates traces

to implicit memory that are connected to the logo features and its related semantic

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content. Memory traces will probably be activated when the child views the logo at a

later point of time. This will lead to perceptual fluency that probably will guide the

attention to the brand, create a positive affect and give the child a sense of familiarity

resulting in considering the brand and finally affecting choice.

A study of the effect of mere exposure on children was conducted by presenting

children with scenes from the movie Home Alone with a soft drinks logo appearing or

not appearing. The study showed that when children were exposed to the soft drinks

logo they were more inclined to choose the soft drink than when they were not exposed

to the logo (Auty and Lewis, 2004).

The discussion above leads to the suggestion that interventions that target implicit

processes at the exposure stage (stage 1) can be more effective than those targeting

explicit processes (such as advertising literacy which is known to be an intervention

targeting explicit processes).

3.3.2 Dual Processes and Consumption Decisions

Researchers indicated that many unwanted buying and consumption decisions include

some conflict with self-control and self- control goals (Hoch and Loewenstein, 1991).

Children might get the impulse to buy an unhealthy snack or pester their parents to do

so. However, children may also have goals that assist in controlling those impulses. For

example, children might have an internal goal that can interfere to curb an impulse like

saving money to buy a bike, or children may have external goals imposed by parents

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(e.g. parents’ state that they do not like the pestering or the fact that is not acceptable to

eat unhealthy food).

Researchers indicated that reflective–impulsive model suggest that the self- control

conflict happens between the implicit and explicit processes. In the model, impulse

behaviour (implicit processes) can be overridden by the explicit processes if the person

has the capacity to do so (Strack and Deutsch, 2006; Strack and Deutsch, 2004).

Research has indicated 3 factors contributing to self-control being dominant in a self-

control conflict (Muraven and Baumeister 2000; Hofmann, Friese and Strack, 2009;

Fazio and Towles-Schwen, 1999): (1) the strength of the impulse, (2) the presence of

self-control goals, and (3) the self-control capacity. Exposure to advertising is the main

influence for the impulse strength (stage 1 in the buying and consumption process).

When children form a memory structure which positively associates with the brand or

the product, the impulse becomes stronger. Self-control goals can either be selected by

the child or set by parents or caretakers. The self-control capacity refers to children's

ability to successfully address the self-control conflict and to follow the self-control

goal during the buying decision.

Based on the above, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H1: Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure has a negative effect on

advertising- based defensive memory formation.

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H3: Advertising-based defensive memory formation has a positive effect on

advertising-based defensive memory application.

3.4 The Moderating Effect of Parental Interventions in Mitigating the Effect of

Social Media Food Advertising

Previous studies highlighted the crucial role of parents and their interactions with

children in influencing children's advertisement processing and how these

advertisements affect them (Buijzen and Valkenburg, 2003). Also, previous studies

explored the different parental intervention strategies as well as how children impact

their parents' decisions due to advertising exposure (Bijmolt, Claassen, and Brus, 1998;

Wilson and Wood, 2004).

Parental interventions can be introduced during the first stage of the advertising effects

process (during exposure) and the second stage (at the purchase and consumption

stage). Additionally, research showed that implicit processes are active in early stages

of childhood (Janacsek, Fiser and Nemeth, 2012); it is assumed that self-control

mechanisms can apply to younger children. Hence, it is important to establish

interventions that promote self-control on an implicit level during at least one of the

two stages of the advertising process.

For first stage interventions, the literature identifies three types of parental

interventions which rely on explicit processing: (a) restrictive or rules of use (which

refers to forming parental rules that regulate the use of social media in terms of time,

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content and platform), (b) instructive or parent- child communication (which refers to

discussing the content and its commercial messages), and (c) Co-viewing (which refers

to the act of parents monitoring social media with their children) (Warren, 2005).

Rules of Use: Parents are more likely to dictated what not to watch on their children

as well as the span of time spent watching specific programs or on specific media.

Children have reported that parents often use television time as a reward or

punishment scheme (Chan and McNeal, 2003) . Previous research showed that parent

exert control over viewing time as well as the viewed content on different online

platforms (Cornish, 2014). The main reason for this parental control over viewing

time as well as platform was to minimize the chance of children being distracted or

manipulated by advertisements or other malicious content (Bin, 1996).

Parents can play a vital role in the children’s advertising exposure leading to memory

formation and memory application (buying decisions and consumption). This is mainly

because a big part of media use by children takes place at home (Buijzen, 2007). In

particular, parents have the authority to restrict social media use by children and

regulate the time spent on such media which is basically referred to as rules of use

(Shin, Huh and Faber, 2012).

Parent- Child Communication: Previous research demonstrate parental

communications can have an impact on children with regards to advertising effects.

Discussing commercials and their content allow parents to increase their children’s

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immunity towards advertising and lessen the advertising-induced side effects (Moschis

& Churchill, 1978).

Parents are usually concerned about children’s exposure to media stems from

personal and cultural differences in the extent to which they allow external

influences on their kids (including mass media) (Rose, Bush and Kahle,1998).

Parent- child communication provide a way of evaluating the dynamics between

parents, children, and advertisements (Carlson, Grossbart and Stuenkel, 1992) and

advertising practices (Carlson, Grossbart and Walsh, 1990).

When parents use interventions that consist of high involvement with their children

(where parents discuss social media content), children will be less inclined to surrender

to social media seductive allures (Miyazaki, Stanaland, and Lwin, 2009).

Co- viewing: Past research showed the benefits of Co-viewing in mitigating

advertising effects. Parents can monitor and make comments during commercials to

promote choosing healthier food or reducing their preferences for unhealthy snacks

(Galst and White, 1976); however, similar studies on the effects of Co-viewing were

mainly done on traditional media formats (i.e. television). Spiteri Cornish (2014)

stated that parents are the gatekeepers for social media advertising targeting children.

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Other studies highlighted the media platform in which parents usually monitor and

discuss content with their children. For instance, a study found that parents mainly

intervene to counter food commercials conveyed through traditional advertising

formats (Newman and Oates, 2014). This may be due to the fact that parents are not

familiar or aware of other advertising formats (such as brand placement or sponsored

contents). This gives an indication that parents may not possess the proper advertising

literacy for these other formats (Evans, Carlson, and Grubbs Hoy, 2013; Spiteri

Cornish, 2014). Similarly, research by Newman and Oates (2014) shows that non-

traditional media such as social media are not usually identified by parents as channels

of food advertising.

For second stage interventions , Büttner, Florack and Serfas (2014) stated that there

are 3 techniques which are appropriate to promote implicit self-control in children in

the second stage of advertising effects process: (a) Goal setting, (b) imitation of parents

and (c) forming if, then heuristic (or as referred to as implementation intentions).

Goals Setting: Parents are the primary source for self-control goals and how to exercise

self-control (Vazsonyi and Huang, 2010), and they are most likely to escort children

during shopping. Therefore, successful self-control interventions can be imposed by

parents.

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Goals which are set as an intervention for self-control are initially explicit. In an

experiment done with children, they were placed in a room with marshmallows on the

table and were instructed to wait until the conductor of the experiment returned to have

the marshmallows (Mischel, Ebbesen and Raskoff Zeiss, 1972). The goal was set

through an explicit instruction. This is similar to a situation in which parents instruct

their children during shopping to; for example, refrain from selecting unhealthy snacks

from the shelves. Parents can first set the goal in an explicit way; however, the actual

activation of the goal can become automatic as time passes. In addition, parents can

stimulate alternative goals, for example to find a specific product. Children pursuing a

specific goal while shopping with their parents might be less likely to think and reach

for other products (such as unhealthy food). This is due to the fact that focal goals hinder

the activation of alternative goals as stated by Shah, Friedman and Kruglanski (2002),

and restrict the attention (Fujita, Gollwitzer and Oettingen, 2007). Goal setting can be

inverted as well, for instance, when parents fail to set correct goals with regards to

eating healthier options and engage in the repeated action of choosing healthy snacks,

children will fail to follow the correct implicit self- control goal.

Imitation of Parents: Imitation in children is a natural behaviour that is performed

from birth on, specifically in imitation of parents (Bandura, 1977; Bandura and Walters,

1963). Individuals gain skills as well as tactics to manage tasks by observing behaviour

(Bandura, 1997). Martin and Bush (2000) state that parents play an integral part in

influencing buying and consumption intentions and behaviour. Therefore, parents can

enhance self-control in children by engaging themselves in self-control actions, such as

ignoring the temptation of eating unhealthy food and choosing a healthier option. In

addition, parents form beliefs and values in children via behaviour and involving in

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tasks and selections, and expressed attitudes. For example, if children recognize a brand

preference by their parents, they might imitate the behaviour and create positive

associations toward the brand (Jacobs and Eccles, 2000).

Thus, it is important to understand that implicit processes of self-control develop by

repeated instances. additionally, children have to implement self-control on their own

in order for the behaviour to be automatic and successful.

If, then Heuristic : It is possible for parents to apply interventions as a promising

technique to form children's reactions towards brands alongside being a role model for

children or giving them tasks to set goals and/or develop goal shielding. Previous

research showed that if, then heuristic interventions are very effective mechanisms in

automatizing self-control (Gollwitzer and Oettingen, 2011; Gollwitzer, 1999).

Basically, these interventions are done by specifying a condition (if) under which they

plan to exhibit a specific behaviour (then). A simple example of if, then heuristic is: “If

I see a soft drink, I buy water". If, then heuristic is an intervention that delegate control

to the implicit system. If, then heuristic techniques are formed by the explicit system

through thinking and planning, but the implementation operates in an implicit,

automatic way (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2009). Two mechanisms support the influence

of if-then heuristics . First, the “if” part is constantly accessible in memory; meaning,

individuals are quick to detect the circumstances that call for the execution of the “then”

part (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2009; Aarts, Dijksterhuis and Midden, 1999). Second,

developing a heuristic intention forms a strong association in the memory between the

“if” and the “then” element (Webb and Sheeran, 2007). As a result, triggering the “if”

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element (seeing a soft drink) should automatically activate the “then” part (buying

water). Researchers found that the simple technique of forming if, then heuristic

strategies means that they are highly effective mechanisms to ensure successful goal

achievement. Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) used 94 studies to perform a meta-analysis

that looked at the effectiveness of if, then heuristic techniques and found an overall

medium-to-large effect. If, then heuristic techniques were successful through a wide

range of self-control fields, such as engaging in a low-fat diet, athletics and academic

performance (Achtziger, Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2008; Armitage, 2004; Bayer and

Gollwitzer, 2007). In addition, if, then heuristic techniques have also been found to be

effective with children. If-then heuristics help children to disregard attractive

distractions (Wieber et al., 2011), improve the capacity to delay gratification

(Gawrilow, Gollwitzer and Oettingen, 2011), and simplify flowing between tasks .If,

then heuristic techniques, interestingly, assisted self-control in children diagnosed with

ADHD (Attention deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), a disorder that is associated with

excessive impulsive behaviour (Gawrilow, Gollwitzer and Oettingen, 2011; Gawrilow

and Gollwitzer, 2008).Other researchers argue that specifically younger children will

benefit from if, then heuristic techniques because they are less likely to develop plans

by themselves and have less self-control skills compared to older children (Wieber et

al., 2011). This means that children need to be supported by their parents to develop if,

then heuristic strategies. For example, a child might have a higher goal of saving up to

buy sports gear from his or her pocket money as suggested by parents instead of

spending it on unhealthy food.

Based on the above, the following hypotheses were formulated:

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H2a: Parent-child communication moderates the relationship between Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive memory

formation, such that the effect of social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure

will be weaker (stronger) for parents that use (do not use) the parent-child

communication intervention on advertising-based defensive memory formation.

H2b: Rules of use moderates the relationship between Social Media Unhealthy food

Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive memory formation, such that

the effect of social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure will be weaker

(stronger) for parents that use (do not use) the rules of use intervention on advertising-

based defensive memory formation.

H2c: Co-viewing moderates the relationship between Social Media Unhealthy food

Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive memory formation, such that

the effect of social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure will be weaker

(stronger) for parents that use (do not use) the co-viewing intervention on advertising-

based defensive memory formation.

H4a: If, then heuristic strategy moderates the relationship between advertising-based

defensive memory formation and advertising based memory application, such that the

effect of advertising-based defensive memory formation will be stronger (weaker) for

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parents that use (do not use) the if, then heuristic intervention on the advertising-based

defensive memory application.

H4b: Goal setting moderates the relationship between advertising-based defensive

memory formation and advertising based memory application, such that the effect of

advertising-based defensive memory formation will be stronger (weaker) for parents

that use (do not use) the goal setting intervention on the advertising-based defensive

memory application.

H4c: Imitation of parents moderates the relationship between advertising-based

defensive memory formation and advertising based memory application, such that the

effect of advertising-based defensive memory formation will be stronger (weaker) for

parents that use (do not use) the imitation of parents intervention on the advertising-

based defensive memory application.

The resulting conceptual model based on the above hypotheses is presented in Figure

3.2.

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 Parent- Child

Parental Interventions
Rules of Use (RU) Co- viewing (CV)
Communication (PCC)

at stage 1
H2a

Exposure to Social Media Advertising- Based Advertising- Based

Unhealthy Food Advertising Memory Formation Memory Application

(ESM) (ABMF) (ABMFA)

Parental Interventions

at stage 2

If, then Heuristic Imitation of Parents

Goal Setting (GS)
strategy (IH) (IP)

Figure 3.2 Suggested Conceptual Model

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3.5 Summary

The review of research showed that implicit as well as explicit processes effect the

buying behaviour of children and that advertising literacy techniques are not enough to

prevent or mitigate unintended advertising effects. Even if children are aware of the

effects of advertising during exposure, many implicit advertising influences can affect

their memory formation and hence memory formation. In this regard, strong protocols

for advertising targeting children seem to be necessary (Calvert, 2008; Mitchell, 1998).

Yet, it is evident that regulation alone will not solve the problem. Therefore, this thesis

suggested parental interventions to mitigate unintended advertising effects on children

by targeting implicit, automatic processes that promote self-control in both stages of

advertising effects process. This research bridges the above-mentioned gap by

proposing a conceptual model to investigate the moderating effect of parental

interventions on children's food buying behaviour when exposed to social media food

advertisements. The next chapter will present the methodology followed to investigate

this conceptual model.

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 Chapter 4 : Research Methodology

4.1 Introduction

The importance of scientific research is characterized by its relentless pursuit of

developing and enriching knowledge and methods of acquiring it. Thus, scientific

research as a whole represents the thinking and perception, and this is through study,

investigation, and the right and moral reasoning, so it should always link scientific

research with methodology that it is based on. Scientific research is based on a fixed

and specific approach, governed by steps, which forms rules and principles that must

be observed by the researcher. The research methodology is only organized steps

followed by the researcher in addressing the topics that are studied until it reaches a

certain result. The research methodology is the way that researchers adopt to achieve

their desired goal. It seeks to explore the principles that regulate the social, educational

and human phenomena in general and lead to their occurrence so that they can be

interpreted and controlled. Scientific research just describes the problem or the

phenomenon of the subject of the research which it understood and interpreted, by

identifying its place in the overall framework of the organizational relations to which it

belongs, and formulating the generalizations that explain the different phenomena. It is

one of the most important goals of science, especially those that reach a degree of

comprehension and raise them to the rank of scientific laws and theories. In addition to

that, the research methodology is the path that researchers take in their research, that is,

the path to it, as it is always based on the question and the answer that is finally obtained.

The research methodology depends on the method used by researchers in how to put

science and facts as well as how to formulate them in the right form in order to access

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the information, which then enables readers to verify their validity through the method

that was followed from the beginning.

In any relevant study, the researcher as the process to achieve intended objectives of

the investigation implements the research methodology, and the structured

departmental design of research is provided in order to make informed decisions.

Furthermore, there are many things that should be taken into account when undertaking

research has been detailed to comprise the research methodology.

The objective of research is behavioural ends obtained as a result of the specific

activities directed towards this, which are a scientific formulation and a link between

the procedural concept of the independent variable and the dependent variable. This

research aims to investigate how parental interventions with regards to social media

food advertising influence children's food buying behaviour as well as to analyse the

outcomes and emphasizing the significant relationships between the constructs

proposed in the hypothesized model. The answer to questions or the realization of

hypotheses that researchers pose in their research requires the collection of data

obtained from the field of study, then researchers analyse these data and draw

conclusions that may confirm or refute the validity of these hypotheses. In fact, the data

needed by the researcher are respondents’ answers to questions that are directed in order

to reveal their values and attitudes towards specific issues and situations. Thus, this

chapter comes to explore such procedures; it comprises introduction, research

philosophy, research design, data collection procedure, sampling and population,

reliability and validity, data analysis procedures, ethical issues, summary.

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 4.2 Research Philosophy

This section delineates the philosophical viewpoint of research and the researcher's

orientation (Schadewitz and Jachna, 2007). Research philosophy is divided into three

main branches: ontology (subjectivism, objectivism, and pragmatism), epistemology

(Positivism, Interpretivism, and Realism), and axiology. Scientific research depends on

the different philosophical approaches according to the research subject, as it is the

conscious intellectual knowledge applied in different sciences. According to Saunders,

Lewis and Thornhill (2009), there are two major research philosophies that are

positivism and interpretivism.

The concept of phenomenology is believed to be socially formulated and its meaning

is derived from the people themselves (Bashir, Tanveer and Azeem, 2008). In addition,

phenomenology directs the activities of study toward understanding how people

comprehend the world, using a variety of different approaches in the late nineteenth

century; the natural scientific approach of positivism was adapted for theory by social

scientists (Englander, 2012).

Positivism Interpretivism

Explanation and strong prediction Understanding and weak prediction

Quantitative Data Qualitative Data

Researcher and reality are separate Researcher and reality are inseparable

Absolute laws Relative meaning

Objective meaning Subjective meaning.

Table 4.1 Positivism vs. Interpretivism (Source: Collis and Hussey, 2009)

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The inductive approach installs all the variables that affect the search problem except

for one variable that is selected for study. This change in reality is called

experimentation. It is one way that can be used for scientific observation of phenomena,

which can collect data on those phenomena to understand and predict. In addition, the

inductive approach is based on the process of deriving laws from facts, while the

process of conclusion is based on the thought transmission from principles to results in

a purely mental manner (Atta, Ayaz and Nawaz, 2015). The inductive approach derives

its certainty from the return to experience, that is, the researcher must return to the

sensory perception in order to verify the validity of the experiment. The inductive

approach aims to reveal all that is new, because it does not summarize the introductions

only (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2009). It progresses gradually in generalization

until it reaches a general rule. In this approach, the researcher is committed to

conducting an in-depth analytical study of each of the parts of research. This requires

that researchers put aside their own point of view when doing the necessary analysis.

The inductive approach is divided into two parts: full induction and incomplete.

According to Yin (2009), the application of the inductive approach is based on three

main steps:

1- Observations are all information and data collected, analysed, categorized, and

summarized by the researcher.

2- Hypotheses are a set of ideas to reach a particular interpretation. This

interpretation may actually accept the application or reject its application. The

researcher is keen to present a set of hypotheses and compare them to the

appropriate ones for application within the scope of research.

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 3- Experiments are a test conducted by researchers that help them determine the

success of applying the method in scope allocated. This experiment may be

scientific related to chemical reactions, or depend on the applications of

mathematics related to the numbers and their equivalents, or written to identify

the success of the text in communicating ideas.

On the other hand, the deductive approach is a form of logic, as it starts with a general

statement or hypothesis. Thus, the deductive approach will not be valid and correct

unless the hypothesis presented by the researcher is correct. If the researchers make the

wrong hypothesis, it means that they will reach the wrong results. The researcher then

studies the possibility of reaching a certain result (Collis and Hussey, 2009). This

method uses the idea of observing the evidence in order to ascertain the validity of the

theories. Through this approach, the researcher develops a theory, and then predicts the

results of this theory, in case the observations on which this theory was built sound and

correct. In this approach, which applies to any member of the group, it will certainly

apply to the rest of its members. The deduction function is intended to derive results

from the study and examination of introductions and available data on a particular

phenomenon (Atta, Ayaz and Nawaz, 2015). Using the Induction Statistics method it is

possible to forecast the rate of increase in production and the amount of change in

absentee ratio. In this case, the accuracy of the prediction depends on many factors such

as the appropriateness of the statistical instruments used, the size of the sample, and the

statistical procedures taken at the time of selection (Bashir, Afzal and Azeem, 2008).

Due to the large amount of data, that research produces, the positivist research

philosophy, as well as the deductive approach for the present study, quantitative

research methods is selected and it would be most appropriate.

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4.3 Research Design

Research design can be considered as strategy adopted by the researchers in aim to find

answers of their research questions and achieve their research goals and purposes. On

the other hand, the research design of every study must be common sense, clear, and

achievable and must have the capability to challenge the research problem in the correct

technique without producing any type of confusion. There are many types of research

design, and every single type has a certain group of aims, for instance, meta-analytic,

experimental, descriptive and correlational (Richard, 2013). The experimental design

can be defined as a scientific approach to research, where researcher improvements the

control of the study settings and features to check the results and the way that they are

influenced by those aspects. However, the researcher in descriptive approach, looking

for collecting data related to the study's case to explain it as it is (it's also named static

research). The approach that is looking for determining the correlation among two kinds

of variables is called correlational approach (Kumar, 2005). The researcher in this study

used quantitative methods, aiming to make data capable of being gathered and analysed,

using highly suitable, strong, and accurate data. Sometimes using single-methods

approach, it can be defined as the research designs which employ several methodologies

with the aim of gathering a combination of qualitative and quantitative data (Fisher and

Stenner, 2011). Therefore, this research uses only questionnaires in order to gather data.

The main goal of quantitative research is offering correct and descriptive explanations

of a specific phenomenon. As major goals of collecting data lie completely in the

outline key data relating to a citizen population at a particular part of time, which means

that the major purpose of quantitative research lies in outlining and formulating a plan

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of the environment regarding a specific phenomenon (Berg, Lune and Lune, 2004).

Quantitative research and its evaluations contribute in creating beneficial and useful

visions, and lead to hypothesis-formation. Certainly, quantitative research is mainly

used to describe variables as an alternative of analysis predictable associations between

variables. The mixed method also gives more precision to the study, as qualitative data

can support the results generated through the questionnaire with deeper and more

detailed information (Kumar, 2005). Explain whether you started with interviews and

then designed the questionnaire or vice versa.

Quantitative research aims to assess in the gathering of accurate data and by offering a

clear, full details of phenomena in the study. For present research, the quantitative

research is completely fitting, as its realistic and precise description is essential to

clarify the examination of the research subject. Different stuffs are exemplifying the

considering the descriptions of descriptive research (Creswell et al., 2003). Firstly,

quantitative research is restricted by collecting data instead of looking for justify why

fact offers itself in a certain form. Secondly, objectively consider as a new feature of

quantitative research, objectively involved that quantitative research explains in what

way the reality is, that directly mean that the question of study must concern with of

what way the reality should be (Marshall and Rossman, 2014). The third point, and the

final one, quantitative research is offering customary records, which consist of a

clearest procedure, where the explaining consider as the reader or other corrections

responsibility. Then again, sliding scale is connected among pure description and

analysis, and among the explanation and assessment which are considered as the main

application to the objective-subjective aspect itself. It worthy mention that evaluation

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and explanation of the data usually totally objective since humans usually have a level

of bias to their studies (Creswell and Creswell, 2017).

The design will be used through this study will be quantitative; moreover the researcher

will use the questionnaire in aim to solve the study problem and realising the major

goals of research. This method is adopted for the following reasons as explained here.

This method contributes to an understanding of the experiences and situations of

research participants (parents), and contributes when research is confirmatory rather

than exploratory i.e. this is a frequently researched subject, and numerical data from

previous research is available. Also, this research is trying to measurement a trend and

orientation (almost impossible with qualitative research) and there is no opacity about

the idea and variables that measured, and there is only one way to measure each idea

and variable, so the idea and variable are measured by a ratio or ordinal scale (Sekaran

and Bougie, 2016). In this research, the quantitative design was used to examine

whether there are a theoretical relations between co-viewing (CV), rules of use (RU),

parent-child communication (PCC), imitation of parents (IP), goal setting(GS),

heuristic strategy (IH), social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM),

advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF), and advertising defensive

memory application (ABMA). And since the target audiences for this research are

parents of children between 8 and 12 years old in the GCC, the suitable methodology

for capturing a large proportion of the target population is the quantitative method. The

use of quantitative methodology in this research is in line with similar studies conducted

previously in advertising and consumer behaviour research (e.g. Tarabashkin, 2014;

Hudders, Cauberghe and Panic, 2016; Reisch, 2013; Tarabashkina, Quester and

Crouch, 2016; Folkvord, 2016)

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There is a lack of research concerning the building of decisional models to investigate

how parental interventions with regards to social media food advertising influence

children's food buying behaviour The researcher believes the quantitative approach will

provide more substantial facts about the phenomena under study, as it involves

statistical analysis (Veal, 2005). This method also helps in comprehending the

experiences of research participants, and contributes most effectively. People in general

do not have the time for interviews, thus, rather than aiming for long interviews, they

will be asked to answer a questionnaire that expresses the main concept of study, as

well as their point of view (Ioannidis et al., 2014). Figure 4.1 shows the procedure for

the research methodology.

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 Aims of the Research

Investigating how parental interventions Analysing the outcomes and

with regards to social media food emphasizing the significant relationships
advertising influence children's food between the constructs proposed in the
buying behaviour hypothesized model

Research Methodology- Descriptive

Research tools -

Questionnaire

Questionnaire Design

Pilot study

Distribution of Questionnaire

Data Analysis –SPSS and Amos

Discussion of Data

Figure 4.1 The Procedure for the Research Methodology

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4.4 Operationalization of Variables

Variables can also be categorized into a number of classifications according to purpose

as follows:

1. Quantitative variables and qualitative variables:

Quantitative variables can be categorized into connected quantitative variables which

reflect a connected quantity of property or attribute, as the individual may have any

degree in the correct or fractional property such as weight, height, age as well as

separate quantitative variables whose values are only valid values such as the number

of pupils and number of family members (Bernard, 2017). On the other hand,

qualitative variables cannot be statistically treated unless they are distinguished from

one another by using the numbers, for instance, the female variable number 1 and male

variable 2 or vice versa. Furthermore, the number in this case does not mean more than

it is a tool for the distinction between qualitative variables to facilitate the discharge of

data collected from the field of study in order to be treated statistically, which do not

have a numerical value in it (Richard, 2013).

2. Dependent, independent and intermediate variables: the variables can be

classified according to their role in the occurrence of the phenomenon under study

as follows:

A- Dependent Variables: are those variables that try to explain, know the reasons for

their occurrence and the extent to which they can be predicted.

B- Independent Variables: are those variables that have played a direct role in the

occurrence of dependent variables, as it is used to support interpretation and

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 understanding of the changes that occurred in these variables as well as to predict

the situation that will follow (Ragin, 2014).

C- Intermediate Variables: are those variables which the effect of independent

variables on dependent variables passes through. Intermediate variables are very

important in interpreting the occurrence of social phenomena as they may be

overlooked by researchers or may be seen as independent variables for their direct

association with dependent variables (Bernard, 2017).

4.5 Data Collection Procedures

The most important stage in the statistical process is the data collection stage. Any error

in the data collection process will result in false statistics. Thus, data sources must be

correct and accurate. It may be no different that the results of the study depend largely

on how the data are collected as well as the methodological tools used for this purpose

(Sekaran, 2006). Data collection tools are an essential means of obtaining information

relevant to the underlying phenomenon. In order for researchers to obtain the

information that serves their research, they must choose the tools that are appropriate

to the nature of the subject. There are two types of data sources:

4.5.1 Primary Sources

The primary source data used in this study were collected using questionnaires, which

were designed with the goals and objectives of research in mind. A detailed description

of the questionnaires will be given later, which will include presenting their contents,

the factors behind choosing them, and additional details.

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4.5.2 Secondary Sources
To provide the theoretical framework for the subject, the following resources were

used: Journal articles, published papers, and referred preceding studies from different

countries that studied the same regarding Co-viewing (CV), Rules of use (RU), Parent-

Child Communication (PCC), Imitation of parents (IP), Goal setting(GS), heuristic

strategy (IH), Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM),

Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF), and Advertising Defensive

Memory Application (ABMA). Also books and available cited electronic versions of

academic and professional papers were used.

4.5.3 Questionnaire
A questionnaire method is a tool consisting of a list of question to collect information

about the specific subject. A well-designed questionnaire plays a considerable rule to

collect valid, reliable and unbiased data. A questionnaire can be identified either by

researcher or by software (Waure et al., 2015). It is an effective way to survey the views

of a large number of people to know the facts, practices, opinions and tendencies of

individuals. It facilitates access to individuals in different locations at reasonable cost.

In this research, the questionnaire is a means of collecting the necessary data to verify

the hypotheses of the problem under study or to answer the research questions. There

are three types of questionnaires: open ended, closed ended, and mixed. When

designing the questionnaire, certain conditions must be observed to ensure the accuracy

and validity of the results (Phellas, Bloch and Seale, 2011).

The questionnaire is an access tool, which is a set of questions and/or written statements

with answers and/or potential opinions or a blank answer. The questionnaire is used to

obtain information, data and facts that are only known to the individuals concerned and

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cannot be obtained by another tool. Questionnaire is the means used to gather data from

the field about a particular problem or phenomenon. It also means a set of written

questions (or statements) written by the respondent, which is an appropriate tool for

collecting data on the views or attitudes of the respondents on a given topic. A form

designed by the researcher in the light of theoretical frameworks relevant to the problem

of research, according to the basis of science, which includes the questionnaire

preliminary data on the respondents and questions or statements of the report on the

problem of research (Waure et al., 2015). The design of the questionnaire includes the

development and preparation of the initial form of the questionnaire. The questionnaire

consists of several elements, such as: the cover of the questionnaire, the speech

addressed to the interviewer, the initial data, and the questions that revolve around the

research objectives. Also, researchers use one or more methods in distributing copies

of their study questionnaire. The process of selecting the distribution method affects

the researcher's circumstances, and the time period for collection of field data.

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Advantages Disadvantages

- Information from a large number of - The existence of unanswered questions

individuals can be obtained geographically by respondents; this may be due to the

dispersed by means of questionnaire in the type of questions or personal reasons of

shortest possible time as compared with the respondent.

alternative data collection methods.

- Questions are uniform for all sample - Some copies may be lost while they are

members, while they may change the format mailed or in some other way or by some

of some questions when asked in the respondents.

interview.

- Questionnaire design and the questions’ - Answers to all the questions may not be

module facilitate the process of compiling complete because the answer to that

information, thus interpreting it and reaching question is neglected inadvertently or

appropriate conclusions. deliberately.

- The questionnaire gives the respondent - The person answering the questions may

sufficient time to answer. consider some questions not worth giving

part of their time

- Many researchers consider the information - The researcher cannot observe and

available on the questionnaire to be more record respondents' reactions due to loss

objective than interview answers or other data of personal contact with them. These

collection methods, since most questionnaires emotions may be important information

do not carry the name of the respondent, which for the subject of the research.

motivates them to provide reliable and correct

information.

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- The questionnaire is one of the least means - The language may be incomprehensible

of collecting information, both in the effort and the method is unclear, which bears

and the money. The implementation and multiple interpretations. This may cause

management of the questionnaire does not confusion among respondents, leading to

require a large number of trained researchers, inaccurate answers.

because the answer to the questions and their

writing is left to the same respondent.

Table 4.2Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire (Source: Phellas, Bloch and Seale, 2011)

4.5.3.1 Design of the Questionnaire

In order for current research to be conducted correctly, a questionnaire has been

incorporated according to set goals (depending on reviewing previous research on this

field). It is a tool used to collect required data. It includes a set of questions, the

questions must be clear and easy to understand short so that the answer is easy and does

not dull the person in question (Greasley, 2008). In this Research, the Questionnaire

consists of two sections:

- First Section: related to personal demographic data including, the gender and

age of participants and their children, age, educational level, nationality, and the

monthly income). In addition to general questions such as how many hours per

day did your child spend on social media? And which of the social media were

most commonly used by your child?

- Second Section: related to specific questions specific to the subject of study,

and divided into: Co-viewing (CV), Rules of use (RU), Parent-Child

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 Communication (PCC), Imitation of parents (IP), Goal setting (GS), heuristic

strategy (IH), Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM),

Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF), and Advertising

Defensive Memory Application (ABMA). Furthermore, the questionnaire

presented display to the number of arbitrators before it applied, and its validity

test through Cronbach's alpha test. In addition, Questionnaire including 35

questions was oriented for all dimensions of the study as presented in table 4.3.

When writing questions, the researcher takes into account many things such as

to be short so that it does not exceed twenty words, to be unclassified in the past,

do not express a fact or be interpreted as a fact, to contain one simple

unassembled idea, to be written in easy and clear language, to be an aesthetic,

emotional, emotional, according to the subject to be measured, and to reflect the

direction to be measured including sub-components.

Adopted From Measuring Items Construct

(See the appendix)
Buijzen, Schuurman and ESM Q1-Q3 Exposure to Social Media
Unhealthy Food
Bomhof (2008); Halford et Advertising (ESM)

al. (2004); Andreyeva,

Kelly and Harris (2011)

Buijzen, Schuurman and ABMF Q1-Q4 Advertising- Based

Memory Formation
Bomhof (2008); Halford et (ABMF)

al. (2004)

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Caruana and Vassallo PCC Q1-Q4 Parent- Child
Communication (PCC)
(2003); Chan and McNeal

(2003)

Savage, Fisher and Birch RU Q1-Q4 Rules of Use (RU)

(2007); Chan and McNeal
(2003)
Lwin, Stanaland and CV Q1-Q4 Co- viewing (CV)
Miyazaki (2008)
Buijzen, Schuurman and ABMA Q1-Q4 Advertising- Based
Memory Application
Bomhof (2008); Halford et (ABMA)

al. (2004)

Büttner, Florack and Serfas IH Q1-Q4 If, then Heuristic strategy

(2014)
(IH)

Büttner, Florack and Serfas GS Q1-Q4 Goal Setting (GS)

(2014)
Grier et al. (2007); Lwin, IP Q1-Q4 Imitation of Parents (IP)
Stanaland and Miyazaki
(2008)
Table 4.3 Research Questions and Evidence from the Literature

4.5.3.2 Scale of Questionnaire

The Likert scale is a sum of responses collected on questionnaire paragraphs. It consists

of two parts: the stem, which defines behaviour, and the ladder, which a measure used

to determine the degree of approval. The Likert Scale is one of the methods used in the

measurement of scientific trends and educational research, psychological and social, to

shorten time and effort. The Likert Scale is characterized by its ease of design,

application, correction, the high degree of stability and reliability (Joshi et al., 2015).

There are some conditions that should be taken into consideration when designing and

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designing trend measures in the Likert Scale, including balance between positive and

negative paragraphs of the scale as they are distributed randomly, and analyzing the

stems of the scale in the appropriate statistical methods, especially with regard to

validity and reliability.

The person who takes the test chooses one box that is similar to what he/she is

convinced with. The middle box is the neutral box. Research has shown that it is best

to use 5 or 7 options. Drawings can also be used to determine the level of approval.

This scale is based on bipolar measurement which measures the either positive or

negative response. In some cases, the neutral box is deleted to induce a clear position

"with or against". After respondents finish answering all the questions, each question

can be analysed individually. Also, the answers to a set of questions can be collected to

obtain a collective result for each group. The importance of questionnaire preparation

to initiate the definition of the stages, which will be tested to extract the results, was

elaborated by Sekaran (2006). In fact, the final results depend on the interdependence

of all stages, so every stage needs to be carefully designed.

Firstly, through a geographically extended questionnaire it is possible for the necessary

data to be obtained from a large number of individuals, which leads to the shortest

possible time with alternative means of data collection. Secondly, other strategies

produce more cost and effort in comparison to the utilization of questionnaires for

gathering information, as installing and managing a questionnaire does not require a

great amount of trained researchers. Thirdly, in comparison to the interview or other

data collection methods, questionnaires stimulate more objective, reliable and correct

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information, as most surveys are not formulated with respondent’s name. Fourthly, the

value of the questionnaire is increased through its nature of rationing the order and

record of questions and answers, which is not available by through other strategies.

Fifthly, the pressure to scrutinize the information is reduced, as enough thought time in

the answers is provided by the questionnaires. Sixthly, contrary to many tests and

interviews, the questionnaire provides the participant with ample time to think without

psychological pressure. Finally, the questionnaire aids in obtaining information that

could have been deemed too embarrassing or sensitive by the participants in the

interview. Therefore, there are various valid reasons for the questionnaire strategy to

be chosen, which makes it the most appropriate for data collecting strategy for this

research (Sekaran, 2006).

4.6 Population and Sampling

A population can denote the overall groups of explanations (measures) about which one

would like to draw conclusions. In addition, the population is a group of elements or

individuals that are interested in a particular study. In other words, it is all the elements

to which the research problem relates (Bamberger, 2013). While the sample is a subset

of the community, as it is studied to identify the characteristics of the community from

which this sample was drawn. The sample must be representative of the society

correctly. The population indicates that the specific interests of the detective determine

the set of observations, which constitutes the population (Al-Hosis, Mersal and Keshk,

2013). The sample size is the number of its items and usually the study is conducted on

the sample. Moreover, the investigation can make conclusive macro-observations in

relation to the entire target population if the sampling is conducted correctly. The

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researcher's time and expense is spared by extracting a small sample from a large target

population. In empirical research, the main use of statistical inference is to obtain

knowledge from the determinant of a big remit of people, or other statistical units, from

a smaller amount of similar components. According to (Bamberger, 2013), there are

many conditions for sample selection that are:

1. The sample chosen should not be biased or favouritism in the sense that it should

be taken from among the members of the original society at random.

2. The phenomenon to be a studied is prevalent and widespread in the original

society and is not a rare occurrence.

3. The sample must be representative of all categories of the original society.

4. The homogeneity of the original society members should be assumed. If this is

not possible in some heterogeneous societies, the researcher will divide it into

small homogeneous communities.

5. The need to make a prior requisite for all the original community members to

be discussed with the division of this community to sampling units. For

example, when studying a population, the sampling unit is either the family as

a unit of analysis, the individual or the community and may be the community

for large communities.

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 6. The choice of the size and type of the sample should be consistent with the

primary objective of the researcher; the nature of the community, the type of

problem studied and so on.

It is clear that the benefit of a research sample is to shorten the time and effort required

to complete the research and thus save a lot of money. Full and accurate responses can

also be easily obtained if the researchers use a part of the overall community. It also

facilitates the tracking of non-respondents in the case of the research sample, while this

is difficult in the case of a comprehensive population. In addition, more data can be

obtained from sample members, allowing for rapid analysis and discussion. Sampling

research also helps the researcher to determine the accuracy of a comprehensive

population. The best way is to select a sample, study it carefully and compare its results

with general results found in literature.

4.6.1 Target Population

The target audiences of this research are parents who have at least one child between 8

and 12 that are exposed to social media food advertising in the GCC region.

4.6.2 Sample Size

The sample consists of parents (either a father or a mother) who have children between

8 and 12 years, as the children use social media making them vulnerable to food ads.

This group of people were contacted via a questionnaire designed according to research

conducted in the past. It was distributed to a representative sample consisting of 972,

and 622 were recovered and analysed (response rate is 0.64). The survey method will

be adopted because it provides a basis for establishing generalizability; it also has

statistical power and allows the results to be replicated. To achieve the objective of the

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study that aims to investigate, a suitable sample must be taken. Sampling population

can be referred to a unit of analysis. Selection of sample size depends on objectives and

research questions and the sample size is inversely proportional with error. The sample

size is selected in random sample technique according to the Slovin formula.

Many statisticians agree that the size of the sample depends on a set of factors that are

limited to: the purpose of research, the size of the original society, the degree of

variation of the different phenomena in the sectors of society, the degree of accuracy

required in the research, the available data that can be used in generalizing the results

and the material possibilities (Al-Hosis, Mersal and Keshk, 2013).

4.6.3 Sampling Technique

There are different methods for selecting samples, but the type of sample and the

procedures of withdrawing from the statistical community vary from position to

position. The fundamental consideration that the researcher takes into account is to

obtain a suitable sample. In fact, the basic criterion for the fact that the sample is

appropriate is that the sample be satisfied with the researcher's satisfaction (Adams and

Cox, 2008). Some researchers refer to their friends, neighbours, relatives and colleagues

and consider them as individuals in the sample. An appropriate sample is selected to

identify specific characteristics or specifications or to draw conclusions from

communities. Researchers and statisticians typically distinguish between two types of

sampling, which are probability (random) and non-probability. In the case of

probability sampling, the selection of the sample items is random according to the

probability laws, so that the probability of any sample appearing in the sample is known

before the actual sample withdrawal. There are many types of probability sampling

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such as simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic sampling,

cluster random sampling, and multi-stage random sampling. On the other hand, in the

case of non-probabilistic samples, the method of selection of the sample does not

depend on the random method because the field of its applications depends on the

selection of a specific segment or sector in a deliberate manner. There are many types

of non-probability sampling such as quota sampling, convenience sampling, snowball

sampling, self-selection sampling, and purposive sampling. Regarding the sampling of

this research, it was based on the objectives, aims, questions, and structure of research,

the sampling is categorized into non-possibility and possibility sampling (Phellas,

Bloch and Seale, 2011).

The goal of sampling is to have adequate size, thus allowing that the researcher avoids

possible sources of error and bias in that. Random sampling was difficult to apply here

because of the inability to reach out to the entire population given the constraints on

resources and time frame of the research and also given the cultural environment of the

study which does not allow a female researcher to reach out to different respondents.

In this current research, uncontrolled quota sampling was used that utilizes convenience

method in a way that the researcher is free to choose sample group members.. Due to

the size of the population, simple random sampling and stratified sampling were

difficult to apply in this study. Thus, using quota method and selecting the ampling was

more convenient in this case.

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4.6.4 Sources of Error in Survey Research
It is noted that the results obtained from the sample may not be exactly the same as the

results obtained from the comprehensive population because samples are subject to two

types of error, which are: the error of chance (random error) and the error of bias.

1. The error of chance (random error): This error is due to random selection, where

sample results may differ from community outcomes. The random error

depends on the size of the sample, the variation of the community, and the

method of selection of the sample, as the larger the sample the less the random

error, which leads to increased confidence in the result. On the contrary, if the

society items are different, it would increase the possibility of random errors. In

general, if the sample was selected in a sound random way, this type of error

could be estimated from the sample itself. The value of this error can be

controlled and evaluated in statistical ways, although it is very difficult to avoid

it. It should also be noted that this type of error affects the sample alone, while,

the comprehensive population is not affected as an important source of data

collection (Ponto, 2015).

2. The error of bias: this error does not depend on the random chance. It usually

occurs in one direction, that is, only by increase or decrease, as its seriousness

is that it cannot be limited or set limits. This type of error is not limited to

samples, but may be subject to the comprehensive population due to inaccurate

measurement, inefficiency of researchers, the ambiguity of questionnaires,

giving incorrect data by respondents, not collecting data on some community

samples or collecting data more than once. Samples are subject to bias error for

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 several reasons such as lack of access to some sample items, which calls for

replacing these units with other and this may lead to bias. In addition, bias may

arise as a result of not following the proper methods of calculating estimates.

This type of error is usually biased towards one side either by increasing or

decreasing. This type of error becomes more important as the size of the sample

increases. Furthermore, errors of bias are due to misjudgement and lack of

accuracy by the researcher when conducting population operations, as the

researcher may lose sufficient accuracy in calculating the variables,

incompatibility of the researcher in the formulation of correct hypotheses as

well as formulating vague and unclear questions for respondents (Ponto, 2015).

4.7 Data Analysis Procedure

Data analysis is the process of extracting data carried out by the researcher from several

sources, and then analysis of these sources in order to obtain important information to

help in the development of scientific research (Graneheim and Lundman, 2004). It is

clear that statistics provides a set of methods and technical tools used by the researcher

in each step of research from the preliminary stage of research, which includes the

selection of study sample and data collection from the field, passing through

classification, summarization, presentation and analysis of that data, until it reaches the

stage of drawing conclusions from the study. According to Sekaran and Bougie (2016),

the function of statistics is centred on two important points. First, it is to summarize

available data and present it in the simplest and the most appropriate form possible. The

researchers usually find themselves in front of a large set of raw data that does not

disclose anything while being asked to derive clear scientific facts from those data,

whether comprehensive social survey data or by the sample, the researcher can then

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change the form of the data after classification, organization and summarization using

the descriptive aspect of statistics, where it can apply here a set of statistical measures

that do not exceed the description limit such as central tendency measurements,

regression, etc. (Johanson and Brooks, 2010). Therefore, it is clear that the first function

of statistics is the characterization of available data and their exit by a set of indicators

and statistical rate. Secondly, it is summed up by the deduction, in the field of social

research; the sample is usually used to represent the society from which it was drawn.

The use of samples in social research is due to several reasons, the most important of

which is the saving of time, effort, and possibilities that make it sometimes impossible

to study society as a whole. The sample is simply a part or a segment of the society that

is chosen based on a statistical basis to represent the society that is part of it. Moreover,

the role of statistics lies in reaching estimates and inferences about the society as a

whole through the available information on the sample that has been withdrawn from

this society, since most of the researcher's interest is not just the sample used in the

study, but rather the society as a whole. In short, the inferential aspect of statistics is

concerned with the assessment of population parameters in relation to the phenomenon

under study using the data and information available on the sample, which is called

sample statistics about the same phenomenon in an attempt to access the generalizations

that represents the study community (Sekaran and Bougie, 2016).

Moreover, the advantages derived from statistical methods can be summed up as

follows:

1. Statistics help the researcher to give descriptions with a great deal of practical

precision.

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 2. Statistics help to summarize results in an appropriate and understandable

manner. The data collected by the researcher do not give a clear picture unless

they are summarized in a coefficient, a number or illustration such as graphs.

3. Statistics help the researcher to derive general results from partial results. Such

results can be drawn only according to statistical rules. The researcher can also

determine the degree to which the generalization is correct.

4. Statistics enable the researcher to predict the results likely to be obtained in

special circumstances.

In this research, the SPSS program was used to analyse data. SPSS is a statistical

program that has been widely used by researchers to perform statistical analysis. The

program is used in many scientific fields, including, for example, administrative, social,

engineering and agricultural sciences. SPSS is an abbreviation for the full name of the

program, "Statistical Package for Social Sciences". The data collected by the current

study were interpreted and analysed through various steps and stages. To achieve study

objectives, the researcher used the following statistical tests:

• Frequency distributions and percentages.

• The mean and standard deviations in order to answer the questions of the study

and to determine the relative importance.

• Factor Analysis: is applied when a researcher needs to discover the number of

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 factors influencing variables and to analyse which variables ‘go together’, to

reveal complicated patterns by exploring the dataset and analysis predictions. It

is applied throughout this study to measure the suitability of the sample and

factors before starting analysis.

• Regression: to assess the influence of parental interventions on children's food

buying behaviour from parent's perspectives, in addition to the other hypothesis

of the effect. This is used for dealing with the general regression problem with

a large number of variables, two or more explanatory variables. In this study, it

was used to assess the mediating variable effect on the relationship between

dependent and independent factors through testing the combination of three

variables together.

• ANOVA: This test is used to assess differences made by moderating variables,

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pairwise Comparisons using

Schaffer's Test are the most common and was used throughout this study to

assess the difference made by moderating variable value on the relationship

between study variables.

• Cronbach Alpha: used to confirm the degree of reliability and internal

consistency of the tools used in data collection.

• Finally, the result will be listed and discussed with more details and in

comparison with previous studies’ results, before suitable recommendations are

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 highlighted. According to the goals of research, this facilitates obtaining

meaningful results. Finally, the result will be listed and discussed in more detail

and in comparison with the results of previous studies, before suitable

recommendations are drawn out.

4.8 Reliability and Validity

Validity and reliability in statistical analysis are the most important things that help

researchers to verify the validity of their findings, thus the possibility of generalizing

the results to the study community. The validity and reliability are related to the tools

used by the researcher in scientific research, and the extent of the great ability of these

tools to measure the meanings and information obtained by the researcher through

scientific research. Validity means measurement of an instrument which was used to

conduct research, as it does not prove the validity of the measuring instrument, but

provides evidence regarding the validity of the measuring instrument for the purpose

used. Validity denotes the significance, usefulness and appropriateness of specific

results and assumptions resulting from test marks. Also, it is possible defining it as if

an instrument takes measurements of what it is planned to measure. In current research,

validity will be confirmed by distributing the questionnaire to a group of academic

instructors to judge its contents (Heale and Twycross, 2015). On the other hand, the

reliability of the measuring instrument is to produce the same results if the questionnaire

is reapplied on the same sample in the same conditions. Therefore, in literary accounts,

a source’s reputation is vital, thus, the reliability of this study was measured and

guaranteed through calculating the Cronbach alpha value, which was assessed to reflect

the considerable consistency of the questionnaire (Sekaran, 2006). On a separate note,

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numeric data does not necessarily need to be dependable, and the source, even if they

are official statistics, may not be totally impartially formulated. For instance:

populations could be undercounted, samples used could lack sufficiency or random

selection, confidence limits or “margin of error” may be disregarded, there may be a

disguise in the rate of non-responses to questionnaires, or replies might have been

obtained which were less than truthful. In current research, Cronbach alpha was used

to confirm reliability. The relationship between the validity of the test and its reliability

should be highly correlated (Heale and Twycross, 2015).

To verify the reliability of the study instrument, Cronbach alpha coefficient was

calculated to ensure that the measuring instrument was stable. In fact, the questionnaire

measures the factors to be measured and verified its validity. This is due to the nature

of the Cronbach alpha coefficient in its measurement of the internal consistency of the

measurement paragraphs, which means the strength of the correlation between the

measurement paragraphs. In addition, the Alpha coefficient is given with a good

estimate of reliability. To verify the reliability of the study instrument in this way, the

Cronbach alpha equation was applied. Although there are no standards for the

appropriate alpha values, in practice, alpha that is greater than or equal to 0.60 is

considered acceptable as shown in the table.

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 Cronbach’s Alpha
Scale Item Number
(%)

Co-viewing (CV) 4 0.969

Rules of use (RU) 4 0.960

Parent-Child Communication (PCC) 4 0.972

Imitation of parents (IP) 4 0.974

Goal setting(GS) 4 0.965

If, then heuristic strategy (IH) 4 0.976

Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement 3 0.930

Exposure (ESM)

Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation 4 0.959

(ABMF)

Advertising Defensive Memory Application 4 0.967

(ABMA

Entire Questionnaire 35 0.885

Table 4.4 Cronbach’s Alpha for Questionnaire

The above table shows that Cronbach alpha coefficient to all dimensions of the

questionnaire was (0.885). For the sub-dimensions, it was shown that the highest

Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.976% for heuristic strategy (IH) dimension. While

the lowest Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.930% to Social Media Unhealthy Food

Advertisement Exposure (ESM) dimension. This means that the values of Cronbach

alpha indicate a high consistency and correlation between the paragraphs of the

questionnaire.

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In this study, Cronbach's alpha was utilized to measure the reliability. Also, the

questionnaire was spread amongst a number of academic instructors and professors to

judge its contents before distributing the final version. Those contacted confirmed the

validity of the questionnaire. In addition to the pilot study, this will be given in detail

in the coming section.

4.9 Pilot study

A pilot study is a step taken by researchers before embarking on their basic research

procedures, as it is an important and necessary step, especially in field research

(applied). The pilot study allows the researcher to identify and view the field in which

the basic study will be conducted (Zohrabi, 2013). This preliminary study also reveals

the magnitude of the difficulties that may face during the initial study, and gives the

researcher an opportunity to identify the quality of individuals to whom the tools will

be applied, and their willingness and satisfaction with the special procedures that will

be followed. Furthermore, the pilot study is of great importance in the completion of

scientific research, a step that is often overlooked by researchers in their research on

the pretext of lack of time and material resources, which has become a forgotten step

in the methodology of scientific research (Sekaran and Bougie, 2016).

The pilot study is conducted for the purpose of testing the reliability and validity of the

questionnaire (psychometric properties of information collection tools) and ensuring

the adequacy of the data collected to derive the expected results from research. The

chosen dimensions of the questionnaire were based on previous studies. According to

Zohrabi (2013), the main aims of the questionnaire piloting are to check the linguistic

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integrity of the means of measurement allowing for good understanding of these terms

as they pass through the basic sample, identify the initial response to the sample which

allows the researcher to monitor the most important observations such as the expected

difficulties and estimate the default time to answer the study tools and thus identify the

total time of the field study as well as gives the researcher an opportunity to review the

hypotheses of research, and the extent to which they can be tested in the field (Sekaran

and Bougie, 2016).

The importance of pilot study is that it contributes to providing a degree of knowledge

on various topics of research, especially those that have not been studied. It provides

many hypotheses and sets out the quality of facilities available to conduct research. In

many cases, the pilot study is the entrance to an in-depth study of the topic covered.

This is the starting point for new research. As well, the pilot study increases the

researcher's familiarity with the phenomenon. According to Johanson and Brooks

(2010), the objectives of the pilot study can be defined as follows:

1. Crystallize the research topic or the subject matter of research selected by the

researcher and formulate it in a more compact way in order to study it further in

the future.

2. Identify the basic concepts related to the subject chosen by the researcher to

study or research.

3. Develop hypotheses by crystallizing the problem of research or formulating it

in the form of scientific hypotheses or questions.

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 4. Find a foundation and a degree of knowledge from which the researchers start

their research.

5. Identify the different aspects of the subject of research or study.

6. Define deficiencies in the procedures for applying data collection tools. The

instructions of these tools may be modified in light of the results of the survey.

7. Practice applying tests and identifying difficulties and trying to solve them.

8. The duration of the field study can be determined.

9. Train the researchers on the programs used in the current study so that they can

apply them more skilfully to the basic study groups, and to know some

important points that may be observed when applying the programs to the pilot

samples, taking them into consideration when conducting the basic study. It can

also check the validity of the software for the application.

Perhaps before starting the pilot study, it is necessary to look at the circumstances and

procedures in which this field research will be carried out. The pilot study paves the

way for researchers, which is considered as the basis for field research due to its

importance in helping the researcher to apply research tools. The sample is one of the

fundamentals of applied scientific research. It is the primary source for collecting

information related to research. Therefore, it should be chosen with precision and

according to scientific data that guarantees the most trust and credibility. The sample

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size of the pilot study does not differ in terms of type and number from the basic

research sample. Its size is directly proportional to the number of members of the

research community available to give an appropriate representation. According to

(Resnik, 2011), the major characteristics of the pilot sample carry all the characteristics

of the basic sample (sample study), all its members belong to the study community, its

size is appropriate for the number of members of the community from which it was

taken, and its type serves subject variables and is consistent with the composition of the

study population.

In this research, the sample of 42 parents were chosen to fill the questionnaire, after

that presence of unclear statements was observed, repetitive statements, and a need to

add more tasks appeared, also some of these statements was re-formulate, and some of

it was deleted. Only 30 questionnaires were returned. The results were taken into

consideration such as the ambiguity of some questions. Some of the statements (in the

Arabic version) were rewritten in a sense that it does not affect the main meaning

emerging out of it. Add to that, there was also an important modification that should

take place on the scale words used, which affect the results and require more effort from

the researcher to code it in the right way. Therefore, this was avoided by the researcher

in the questionnaire that was distributed among the actual population of the study.

The pilot study is developed in order to test a variety of sections (Veal, 2005):

• Questionnaire layout.

• Question sequencing.

• The questionnaire wording.

• Fieldwork arrangements, when and if required.

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 • Analysis procedures.

Based on the pre-test groups' comments, changes were made to the questionnaire,

especially the cover page of the questionnaire and the demographic section that were

added after the pilot study. In addition to the demographics section which is a vital part

of the questionnaire, which should not be neglected when implementing the

questionnaire and this could be attributed to the great contribution that gained through

the demographic information in the outcomes’ analysis. Therefore, demographic

variables have been taken into account by the researcher in the questionnaire. Finally,

the pilot study has focused on the attention onto key factors that contributed to shape

the final version of the questionnaire which also has contributed to gain the necessary

data to answer the research questions afterward (Resnik, 2011).

4.10 Ethical Issues

The relationship between ethics and scientific research is old and close. A search in the

field of scientific research ethics necessarily leads to research in other areas such as the

ethics of scientific publishing, intellectual property, and the analysis of the ethical

charters of scientific research in order to come up with a comprehensive general charter.

Although there are general controls on the ethics of scientific research, there must be

more precise controls and detailed scientific research (Denzin and Lincoln, 2009).

There are some considerations for ethical conduct, including truthfulness, expertise,

safety, trust, consent, withdrawal, feedback, vulnerability, and anonymity. Scientific

Secretariat is one of the most important values of research ethics, as the researcher is

keen to respect the intellectual property of others. In addition, the researcher pointed to

the sources from which derived the information that used in this research according to

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systematic origins with mention the name of the author. The researcher also collects

data carefully, accurately and without bias. This research is free of scientific fraud such

as fabrication, falsification and plagiarism. Therefore, ethics conveys moral grace,

which conforms to the principles of correct universal behaviour, in particular the

principles of group or group practice. Thus, this ethical practice is vital for social

researchers (Resnik, 2011).

The process of scientific research passes through several stages before the research goes

from developing the idea to the publishing and implementation stage. These steps are

choosing the subject of research, evaluating scientific research, implementing research,

and preparing scientific research reports, disseminating its information and using its

results in practical application. In all these steps the ethical aspects of scientific

research, must be taken into account and it is not enough to take into account ethical

rules at one stage of research and neglect them at another stage, otherwise, research is

unethical. Research may be designed well in terms of practical ethics, but when

researchers perform research, they may not follow the controls that are placed when

designing their research, in such cases research becomes unethical. Moreover, ethical

research in its idea, design and implementation may become immoral if the researcher

fails to observe ethical controls when publishing the research report, and uses its results

in practice (Denzin and Lincoln, 2009).

The ethics of scientific research require that the researcher should not be exploited by

those who study and conduct research on them. In particular, research in some areas,

especially social sciences, depends on deceiving those who study so that they believe

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that the researchers want to know something. In fact, they want to know something else.

The researchers also have to think carefully about the fields in which the results of their

research will be employed. Ethics have become a cornerstone for conducting useful and

meaningful research. Ethical issues were seriously observed in this study to ensure that

research meets the moral standards of academic research and commercial ethical

considerations (Resnik, 2011). The researcher followed guidelines and procedures to

maintain the privacy of the information gathered via the questionnaires. Meanwhile, the

researcher also left a space to leave contact details on the questionnaire, for those

participants who wished to receive a copy of the study's results. In addition, the

researcher undertook a number of procedures to maintain the privacy of participants,

by keeping the identities of the respondents secret to avoid the possibility of bias.

The ethical problems of scientific research in the field of human sciences come from

the methodological and objective difficulties facing the human sciences as in the field

of sociology, and the application of scientific theories as in the field of psychology and

education. Methodological difficulties can be formulated and the consequent ethical

issues in a number of points such as the subject of research are variable. It is often about

human behaviour and actions. It is variable in time and place (Denzin and Lincoln,

2009). Therefore, it cannot invoke fixed judgments that reach the level of scientific

laws. Every human condition is a stand-alone situation and different from other

humanitarian situations. It also differs from time to time. The ethical problem comes

when researchers try to come out with a law or even a general and consistent rule that

can be used to control the behaviour of all human beings. In addition, the nature of the

relations between human phenomena is a value-oriented nature. The human sciences

should not seek to create connections or formulate comprehensive public laws. Rather,

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they should be concerned with developing stereotypical classifications of personality

and culture that serve as a framework for understanding humanitarian activities and

objectives in different historical circumstances.

Some characteristics of scientific research result from ethical problems in the field of

research such as objectivity, generalization, accuracy and abstraction, because they are

related to quantitative measurement. For instance, accumulation property has a positive

side, such as the use of past experiences and mistakes, and a negative side such as

influence on governance, the researcher becomes influenced by the views and

experiences and assessments of his predecessors (Resnik, 2011).

There are many ethical principles that try to control the search in its value aspects, but

often these controls or others are not binding unless they develop into laws or charters

of ethics, and these controls need to be constantly reviewed in order to develop and fill

gaps that appear in them to keep abreast of the rapid development of scientific research.

The ethical standards are normative and may be described as not an effective means of

achieving scientific objectivity. This does not mean that they do not serve science, but

they alert us to the need for more psychological, social and historical research to

disseminate these standards (Denzin and Lincoln, 2009).

4.11 Summary

In this study, the researcher decides to follow the deductive method, as it is progressing

from the theory that seeks to clarify causal relationships among variables, the approach

in this study was a single-methods approach consisting of only quantitative data

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gathering tools. In addition, through a single-method approach, the researcher was able

to achieve the best of method whilst overcoming their deficiencies. Based on that, the

questionnaire is considered to be a relevant and easy way of collecting data. In the

current study, Cronbach alpha was used to confirm reliability, while validity was

confirmed by distributing the final copy of the questionnaire to a group of instructors

and experts in the field, and seeking their assessment of the validity of it.

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 Chapter 5 : Data Analysis

5.1 Introduction

After the research methodology has been identified, this chapter analyses the collected

data that were extracted from the questionnaire using SPSS, which aims to critically

investigate how parental interventions with regards to social media food advertising

influence children's food buying behaviour. In addition, it analyses the outcomes and

emphasizes the significant relationships between the constructs proposed in the

hypothesized model before an explanation and discussion of the results is presented.

5.2 Respondents’ Profile

A random sample of 622 mothers and fathers who have at least one child between the

ages of 8 and 12 that use social media were selected. Table 5.1 shows demographic

characteristics of the respondents (N= 622). The respondents were females (54.5%, n =

361) and males (51.5%, n = 301). In addition, the nationality of the respondents was

30.1% (n=199) Bahraini, 10.4% (n=69) Kuwaiti, 14.2% (n=94) Emirati, 10.9% (n=72)

Saudi, 20.2% (n=134) Qatari, and 14.2% (n=94) Omani. Moreover, the age distribution

of the respondents was 12.5% (n=83) from 25 to 30 years old, 30.5% (n=202) from 31

to 36 years old, 39.6% (n=262) from 37 to 42 years old, 15.6% (n=103) from 43 to 48

years old, and 1.8% (n=12) above 48 years old. Also, the education level of the

respondents was 4.5% (n=30) Secondary School, 27.0% (n=179) Diploma Degree,

33.7% (n=223) Bachelor Degree, 23.7% (n=157) Master Degree, 10.9% (n=72) PhD,

and 0.2% (n=1) others. In addition, the monthly income (in Bahraini Dinar) of the

respondents was 2.1% (n=14) less than 500, 14.0% (n=93) between 500 and 1000,

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19.8% (n=131) between 1000 and 1500, 21.6% (n=143) between 1500 and 2000, 26.7%

(n=12) between 2000 and 2500, and 15.7% (n=104) more than 2500.

Regarding the child’s information, child's gender was boy (51.5%, n = 341) and girl

(48.5%, n = 321), and the age distribution of children was 12.8% (n=85) 8 years old,

19.0% (n=126) 9 years old, 23.3% (n=154) 10 years old, 25.4% (n=168) 11 years old,

and 19.5% (n=129) 12 years old. Also, the most social media platform used by the child

was 29.9% (n=198) YouTube, 17.8% (n=118) Snapchat, 17.7% (n=117) WhatsApp,

16.2% (n=107) Instagram, 10.6% (n=70) Facebook, and 7.9% (n=52) Twitter. Finally,

the hours that child spent on social media per day were 15.0% (n=99) less than 1 hour,

20.7% (n=137) from 1 to 2 hours, 16.2% (n=107) from 2 to 3 hours, 31.0% (n=205)

from 3 to 4 hours, and 17.2% (n=114) more than 4 hours.

Variable N (%)
What is Child's Age?
8 years old 85 (12.8%)
9 years old 126 (19.0%)
10 years old 154 (23.3%)
11 years old 168 (25.4%)
12 years old 129 (19.5%)
Which social media platform is most used
by your child?
YouTube 198 (29.9%)
Snapchat 118 (17.8%)
WhatsApp 117 (17.7%)
Instagram 107 (16.2%)
Facebook 70 (10.6%)
Twitter 52 (7.9%)
How many Hours does your child spend
on social media per day?
Less than 1 hour 99 (15.0%)
From 1 to 2 hours 137 (20.7%)
From 2 to 3 hours 107 (16.2%)
From 3 to 4 hours 205 (31.0%)
More than 4 hours 114 (17.2%)

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 What is your child's gender?
Boy 341 (51.5%)
Girl 321 (48.5%)
What is your gender?
Male 301 (45.5%)
Female 361 (54.5%)
Nationality
Bahraini 199 (30.1%)
Kuwaiti 69 (10.4%)
UAE 94 (14.2%)
Saudi 72 (10.9%)
Qatari 134 (20.2%)
Omani 94 (14.2%)
To which age group do you belong?
From 25 to 30 years old 83 (12.5%)
From 31 to 36 years old 202 (30.5%)
From 37 to 42 years old 262 (39.6%)
From 43 to 48 years old 103 (15.6%)
Above 48 years old 12 (1.8%)
What is your educational level?
Secondary School 30 (4.5%)
Diploma degree 179 (27.0%)
Bachelor degree 223 (33.7%)
Master degree 157 (23.7%)
PhD 72 (10.9%)
other 1 (0.2%)
What is your monthly income (in Bahraini
Dinar)?
less than 500 14 (2.1%)
Between 500 to 1000 93 (14.0%)
Between 1000 to 1500 131 (19.8%)
Between 1500 to 2000 143 (21.6%)
Between 2000 to 2500 177 (26.7%)
More than 2500 104 (15.7%)
Table 5.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (N= 622)

Figures 5.1 to 5.9 summarize the background information about the respondents,

including child’s gender, child’s age, child’s social media platform, child’s time spent

on social media platforms, gender of respondents, age of respondents, nationality of

respondents, education of respondents, and monthly income of respondents.

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 56
54
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
male female

male female

Figure 5.1 Gender of Respondents

Age of Respondents
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
from 25 to 30 from 31 to 36 from 37 to 42 from 43 to 48 more than 48
years old years old years old years old years old

Paren't Age

Figure 5.2 Age of Respondents

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 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Bahraini Kuwaiti UAE Saudi Qatari Omani

Bahraini Kuwaiti UAE Saudi Qatari Omani

Figure 5.3 Nationality of Respondents

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Secondary Diploma Bachelor Master PhD other
School degree degree degree

Secondary School Diploma degree Bachelor degree

Master degree PhD other

Figure 5.4 Education of Respondents

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 Monthly Income of Respondents
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
less than Between Between Between Between More than
500 500 to 1000 1000 to 1500 to 2000 to 2500
1500 2000 2500

Family's Income

Figure 5.5 Monthly Income of Respondents

Child's Gender
52

51

50

49

48

47
boy girl

Child's Gender

Figure 5.6 Childs’ Gender

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 Child's Age
30

25

20

15

10

0
8 years old 9 years old 10 years old 11 years old 12 years old

Child's Age

Figure 5.7 Child’s Age

Social Media Platform Used By the Child

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Youtube Snapchat whatsapp instagram facebook twitter

Social Media Platform

Figure 5.8 Social Media Platform Used By the Child

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 Child's Time spent on social media
platforms
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
less than 1 from 1 to 2 from 2 to 3 from 3 to 4 more than 4
hour hours hours hours hours

Time spend on social media platforms

Figure 5.9 Child’s Time Spent on Social Media Platforms

5.3 Factor Analysis

5.3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

In order to construct research variables model, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)

was employed. As SEM is a largely confirmatory technique. That is, a researcher is

more likely to use SEM to determine whether a certain model is valid. The proper

selection of methodology depends on the complexity of the proposed model, and quality

of the data. For example, if the model has a single mediator, then OLS regression is

right. In this research, the proposed model has mediator and moderator variables, so the

researcher used SEM; it also provides more sophisticated information concerning the

significance of the indirect effects. A measure of goodness-of-fit was used using AMOS

21 program. The appropriateness of the structural model is judged by the appropriate

measures that were extracted, through which the acceptability of the previously

assumed relationship is recognized. When there is a good acceptance according to these

measures, the model is accurate, the reverse is weak and the model can be rejected.

Table 5.2 shows Fit Indices and their Acceptable Thresholds.

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Measure Threshold

Chi-square/df (Cmin/df) A value close to 1 and not exceeding 5 indicates

a good fit.

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) A value close to 1 indicates a very good fit.

Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) A value close to 1 indicates a very good fit.

Normed Fit Index (NFI) A value close to 1 indicates a very good fit.

Incremental Fit Index (IFI) A value close to 1 indicates a very good fit.

Root Mean Square Residual (RMSEA) A value of about 0.08 or less indicates a

reasonable error of Approximation.

Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) A value close to 1 indicates a very good fit.

Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI) A value close to 1 indicates a very good fit.

Table 5.2 Measures of goodness-of-fit and their Acceptable Thresholds (Hooper Coughlan and Mullen, 2008)

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 Figure 5.10 The Measurement Model

It is clear from Figure 5.10 that the model has obtained good values for measures of

goodness of fit. The results show that the minimum value of the discrepancy, which is

a division of Chi2 over the degree of freedom, is 4.017 that indicates a good fit. Also,

the model has a comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and normed

fit index (NFI) of 0.959, 0.951, and 0.947 respectively, which reflects a perfect fit. The

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CFI, TLI, and NFI values are between 0 and 1, and a value close to 1 indicates a perfect

fit. Other measures of model fit include the root mean square residual (RMSEA), as the

model has a RMSEA of 0.068, less than 0.08, which indicates a reasonable error of

approximation. In addition, the model has an Incremental Fit Index (IFI) of 0.959,

which indicates a perfect fit. Furthermore, the model has a goodness-of-fit index (GFI)

of 0.957, which indicates a perfect fit. Finally, the model has an adjusted goodness-of-

fit index (AGFI) of 0.940, which indicates a good fit, as the GFI and AGFI values are

between 0 and 1, as a value close to 1 indicates a perfect fit.

Loading SMC AVE

ESM3 0.911 0.830 0.823

ESM2 0.858 0.736

ESM1 0.951 0.904

CV4 0.938 0.880 0.891

CV3 0.952 0.906

CV2 0.967 0.935

CV1 0.918 0.843

RU4 0.903 0.815 0.862

RU3 0.933 0.870

RU2 0.942 0.887

RU1 0.936 0.876

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 PCC4 0.946 0.895 0.899

PCC3 0.959 0.920

PCC2 0.957 0.916

PCC1 0.931 0.867

ABMF4 0.949 0.901 0.853

ABMF3 0.94 0.884

ABMF2 0.937 0.878

ABMF1 0.865 0.748

IP4 0.914 0.835 0.909

IP3 0.967 0.935

IP2 0.964 0.929

IP1 0.968 0.937

GS4 0.92 0.846 0.872

GS3 0.937 0.878

GS2 0.943 0.889

GS1 0.935 0.874

IH4 0.969 0.939 0.914

IH3 0.959 0.920

IH2 0.96 0.922

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 IH1 0.935 0.874

ABMA4 0.939 0.882 0.881

ABMA3 0.942 0.887

ABMA2 0.94 0.884

ABMA1 0.934 0.872

Table 5.3 Factor Loading and AVE of Construct

Moreover, Construct validity shows to the ability of measures of a construct to assess

what they are designed for (Brown, 1996 and Hair et al., 2010). Convergent validity is the

method used in this thesis to assess construct validity (Hair et al., 2010).. Convergent

validity can be examined using standardized loadings and Average Variance Extracted

(AVE). Table 5.3 shows factor loading for each statement, as the value of less than (0.4)

is rejected (Maciel et al., 2013). Since factor loading exceeds the specified ratio (0.4),

this indicates that it is acceptable and valid. In addition, average variance extracted

(AVE) for all constructs of a measurement model was high, as AVE should be higher

than 0.5, so it is considered acceptable (valid). AVE for each factor can be calculated

by sum of squares of factor loadings divided by this sum.

5.3.2 KMO and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

The appropriateness of data for factor analysis was first verified. In this regard, in order

to proceed with data factor analysis, Kaiser (1970) explained that the value of The

Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test should be greater than 0.7, which means that the

sample is adequate, as well as the value of Bartlett (1937) test should be statistically

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significant, which means that factor analysis is valid. In addition, The Total Variance

Explained which was used to investigate the variance is divided among possible factors.

The tables (5.4) to (5.21) show this for all study variables.

5.3.2.1 Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM)

As shown in Table (5.4) below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.753, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.753

Approx. Chi-Square 1679.161
Bartlett's Test of
df 3
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.4 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement
Exposure (ESM)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 2.643 88.084 88.084 2.643 88.084 88.084

2 0.227 7.565 95.649
3 0.131 4.351 100.000
Table 5.5 Total Variance Explained for Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM)

It is clear from Table 5.5 that three components have been extracted from the analysis

of Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (which has been built), as

the total for these components respectively was 2.643, which means that these

components contribute together 88.084% of the total variance of test scores.

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5.3.2.2 Imitation of Parents (IP)

As shown in Table (5.6) below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.867, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test was less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.867

Approx. Chi-Square 4047.967
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.6 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Imitation of Parents (IP)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.717 92.931 92.931 3.717 92.931 92.931

2 0.162 4.057 96.988
3 0.069 1.716 98.704
4 0.052 1.296 100.000
Table 5.7 Total Variance Explained for Imitation of Parents (IP)

It is clear from Table 5.7 that four components have been extracted from the analysis

of imitation of parents (which has been built), as the total for these components is 3.717,

which means that these components contribute together to 92.931% of the total variance

of test scores.

5.3.2.3 Goal setting (GS)

As shown in Table (5.8) below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.872, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

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 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.872
Approx. Chi-Square 3238.231
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.8 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Goal Setting (GS)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.616 90.399 90.399 3.616 90.399 90.399

2 0.164 4.107 94.505
3 0.112 2.789 97.294
4 0.108 2.706 100.000
Table 5.9 Total Variance Explained for Goal setting (GS)

From Table 5.9 that four components have been extracted from the analysis of goal

setting (which has been built), as the total for these components is 3.616, which means

that these components contribute together 90.399% of the total variance of test scores.

5.3.2.4 Advertising-Based Defensive Formation (ABMF)

As shown in Table 5.10 below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.864, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.864

Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi-Square 3077.319

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 Sphericity df 6

Sig. 0.000
Table 5.10 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Advertising-based Defensive Memory
Formation (ABMF)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.562 89.041 89.041 3.562 89.041 89.041

2 0.216 5.396 94.438
3 0.125 3.131 97.568
4 0.097 2.432 100.000
Table 5.11 Total Variance Explained for Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF)

Table 5.11 shows four components have been extracted from the analysis of

advertising-based defensive memory formation (which has been built), as the total for

these components is 3.562, which means that these components contribute together to

89.041% of the total variance of test scores.

5.3.2.5 Advertising Defensive Memory Application (ABMA)

As shown in Table 5.12 below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.881, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.881

Approx. Chi-Square 3356.793
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000

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 Table 5.12 : The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Advertising Defensive Memory Application
(ABMA)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.644 91.103 91.103 3.644 91.103 91.103

2 0.133 3.323 94.425
3 0.120 2.999 97.424
4 0.103 2.576 100.000
Table 5.13 Total Variance Explained for Advertising Defensive Memory Application (ABMA)

From Table 5.13, it is clear that four components have been extracted from the analysis

of Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (which has been built), as

the total for these components is 3.644, which means that these components contribute

together to 91.103% of the total variance of test scores.

5.3.2.6 Co-viewing (CV)

As shown in Table 5.14 below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.875, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.875

Approx. Chi-Square 3598.891
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.14 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Co-viewing (CV)

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 Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.667 91.681 91.681 3.667 91.681 91.681

2 0.161 4.028 95.709
3 0.099 2.485 98.194
4 0.072 1.806 100.000
Table 5.15 : Total Variance Explained for Co-viewing (CV)

It is clear from Table 5.15 that four components have been extracted from the analysis

of co-viewing (which has been built), as the total for these components is 3.667, which

means that these components contribute together to 91.681% of the total variance of

test scores.

5.3.2.7 Parent-Child Communication (PCC)

As shown in Table 5.16 below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.875, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.875

Approx. Chi-Square 3731.081
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.16 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Parent-Child Communication (PCC)

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 Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.695 92.379 92.379 3.695 92.379 92.379

2 0.142 3.560 95.938
3 0.082 2.059 97.997
4 0.080 2.003 100.000
Table 5.17 Total Variance Explained for Parent-Child Communication (PCC)

It is clear from Table 5.17 that four components have been extracted from the analysis

of parent-child communication (which has been built), as the total for these components

respectively is 3.695, which means that these components contribute together to

92.379% of the total variance of test scores.

5.3.2.8 Rules of Use (RU)

As shown in Table 5.18 below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.866, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.866

Approx. Chi-Square 3137.936
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.18 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for Rules of use (RU)

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 Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.584 89.606 89.606 3.584 89.606 89.606

2 0.193 4.819 94.424
3 0.120 2.999 97.423
4 0.103 2.577 100.000
Table 5.19 Total Variance Explained for Rules of use (RU)

It is clear from Table 5.19 that four components have been extracted from the analysis

of rules of use (which has been built), as the total for these components is 3.584, which

means that these components contribute together to 89.606% of the total variance of

test scores.

5.3.2.9 If, Then Heuristic Strategy (IH)

As shown in Table 5.20 below, the value of the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) test equals

0.879, greater than 0.70, which means that the sample is adequate; In addition, the value

of Bartlett's test is less than 0.05, which confirms the validity of factor analysis.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.879

Approx. Chi-Square 4017.921
Bartlett's Test of
df 6
Sphericity
Sig. 0.000
Table 5.20 The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Test for If, Then Heuristic Strategy (IH)

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

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 Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.737 93.422 93.422 3.737 93.422 93.422

2 0.120 2.990 96.412
3 0.083 2.071 98.483
4 0.061 1.517 100.000
Table 5.21: Total Variance Explained for if, then heuristic Strategy (IH)

It is clear from Table 5.21 that four components have been extracted from the analysis

of if, then heuristic strategy (which has been built), as the total for these components is

3.737, which means that these components contribute together to 93.422% of the total

variance of test scores.

5.4 Descriptive Analysis

This section presents a descriptive analysis that shows mothers' or fathers' perceptions

and agreement with the statements on measuring parental interventions with regard to

social media food advertising influence on children's food buying behaviour. This

section presents a descriptive analysis that shows mothers' and fathers' responses to

each research dimension with its statements, including Co-viewing (CV), Rules of use

(RU), Parent-Child Communication (PCC), Imitation of parents (IP), Goal Setting

(GS), If, then heuristic strategy (IH), Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement

Exposure (ESM), Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF), and

Advertising-based Defensive Memory Application (ABMA).

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 5.4.1 Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM)
The first variable represents social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure

(ESM), which refers to mothers' or fathers' level of agreement with the following

statements about ESM as shown in Table 5.22 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
ESM1. My child is exposed to advertised unhealthy food 3.89 0.984
frequently on social media.
ESM2. My child is exposed to advertised unhealthy food for long 3.85 1.113
periods of time on social media.
ESM3. My child is repeatedly exposed to advertisement of 3.85 1.030
unhealthy food on social media.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.86 1.044
Table 5.22 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM)

Table 5.22 shows mean and standard deviations for Social Media Unhealthy Food

Advertisement Exposure (ESM) dimension of which ranged between 3.85 and 3.89. It

is clear that the total mean is (3.86) with a standard deviation of (1.044). In addition,

the highest mean for statement, ESM 1, which states “My child is exposed to advertised

unhealthy food frequently on social media”, while the lowest mean for statement, ESM

2, which states “My child is exposed to advertised unhealthy food for long periods of

time on social media” and ESM 3, which states “My child is repeatedly exposed to

advertisement of unhealthy food on social media”. This reflects the seriousness of social

media advertising on children's health.

5.4.2 Imitation of Parents (IP)

The section represents descriptive statistics of the imitation of parents (IP), which refers

to mothers' or fathers' level of agreement with the following statements about IP as

shown in Table 5.23 below.

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 Statement Mean Standard
Deviation
IP1. My child tends to repeat my unhealthy food purchase 3.19 1.341
behaviour that is advertised on social media.
IP2. My child tends to replicate my unhealthy food purchase 3.08 1.460
behaviour that is advertised on social media.
IP3. My child tends to mimic my unhealthy food purchase 3.17 1.344
behaviour that is advertised on social media.
IP4. My child tends to follow my behaviour when it comes to 3.18 1.383
purchasing healthy food advertised on social media.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.16 1.383
Table 5.23 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Imitation of parents (IP)

Table 5.23 shows mean and standard deviations for Imitation of parents (IP) dimension

of which ranged between 3.08 and 3.19. It is clear that a total mean is (3.16) with a

standard deviation of (1.383). In addition, the highest mean for statement IP 1, which

states “My child tends to repeat my unhealthy food purchase behaviour that is

advertised on social media”, while the lowest mean for statement IP 2, which states

“My child tends to replicate my unhealthy food purchase behaviour that is advertised

on social media”. This indicates the extent to which children attach to social media

advertising and their impact on household purchasing decisions.

5.4.3 Goal Setting (GS)

This section represents goal setting (GS) descriptive statistics, which refers to mothers'

or fathers' level of agreement with the following statements about GS as shown in Table

5.24 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
GS1. My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behaviour 3.16 1.326
of advertised on social media when I repeat it as a parent.
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GS2. My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behaviour 3.18 1.337
of advertised on social media when I fail to exercise self- control
during purchase process as a parent.
GS3. My child tends to repeat unhealthy food purchase behaviour 3.11 1.354
of advertised on social media when I continue to practice this
behaviour as a parent.
GS4. My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behaviour 3.16 1.336
of advertised on social media when I don't show its risks as a
parent.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.15 1.338
Table 5.24 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Goal setting (GS)

Table 5.24 shows mean and standard deviations for goal setting (GS) dimension of

which ranged between 3.11 and 3.18 with a total mean of (3.15) and a standard

deviation of (1.338). In addition, the highest mean for statement GS 2, which states

“My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behaviour of advertised on social

media when I fail to exercise self-control during purchase process as a parent”, while

the lowest mean for statement GS 3, which states “My child tends to repeat unhealthy

food purchase behaviour of advertised on social media when I continue to practice this

behaviour as a parent”. This reflects the extent to which unhealthy food purchase

behaviour on social media affects their children.

5.4.4 Advertising-Based Defensive Formation (ABMF)

This section represents advertising-based defensive formation (ABMF) descriptive

statistics, which refers to mothers' and fathers' level of agreement with the following

statements about ABMF as shown in Table 5.25 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
ABMF1. My child tends to dislike brands associated with 3.01 1.243
unhealthy food advertised on social media.

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ABMF2. My child tends to dislike brands that advertise 3.02 1.351
unhealthy food on social media.
ABMF3. My child tends to be annoyed with brands 2.98 1.346
associated with unhealthy food which are advertised on
social media.
ABMF4. My child tends to stay away from brands that 2.99 1.336
advertise unhealthy food on social media.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.00 1.320
Table 5.25 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF)

Table 5.25 shows mean and standard deviations for Advertising-based Defensive

Memory Formation (ABMF) dimension of which ranged between 2.98 and 3.02 with a

total mean of (3.00) and a standard deviation of (1.320). In addition, the highest mean

for statement ABMF 2, which states “My child tends to dislike brands that advertise

unhealthy food on social media”, while the lowest mean for statement ABMF 3, which

states “My child tends to be annoyed with brands associated with unhealthy food which

are advertised on social media”. This indicates the significant impact of brands and

trademarks associated with unhealthy food advertised on social media on children tend.

5.4.5 Advertising Defensive Memory Application (ABMA)

This section represents advertising defensive memory application (ABMA) descriptive

statistics, which refers to mothers' and fathers' level of agreement with the following

statements about ABMA as shown in Table 5.26 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
ABMA1. My child tends to purchase healthy food 3.08 1.299
advertised on social media.
ABMA2. My child prefers healthy over unhealthy food 3.03 1.374
advertised on social media.
ABMA3. My child tends not to be susceptible to 2.96 1.362
purchasing unhealthy food advertised on social media.

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 ABMA4. My child tends to make a correct purchase 3.09 1.318
decision when it comes to unhealthy food advertised on
social media.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.04 1.339
Table 5.26 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Advertising Defensive Memory Application (ABMA)

Table 5.26 shows means and standard deviations for Advertising Defensive Memory

Application (ABMA) dimension of which ranged between 2.96 and 3.09 with a total

mean of (3.04) and a standard deviation of (1.339). In addition, the highest mean for

statement ABMA 4, which states “My child tends to make a correct purchase decision

when it comes to unhealthy food advertised on social media”, while the lowest mean

for statement ABMA 3, which states “My child tends not to be susceptible to purchasing

unhealthy food advertised on social media”. This reflects the importance of social

media in the lives of children and their impact on their purchasing decisions.

5.4.7 Co-viewing
This section represents co-viewing (CV) descriptive statistics, which refers to mothers'

and fathers' level of agreement with the following statements about CV as shown in

Table 5.27 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
CV1. As a parent, I am aware of what social media 3.22 1.395
platform(s) my child uses.
CV2. As a parent, I am aware of food advertisements 3.19 1.299
viewed by my child on social media.
CV3. As a parent, I monitor food advertisements viewed 3.09 1.333
by my child on social media.
CV4. As a parent, I check food advertisements viewed by 3.16 1.386
my child on social media.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.17 1.354
Table 5.27 : The Mean and Standard Deviations of Co-viewing (CV)

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Table 5.27 shows mean and standard deviations for Co-viewing (CV) dimension of

which ranged between 3.09 and 3.22 with a total mean of (3.17) and a standard

deviation of (1.354). In addition, the highest mean for statement CV 1, which states “As

a parent, I am aware of what social media platform(s) my child uses”, while the lowest

mean for statement CV 3, which states “As a parent, I monitor food advertisements

viewed by my child on social media”. This reflects how important it is to monitor and

follow up children on social media to avoid advertisements that harm children's health.

5.4.7 Parent-Child Communication (PCC)

This section represents parent-child communication (PCC) descriptive statistics, which

refers to mothers' and fathers' level of agreement with the following statements about

PCC as shown in the Table 5.28 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
PCC 1. As a parent, I talk to my child about food 3.09 1.343
advertisement on social media.
PCC 2. As a parent, I discuss with my child the selling 3.09 1.338
tactics used by food advertisers on social media.
PCC 3. As a parent, I communicate to my child the 3.07 1.304
selling intent of food advertisement on social media.
PCC 4. As a parent, I explain to my child the biased 3.08 1.313
nature of food advertisement on social media.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.08 1.325
Table 5.28 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Parent-Child Communication (PCC)

Table 5.28 shows mean and standard deviations for Co-viewing (CV) dimension of

which ranged between 3.09 and 3.22 with a total mean of (3.08) and a standard

deviation of (1.325). In addition, the highest mean for statement CV 1, which states “As

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 a parent, I am aware of what social media platform(s) my child uses”, while the lowest

mean for statement CV 3, which states “As a parent, I monitor food advertisements

viewed by my child on social media”. This indicates the importance of talking to the

children not only about marketing and advertising, but about the specific foods that are

advertised, and the impact of these foods on their health later on.

5.4.8 Rules of Use (RU)

This section represents Rules of Use (RU) descriptive statistics, which refers to

mothers' and fathers' level of agreement with the following statements about RU as

shown in Table 5.29 below.

Statement Mean Standard

Deviation
RU 1. As a parent, I monitor the use of specific social 3.01 1.325
media platforms by my child to lessen unhealthy
advertisement exposure.
RU 2. As a parent, I restrict my child from specific social 3.05 1.354
media platforms to lessen unhealthy advertisement
exposure.
RU 3. As a parent, I restrict my child to specific hours of 3.03 1.389
use that he/she uses social media platforms to lessen
unhealthy advertisement exposure.
RU 4. As a parent, I use parental software/ program to 2.92 1.475
monitor my child’s use of social media to lessen unhealthy
advertisement exposure.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.00 1.387
Table 5.29 The Mean and Standard Deviations of Rules of Use (RU)

Table 5.29 shows mean and standard deviations for Rules of use (RU) dimension of

which ranged between 2.92 and 3.05 with a total mean is (3.00) and a standard deviation

of (1.387). In addition, the highest mean for statement RU 2, which states “As a parent,

I restrict my child from specific social media platforms to lessen unhealthy

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 advertisement exposure”, while the lowest mean for statement RU 4, which states “As

a parent, I use parental software/program to monitor my child’s use of social media to

lessen unhealthy advertisement exposure”. This indicates the importance of follow-up

children on social media, and sometimes taking strict measures.

5.4.9 If, then heuristic Strategy (IH)

This section represents if, then heuristic strategy (IH) descriptive statistics, which refers

to mothers' and fathers' level of agreement with the following statements about IH as

shown in Table 5.30 below.

Statement Mean SD
IH 1. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a 3.22 1.328
healthier option when they are purchasing food
advertised on social media to maintain a good health
condition.
IH 2. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a 3.21 1.395
healthier option when they are purchasing food
advertised on social media to maintain healthy body
weight.
IH 3. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a 3.26 1.375
healthier option when they are purchasing food
advertised on social media to maintain better lifestyle.
IH 4. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a 3.24 1.379
healthier option when they are purchasing food
advertised on social media to maintain a healthy body
shape.
Total Mean and Standard Deviation 3.23 1.369
Table 5.30 The Mean and Standard Deviations of If, then heuristic strategy (IH)

Table 5.30 shows mean and standard deviations for If, and then heuristic strategy (IH)

dimension of which ranged between 3.21 and 3.26 with a total mean is (3.23) and a

standard deviation of (1.369). In addition, the highest mean for statement IH 3, which

states “As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a healthier option when they are

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purchasing food advertised on social media to maintain better lifestyle”, while the

lowest mean for statement IH 2, which states “As a parent, I encourage my child to go

for a healthier option when they are purchasing food advertised on social media to

maintain healthy body weight”. This reflects the great role played by parents in

encouraging children to buy healthier meals.

5.5 Correlation Matrix

Regarding the dimensions of the research; Co-Viewing (CV), Rules of Use (RU),

Parent-Child Communication (PCC), Imitation of Parents (IP), goal setting (GS),

heuristic strategy (IH), Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM),

Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF), and Advertising Defensive

Memory Application (ABMA), and a correlation matrix test was run to ensure that

multicollinearity was avoided. Table 5.31 shows the correlation matrix between all

dimensions of research. Moreover, the correlation matrix shows many strong

correlations as there are correlation coefficients that are higher than 0.7. On the other

hand, it was noted that there are some weak correlation, however, in spite of its

weakness, the value of Pearson correlation coefficient was significant at α= 1%.

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 ESM IP GS ABMF ABMA CV PCC RU IH

Pearson Correlation 1 0.425** 0.375** -0.364** -0.376** -0.336** -0.352** -0.384** -0.366**

ESM Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662

Pearson Correlation 0.425** 1 0.924** -0.737** -0.755** -0.695** -0.700** -0.731** -0.689**
IP Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
Pearson Correlation 0.375** 0.924** 1 -0.765** -0.787** -0.716** -0.739** -0.745** -0.712**
GS Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
Pearson Correlation -0.364** -0.737** -0.765** 1 0.906** 0.798** 0.834** 0.844** 0.787**
ABMF Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
Pearson Correlation -0.376** -0.755** -0.787** 0.906** 1 0.834** 0.874** 0.870** 0.844**
ABMA Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
Pearson Correlation -0.336** -0.695** -0.716** 0.798** 0.834** 1 0.865** 0.850** 0.826**
CV Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
Pearson Correlation -0.352** -0.700** -0.739** 0.834** 0.874** 0.865** 1 0.908** 0.861**
PCC Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
RU Pearson Correlation -0.384** -0.731** -0.745** 0.844** 0.870** 0.850** 0.908** 1 0.866**

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 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662
Pearson Correlation -0.366** -0.689** -0.712** 0.787** 0.844** 0.826** 0.861** 0.866** 1

IH Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

N 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662 662

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 5.31 The Correlation Matrix

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5.6 Path Analysis

In this research, there are two moderating variables (A parental intervention at exposure

stage and a parental intervention at purchase stage) and one mediating variable

(advertising-based defensive memory formation). In order to test proposed hypotheses,

path analysis with AMOS was used as shown in Figure 5.11. In the next sections,

outcomes of path analysis will be used to examine the effect of mediating and

moderating variables separately.

Figure 5.11 Path Analysis Model

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5.7 Mediation Effect

In this research, advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF) acts as

mediating variable to show its effect on the relationship between social media unhealthy

food advertisement exposure (ESM) and advertising-based defensive memory

application (ABMA). Path analysis results were used to illustrate the mediation effects

of advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF). Table 5.32 shows that

ESM → ABMF and ABMF → ABMA paths, which form indirect effect, were

significant, which support the first main hypothesis (H1), which states that “Social

Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure has a negative effect on advertising-

based defensive memory formation”, and the third main hypothesis (H3), which states

that, “Advertising-based defensive memory formation has a positive effect on

advertising- based defensive memory application”. In addition, Table 5.32 shows that

the value of indirect effect (-.012*0.69= -0.08) is larger than the value of direct effect

(-0.07), which indicates that advertising-based defensive memory formation mediate

partially between social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM) and

advertising-based defensive memory application (ABMA). In addition, table (5.32)

shows that ESM → ABMF, ABMF → ABMA, and ESM → ABMA are significant, as

well as the sign of multiplication of -0.012*0.69*-0.07 is positive, which means that

the mediating effect is complementary partial mediation (Nitzl, Roldan and Cepeda,

2016; Zhao, Lynch and Chen, 2010). In other words, Advertising-based defensive

memory formation (ABMF) partially mediates the effect of Social Media Unhealthy

food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) on advertising-based defensive memory

application (ABMA).

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 Estimate P

ABMF <--- ESM -0.12 0.000

ABMF <--- PCC 0.66 0.000

ABMF <--- RU -0.32 0.000

ABMF <--- CV 0.43 0.000

ABMA <--- ABMF 0.69 0.000

ABMA <--- IH 0.40 0.000

ABMA<--- GS -0.06 0.000

ABMA <--- IP -0.29 0.000

ABMA <--- ESM -0.07 0.002

Table 5.32 Standardized Regression Weights

Figures 5.12 and 5.13 below, show the direct and indirect effect on advertising-based

defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-based defensive memory

application (ABMA) paths, as all paths are direct effect, except ESM → ABMF and

ABMF → ABMA paths, which confirms the mediating role of advertising-based

defensive memory formation (ABMF), despite the presence of negative significant

effects, but this does not affect the validity of hypotheses 1 and 3 (P < 0.05).

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 Figure 5.12 Total Effects of Direct and Indirect Paths on Advertising- Based Defensive Memory Formation
(ABMF)

Figure 5.13 Total Effects of Direct and Indirect Paths on Advertising-Based Defensive Memory Application
(ABMA)

5.8 Moderation Effect

As mentioned above, parental intervention at exposure stage and parental intervention

at purchase stage are two moderator variables, as a parental intervention at exposure

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stage (parent-child communication, rules of use, and co-viewing) was to moderate the

relationship between social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM) and

advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF), while parental intervention at

purchase stage (if, then heuristic strategy, repeated self-regulation behaviour, and

imitation of parents) was to moderate the relationship between advertising-based

defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-based defensive memory

application (ABMA). In this research, path analysis outcomes were used to test the sub

hypotheses 2 and 4.

5.8.1 Testing Moderation Hypotheses at Exposure Stage

The Figure 5.14 below shows the moderating role of a parental intervention at exposure

stage (parent-child communication, rules of use, and co-viewing) between Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising based memory formation.

This hypothesis is tested by verifying the sub hypotheses, as follows:

Figure 5.14 The moderating role of a parental intervention at exposure stage (PCC, RU, and CV)
between ESM and ABMF

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5.8.1.1 The First Sub Hypothesis

The first sub hypothesis states that Parent-child communication moderates the

relationship between Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and

advertising-based defensive memory formation, such that the effect of social media

unhealthy food advertisement exposure will be weaker (stronger) for parents that use

(do not use) the parent-child communication intervention on advertising-based

defensive memory formation.

Figure 5.15 The Moderating Role of Parent-Child Communication on the Relationship between Social Media
Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) and Advertising-Based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMF <--- ESM*PCC -0.099 0.056 -1.763 0.002 Significant

Table 5.33 The Moderating Effect of ESM*PCC on ABMF

Table 5.33 shows the moderating role of parent-child communication on the

relationship between social media unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM) and

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advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF). Table 5.33 shows that the

interaction of ESM and PCC on ABMF is negative (-.099), which indicates that the

moderating variable (PCC) strengthens the negative relationship between ESM and

ABMF. In other words, as ESM increases by 1 unit, ABMF decreases by (-0.12 - 0.099

= -0.219) units with the Parent–Child Communication compared to (-0.12) units

decrease in ABMF without Parent–Child Communication as shown in Figure 5.15,

where the blue colour refers to the impact of ESM on ABMF and the orange colour

refers to the impact of (ESM*PCC) on ABMF. Also, Table 5.33 shows that P value is

significant, which is less than 0.05, leading to acceptance of the first sub hypothesis

(H2a). Therefore, parent-child communication was found to have significant

moderating effect on the relationship between ESM and ABMF. As, the hypothesis for

the main effect (ABMF <--- ESM) still significant after enter PCC into the model, the

type of moderation is partial.

5.8.1.2 The Second Sub Hypothesis

The second sub hypothesis states that Rules of Use moderates the relationship between

Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive

memory formation, such that the effect of social media unhealthy food advertisement

exposure will be weaker (stronger) for parents that use (do not use) the rules of use

intervention on advertising-based defensive memory formation.

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Figure 5.16 The Moderating Role of Rules of Use on the Relationship between Social Media Unhealthy Food
Advertisement Exposure (ESM) and Advertising-Based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMF <--- ESM*RU 0.179 0.053 3.347 0.000 Significant

Table 5.34 The Moderating Effect of ESM*RU on ABMF

Table 5.34 shows the moderating role of rule of use on the relationship between social

media unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM) and advertising-based defensive

memory formation (ABMF). It shows that the interaction of ESM and RU on ABMF is

positive (0.179), which indicates that the moderating variable (RU) dampens the

negative relationship between ESM and ABMF. In other words, as ESM increases by

1 unit, ABMF increases by (-0.12 + 0.179 = 0.059) units with the Rules of Use in

comparison to a decrease of -0.12 units without the Rules of Use as shown in Figure

5.16, where the blue colour refers to the relation between ESM and ABMF and the

orange colour refers to the relation between (ESM*RU) and ABMF. Also, Table 5.34

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shows that P value is significant, which is less than 0.05, leading to acceptance of the

second sub hypothesis (H2b). Therefore, rule of use is found to have significant

moderating effect on the relationship between ESM and ABMF. Since the hypothesis

for the main effect (ABMF <--- ESM) is still significant after incorporating RU in the

model, the type of moderation is partial.

5.8.1.3 The Third Sub Hypothesis

The third sub hypothesis states that Co-viewing moderates the relationship between

Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive

memory formation, such that the effect of social media unhealthy food advertisement

exposure will be weaker (stronger) for parents that use (do not use) the co-viewing

intervention on advertising-based defensive memory formation.

Figure 5.17 The Moderating Role of Co-viewing on the Relationship between Social Media Unhealthy Food
Advertisement Exposure (ESM) and Advertising-Based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF)

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 Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMF <--- ESM*CV -0.061 0.038 -1.631 0.003 Significant

Table 5.35 The Moderating Effect of ESM*CV on ABMF

Table 5.35 shows the moderating role of co-viewing on the relationship between social

media unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM) and advertising-based defensive

memory formation (ABMF). It shows that the interaction of ESM and CV on ABMF is

negative (-0.061), which indicates that the moderating variable (CV) strengthens the

negative relationship between ESM and ABMF. In other words, as ESM increases by

1 unit, ABMF increases by (-0.12 - 0.061 = -0.181) units with the co-viewing in

comparison to a decrease of -0.12 units without the co-viewing as shown in Figure 5.17,

where the blue colour refers to the relation between ESM and ABMF and the orange

colour refers to the relation between (ESM*CV) and ABMF. Also, table 5.35 shows

that P value is significant, which is less than 0.05, leading to acceptance of the third sub

hypothesis (H2c). Therefore, co-viewing was found to have significant moderating

effect on the relationship between ESM and ABMF. Since the hypothesis for the main

effect (ABMF <--- ESM) still significant after CV enters the model, the type of

moderation is partial.

5.8.2 Testing Moderation Hypotheses at Consumption Stage

Figure 5.18 below shows the moderating role of a parental intervention at purchase

stage (if, then heuristic strategy, repeated self-regulation behaviour, and imitation of

parents) between advertising based memory formation and advertising based memory

application. This hypothesis is tested by verifying the sub hypotheses, as follows:

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 5.8.2.1
Figure 5.18 The moderating role of a parental intervention at purchase stage (IH, GS, and
IP) between ABMF and ABMA
The Fourth

Sub Hypothesis

The fourth sub hypothesis states that If, then heuristic strategy moderates the

relationship between advertising-based defensive memory formation and advertising

based memory application, such that the effect of advertising-based defensive memory

formation will be stronger (weaker) for parents that use (do not use) the if, then heuristic

intervention on the advertising-based defensive memory application.

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Figure 5.19 The Moderating Role of If, Then Heuristic Strategy on the Relationship between Advertising-Based
Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF) and advertising-based defensive memory application (ABMA)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMA <--- ABMF*IH Not

-0.049 0.011 -4.413 0.078
Significant

Table 5.36 The Moderating Effect of ABMF*IH on ABMA

Table 5.36 shows the moderating role of if, then heuristic strategy on the relationship

between advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-

based defensive memory application (ABMA). It shows that the interaction of ABMF

and IH on ABMA is negative (-0.049), which indicates that the moderating variable

(IH) dampens the positive relationship between ABMF and ABMA. In other words, as

ABMF increases by 1 unit, ABMA increases by (0.69 – 0.049 = 0.641) units with the

if, then heuristic strategy in comparison to a decrease of 0.69 units without the if, then

heuristic strategy as shown in Figure 5.19, where the blue colour refers to the relation

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between ABMF and ABMA and the orange colour refers to the relation between

(ABMF*IH) and ABMA. Also, Table 5.36 shows that P value is not significant, which

is more than 0.05, leading to rejection of the first sub hypothesis (H4a). Therefore, then

heuristic strategy had no moderating effect on the relationship between ABMF and

ABMA.

5.8.2.2 The Fifth Sub Hypothesis

The fifth Hypothesis states that Goal Setting moderates the relationship between

advertising-based defensive memory formation and advertising based memory

application, such that the effect of advertising-based defensive memory formation will

be stronger (weaker) for parents that use (do not use) the goal setting intervention on

the advertising-based defensive memory application.

Figure 5.20 The Moderating Role of Goal Setting on the Relationship between Advertising-Based Defensive
Memory Formation (ABMF) and advertising-based defensive memory application (ABMA)

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 Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMA <--- ABMF*GS -0.081 0.032 -2.536 *** Significant

Table 5.37 The Moderating Effect of ABMF*GS on ABMA

Table 5.37 shows the moderating role of goal setting on the relationship between

advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-based

defensive memory application (ABMA). It shows that the interaction of ABMF and GS

on ABMA is negative (-0.081), which indicates that the moderating variable (GS)

dampens the positive relationship between ABMF and ABMA. In other words, as

ABMF increases by 1 unit, ABMA increases by (0.69 - 0.081 = 0.609) units with the

goal setting in comparison to a decrease of 0.69 units without the goal setting as shown

in Figure 5.20, where the blue colour refers to the relation between ABMF and ABMA

and the orange colour refers to the relation between (ABMF*GS) and ABMA. Also,

Table 5.37 shows that P value is significant, which is less than 0.05, leading to

acceptance of the second sub hypothesis (H4b). Therefore, goal setting was found to

have significant moderating effect on the relationship between ABMF and ABMA.

Since the hypothesis for the main effect (ABMA <--- ABMF) is still significant after

GS enters the model, the type of moderation is partial.

5.8.2.3 The Sixth Sub Hypothesis

Imitation of parents moderates the relationship between advertising-based defensive

memory formation and advertising based memory application, such that the effect of

advertising-based defensive memory formation will be stronger (weaker) for parents

that use (do not use) the imitation of parents intervention on the advertising-based

defensive memory application.

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Figure 5.21 The Moderating Role of Imitation of Parents on The Relationship between Advertising-Based
Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF) and advertising-based defensive memory application (ABMA)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMA <--- ABMF*IP 0.097 0.031 3.156 *** Significant

Table 5.38 The Moderating Effect of ABMF*IP on ABMA

Table 5.38 shows the moderating role of imitation of parents on the relationship

between advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-

based defensive memory application (ABMA). It shows that the interaction of ABMF

and IP on ABMA is positive (0.097), which indicates that the moderating variable (IP)

strengthens the positive relationship between ABMF and ABMA. In other words, as

ABMF increases by 1 unit, ABMA increases by (0.69 + 0.097 = 0.787) units with the

imitation of parents in comparison to a decrease of 0.69 units without the imitation of

parents as shown in Figure 5.21, where the blue colour refers to the relation between

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ABMF and ABMA and the orange colour refers to the relation between (ABMF*IP)

and ABMA. Also, Table 5.38 shows that P value is significant, which is less than 0.05,

leading to acceptance of the third sub hypothesis (H4c). Therefore, imitation of parents

is found to have significant moderating effect on the relationship between ABMF and

ABMA. Since the hypothesis for the main effect (ABMA <--- ABMF) is still significant

after entering IP into the model, the type of moderation is partial.

5.9 Summary

As summarized in this chapter, the results showed that the mean and standard deviations

for all research dimensions and statements were good. In this research, The Kaiser-

Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's test were used to measure sampling adequacy.

Moreover, the results showed that there was a significant impact of social media

unhealthy food advertisement exposure (ESM) on advertising-based defensive memory

formation (ABMF). Moreover, the study concluded that there was a significant impact

of parent-child communication (PCC), co-viewing (CV), and rules of use (RU) on

advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF). In addition, it was found that

there was a significant impact of advertising-based defensive memory formation

(ABMF) on advertising defensive memory application (ABMA). Furthermore, the

research concluded that there was a significant impact of goal setting (GS) and imitation

of parents (IP) on advertising defensive memory application (ABMA). Also, the

research concluded that there was no significant impact of heuristic strategy (IH) on

advertising defensive memory application (ABMA).

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 Chapter 6 : Discussion

6.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter, outcomes of the data analysis conducted on the collected data

were presented. The present study aimed at investigating how parental interventions

with regard to social media food advertising influence children's food buying

behaviour. This chapter will discuss the research results in relation to the research

questions against the background of previous research covered in the literature review.

Also, this research presented a number of hypotheses related to the nature of the

relationship between the variables of the study. Moreover, this research reached several

results which contributed to solving the problems and discussing hypotheses. Also, in

this chapter, the results of this study will be compared with previous studies, and as

well the similarities and differences will be presented, thus giving the reader an

opportunity to benefit from them in the optimal manner.

6.2 Results and Analysis of Research Variables

The results showed that the mean of all research variables were good. As Social Media

Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) dimension obtained the highest mean

(3.86), followed by If, then heuristic strategy (IH) dimension (3.23), while Advertising-

based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF) and Rules of use (RU) dimensions

obtained the lowest mean (3.00) as shown in the below table. The reason for this is the

diversity of questions and contradictory ideas from which the researcher attempted to

devise results in a realistic manner, which in turn reflects the validity of the study.

Moreover, this may be due to the inability of parents to control the behaviour of children

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 on social networking sites as well as the desire of children to access unhealthy food

advertised through those media. Scientific research in this area, especially in Europe,

including the United Kingdom, and the United States of America, has carried out

comprehensive studies and evidence review of the impact of food advertising on

influencing the behaviour of children and adolescents in the selection and preference of

certain foods and beverages (Clarke and Svanaes, 2014). It has been noticed that there

exist far less number of studies in Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries that

investigated the impact of social media on the eating behaviours of children. This calls

for a study to elaborate the extent to which the social media advertising influence eating

behaviour and nutritional status of children.

Statement
Total Mean
Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) 3.86
Imitation of Parents (IP) 3.16
Goal setting(GS) 3.15
Advertising-Based Defensive Formation (ABMF) 3.00
Advertising Defensive Memory Application (ABMA) 3.04
Co-viewing (CV) 3.17
Parent-Child Communication (PCC) 3.08
Rules of Use (RU) 3.00
If, Then Heuristic Strategy (IH) 3.23
Table 6.1 The Mean of Research Variables

6.3 Mediation Effect of Advertising-Based Defensive Memory Formation (ABMF)

In this research, path analysis results were used to illustrate the mediation effects of

advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF). As ABMF acts as a mediating

variable to show its effect on the relationship between social media unhealthy food

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advertisement exposure (ESM) and advertising-based defensive memory application

(ABMA). As shown in table below, ESM → ABMF and ABMF → ABMA paths,

which are indirect effect, were significant, and support the first main hypothesis (H1),

which stated that “Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure has a

negative effect on advertising-based defensive memory formation”, and the third main

hypothesis (H3), which stated that, “Advertising-based defensive memory formation

has a positive effect on advertising-based defensive memory application”. The table

below show all paths were significant except ABMA <--- IH. This will be discussed

later in more detail in this chapter.

Estimate P

ABMF <--- ESM -0.12 ***

ABMF <--- PCC 0.66 ***

ABMF <--- RU -0.32 ***

ABMF <--- CV 0.43 ***

ABMA <--- ABMF 0.69 ***

ABMA <--- IH 0.40 0.07

ABMA<--- GS -0.06 ***

ABMA <--- IP -0.29 ***

ABMA <--- ESM -0.07 0.002

Table 6.2 Standardized Regression Weights

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6.4 Moderation Effect of Parental Intervention at Exposure Stage and Purchase

Stage

In this research, path analysis outcomes were used to show moderation effect of

parental intervention at exposure stage and purchase stage, parental intervention at

exposure stage and parental intervention at purchase stage are two moderator variables,

as a parental intervention at exposure stage (parent-child communication, rules of use,

and co-viewing) was to moderate the relationship between social media unhealthy food

advertisement exposure (ESM) and advertising-based defensive memory formation

(ABMF), while parental intervention at purchase stage (if, then heuristic strategy, goal

setting, and imitation of parents) was to moderate the relationship between advertising-

based defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-based defensive memory

application (ABMA).

Table 6.3 shows the moderating role of a parental intervention at exposure stage

(parent-child communication, rules of use, and co-viewing) between Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising based memory formation. The

results showed that parent-child communication, rules of use, and co-viewing had the

ability to moderate the relationship between Social Media Unhealthy food

Advertisement Exposure and advertising based memory formation.

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMF <---ESM*PCC -0.099 0.056 -1.763 0.002 Significant

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ABMF <--- ESM*RU 0.179 0.053 3.347 *** Significant

ABMF <--- ESM*CV -0.061 0.038 -1.631 0.003 Significant

Table 6.3 The Moderating Effect of Parental Intervention at Exposure Stage

On the other hand, table 6.4 shows the moderating role of a parental intervention at the

purchase stage (if, then heuristic strategy, goal setting, and imitation of parents)

between advertising-based defensive memory formation (ABMF) and advertising-

based defensive memory application (ABMA). The results showed that goal setting and

imitation of parents had the ability to moderate the relationship between Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising based memory formation. The

if-then heuristic strategy failed to moderate the relationship between Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising based memory formation.

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Results

ABMA <---ABMF*IH Not

-0.049 .011 -4.413 0.078
Significant

ABMA <--ABMF*GS -0.081 0.032 -2.536 *** Significant

ABMA <--- ABMF*IP 0.097 0.031 3.156 *** Significant

Table 6.4 The Moderating Effect of Parental Intervention at Purchase Stage

6.5 Discussion Hypotheses Testing Results

H1: Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure has a negative effect on

advertising-based defensive memory formation.

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The results showed a statistically significant effect for Social Media Unhealthy food

Advertisement Exposure on advertising-based defensive memory formation. The

children are a target of advertisements, which in turn become a source of concern for

the parents, professionals and policymakers (Story and French, 2004). Advertisers

know how to affect the child, especially those under the age of fifteen as children tend

to mimic the content of social media advertising, particularly when they see their

cartoon character connected with a specific product. Children remain victims of social

media advertising, which address them directly. At the same time, social media

advertisers are claiming that advertising for children has made fantastic profits

(Eggerton, 2007). The profits of those companies came from promoting their products

on social media (i.e. promoting food, clothing and games) (Boyland and Whalen, 2015).

Companies claim that they have won the customers of the future, as the child develops

an associative memory of these brand images, and becomes attached favourite,

especially in relation to fast food, which studies have shown to cause health problems,

which is one accepted hypothesis of this thesis in alignment with previous studies

(Brownell and Horgen, 2004; Kraak, Gootman and McGinnis, 2006). On the other

hand, there are other companies who exploit the children themselves to be an instrument

of influence in their peers, through the formation of advertising child stars who promote

companies' products (Gaber and Wright, 2014; Henderson et al., 2009).

Unhealthy food advertising also affects children and facilitates a culture of

consumerism, thus leading to excessive intake of advertised, especially if those foods

contain large amounts of carbohydrates, fat, and sugars, ultimately causing obesity in

children since (Kelly et al., 2015). With obesity, there is an increase in certain diseases

such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol, which leads to an increased risk of

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heart disease, in addition to the risk of diabetes, and health problems. Obesity also

causes social and psychological problems in children (Kraak and Story, 2015;

Galbraith‐Emami and Lobstein, 2013; Kunkel, Castonguay and Filer, 2015).

Current evidence has shown that advertising food in different advertising methods has

a significant impact on how food is selected as well as child buying behaviour,

(Strasburger et al., 2013). Developing countries, including GCC, are following the same

marketing and promotion techniques as developed countries (Hama Kareem et al.,

2016). Calling for the attention of concerned parties as well research in this area. The

current study addresses this concern and is consistent with previous studies that obesity

in children has multiple causes such as of them being advertising, and the increase use

of modern means of communication such as social media (Harris et al., 2012). As

parents often do not pay attention to the sheer volume of such advertisements since they

specifically target children. World Health Organization (World Health Organization,

2006), as well as other researchers, criticized governments for failing to keep pace with

the current revolution in the way that people consume the media (World Health

Organization, 2006; Harris and Graff, 2012; Ogba and Johnson, 2010). Paediatricians

called for strict measures to stop the spread of obesity among children (Kunkel et al.,

2004). Reports pointed out how some video bloggers get money from fast-food vendors

to promote this type of food, as US analysts reported the growing impact of video

bloggers in promoting brands more than the impact of television, because of their

growing confidence. It also raised concerns about how fast food chains attract children's

attention by making them important sites in enhanced reality games (Clarke and

Svanaes, 2014). These sites collected data from children such as age, location, and what

they liked and preferred to include in fast food advertising. Furthermore, advertisements

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spread very fast through social media and the current rules and regulations for such

platforms have gaps. Adding to that, parents do not know, and sometimes, do not realize

that children are exposed to such huge amount of commercials. It can be said that social

media to be more alarming than traditional media such as television (Galbraith‐Emami

and Lobstein, 2013; Kotler, Schiffman and Hanson, 2012; Ferguson, Munoz and

Medrano, 2012).

As a result of the above discussion, it is clear that social media advertising influence

the preferences and memory structures of children as it has been confirmed in this thesis

as well. Once children form these preferences, associations and memory structures,

their buying behaviour will ultimately be affected as it is hypothesized H3: Advertising-

based defensive memory formation has a positive effect on advertising-based defensive

memory application.

The results of this study showed a statistically significant effect for Advertising-based

defensive memory formation on advertising-based defensive memory application. This

is due to the significant impact of brands and trademarks associated with food

advertised on social media on children. Advertising communication works to add

importance and value to the advertised products, as it usually dependent on the process

of defining and informing children of products and services, which may give them a

degree of importance as a result of the positive impact targeted on child’s perceptions

of the advertised product. Researchers found that these brands and trademarks were

marketed online in a way that made them attractive in the eyes of children. They

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referred to animations, games, and content on social networking sites as key means

(Swist et al., 2015; Folta et al., 2006).

Children are more likely to fall for advertising companies’ claims due to the

abovementioned reasons. Previous studies stated that parents often are not around their

children as a result of working conditions, resulting in children being guided and

influenced by commercial sources. Children are also targeted, as companies focus on

children to create loyalty to brands. Studies claim that a child of six years can form

mental images of corporate logos (Mills, 2016; Strasburger, Jordan and Donnerstein,

2010). This is consistent with the advertising models discussed in chapter 2 as well as

with the two hypotheses in this thesis (H1 and H3).

Moving forward to discussing the other hypotheses related to parental interventions at

the exposure stage, the following sub-hypotheses are raised:

H2a: Parent-child communication moderates the relationship between Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive memory

formation

Parent-child communication was found to have a significant moderating effect on the

relationship between ESM and ABMF. Since the hypothesis for the main effect (ABMF

<--- ESM) is still significant after PCC enters the model, based on that, the type of

moderation is partial. This study showed that PCC has a moderation effect that dampens

the negative effect of unhealthy food advertisements on the advertising-based defensive

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memory formation (ABMF). The result is consistent with previous literature stating that

parents who communicate with their children can help them understand the marketing

mechanism, how these companies attracts them, and understand the selling intent of

these commercials (Harris and Graff, 2012; Van Reijmersdal et al., 2017). As

mentioned before, many studies have shown that the exposure of children to social

media and their persistence in watching advertisement may lead to a certain behaviour

such as imitate lifestyles displayed in commercials, as well as exposure to tempting

commercials that promote unhealthy foods and drinks leads to affecting their eating

behaviour and diet (Hama Kareem et al., 2016; Ogba and Johnson, 2010).

This research showed that GCC parents who talked, discussed, explained to their

children about unhealthy food advertisements on social media were successful in

mitigating the effect of the effects of those advertisements. Researchers found that

many of those advertisements were about unhealthy food (Kraak and Story, 2015;

Kunkel, Castonguay and Filer, 2015).

Parents should be involved in communicating and educating children about social

media advertising, especially, in light of the preoccupation of parents with work.

Overlooking the benefits of parent-child communication leaves a wide gap for children

with the absence of dialogue and the increase use of social media to be more susceptible

to fall for unhealthy food advertising resulting in unhealthy eating behaviour (Kotler,

Schiffman and Hanson, 2012; Ferguson, Munoz and Medrano, 2012).

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Previously, the influence of children on parent's purchase decisions discussed by

researchers (Galbraith‐Emami and Lobstein, 2013). As a result, parents need to be fully

aware of their responsibility in protecting their children from the dangers of unhealthy

food advertising, and understand the seriousness of these advertisements and their duty

to face these media campaigns targeting children. One of the first steps can be taken in

the first stage of advertising process as confirmed by this hypothesis (parent-child

communication or PCC). Starting the conversation with children about these

advertisements and how they work is essential.

As for the next hypothesis, H2b: Rules of Use moderate the relationship between Social

Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive

memory formation.

Rules of use were found to have a significant moderating effect on the relationship

between ESM and ABMF. Since the hypothesis for the main effect (ABMF <--- ESM)

still significant after RU enters the model, based on that, the type of moderation is

partial. This study showed that RU has a moderation effect that dampens the negative

effect of unhealthy food advertisements on the advertising-based defensive memory

formation (ABMF). The result is in line with previous literature stating that the amount

of social media use as well as the platforms utilized should be regulated and monitored.

It is necessary to impose certain rules on children when using social media, for example,

agreeing on timing, number of hours to spend and the platform of social media used.

Also, parents can use specific restriction software/tools monitor types of advertising is

watched children (Strasburger, Jordan and Donnerstein, 2010). Also, many other

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strategies can be developed to guard children from the effects of social media unhealthy

food advertising. These strategies include the development and use of ad-skipping or

ad-blocking software or programs (e.g. Adblock Plus) (Galbraith‐Emami and Lobstein,

2013). The Federal Trade Committee has suggested anti-tracking software for users

of smartphone that would block tracking by advertising companies (Williams, 2013).

However, the challenge for such programs is that advertisements are changing and

adapting. Adding to that, these programs are not able to block neither product

placement nor other indirect marketing tactics. (Eagle and Dahl, 2018; Kelly et al.,

2015).

Parents monitoring children's activity and their efforts to reduce the time of social media

and modern technology use can lessen the probability and limits the chance of those

children to be subjected to unhealthy food advertising (Gaber and Wright, 2014;

Henderson et al., 2009). This conclusion is supported by previous studies on traditional

media which reported children in that one every four commercials is for food, half of

them promoting unhealthy food options (Keller and Schulz, 2010). On the other hand,

unhealthy food advertisements are no longer limited to television, but have also

penetrated modern media, social networking sites, video games, and many more. This

means that the child is exposed to the more commercials for unhealthy food from every

side, and this negatively affects food choices, health and diet (Galbraith‐Emami and

Lobstein, 2013; Kunkel, Castonguay and Filer, 2015).

This research confirmed that parents in the GCC have to regulate the use of social media

and monitor what is related to the world of children and the subsequent assessment,

guidance, and direction for formation of a better association memory and preferences

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that eventually is translated to a better food choice. The current research highlighted

one of the reasons for the deterioration of the health of children in the GCC region being

the absence of family supervision, lack of strict rules for social media use and distance

from the family as an educational institution and as an important and irreplaceable

guide. There has been a discussion on advertising restrictions to reduce pressure on

parents and help minimize the negative implications of those commercials (Keller and

Schulz, 2010; Galbraith‐Emami and Lobstein, 2013; Kotler, Schiffman and Hanson,

2012).

For the third sub-hypothesis, H2c: Co-viewing moderates the relationship between

Social Media Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure and advertising-based defensive

memory formation.

Co-viewing was found to have significant moderating effect on the relationship

between ESM and ABMF. Since the hypothesis for the main effect (ABMF <--- ESM)

still significant after CV enters the model, based on that, the type of moderation is

partial. This study showed that CV has a moderation effect that dampens the negative

effect of unhealthy food advertisements on the advertising-based defensive memory

formation (ABMF). This is consistent with previous studies urging parents to monitor

their children and follow up on how they are dealing with these new technologies, as

well as ensuring the type and magnitude of commercials their children are exposed

(Büttner, Florack and Serfas, 2014). In addition, the frequent use of these sophisticated

technologies slowly pulls parents' control over their children (Mills, 2016; Strasburger,

Jordan and Donnerstein, 2010). This research emphasized on the role of parents in the

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GCC in observing children well, especially, at the beginning of their lives while

browsing social media sites. Taking into account the openness of the environment and

the fact that dissemination of information happens in less than a second, parents must

be present with their children, checking the fitness of commercialized messages

children are exposed to as well as participating in the dialogue to advise about the

harmful effects of unhealthy foods and the advantages and disadvantages of social

media.

Following the discussion of the hypotheses related to parental interventions at the

consumption stage, the following sub-hypothesis are raised:

H4a: If, then heuristic strategy moderates the relationship between advertising-based

defensive memory formation and advertising based memory application. This

hypothesis was rejected. The reason for this might be due to the fact that if, then

heuristic is an intervention that delegate control to the implicit system passing first

through the explicit system. This means that If, then heuristic techniques are formed by

the explicit system by thinking and planning, but the implementation operates in an

implicit, automatic way (Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2009). Literature about the social

development of children clearly state that children under 12 years old possess lower

cognitive capabilities and skills to process information explicitly (Piaget, 1952; John,

1999; Roedder, 1981; Selman, 1980). This intervention has an element that depends on

explicit processes that requires certain thinking capabilities that children ages 8 to 12

might not have.

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Another reason can be attributed to the fact that every attempt of parents is undermined

by the pressure and intensity of advertisements of fast foods and drinks that intrude on

their children's lives from every side (Strasburger, Jordan and Donnerstein, 2010). As

many researchers have pointed out, these advertisements are increasingly evolving

(Wilson and Wood, 2004), not only in quantitative terms, but in the ways and ideas of

these advertisements, which are based on sophisticated marketing ideas and

psychological play on children, specifically at points of sale, which is where the of, then

heuristic intervention is suggested (stage 2 of the advertising process) (Hama Kareem

et al., 2016).

In addition, advertisements have a negative impact on children in a way that make them

excessive buyers (Henderson et al., 2009). This causes them to reject their family reality

and directions needed or if, then heuristic to work creating conflict inside children

themselves, which often causes them to be frustrated, resorting to abnormal behaviour

to obtain the necessary money to satisfy their desire caused by external factors,

advertisements being one of them (Livingstone and Helsper, 2004; Ogba and Johnson,

2010).

H4b: Goal setting moderates the relationship between advertising-based defensive

memory formation and advertising based memory application

Goal setting was found to have a significant moderating effect on the relationship

between ABMF and ABMA, since the hypothesis for the main effect (ABMA <---

ABMF) is still significant after GS enters the model, based on that, the type of

moderation is partial. This study showed that GS has a moderation effect that

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strengthens the positive effect of advertising-based defensive memory formation

(ABMF) on advertising-based defensive memory application (ABMA). This result is

consistent with reviewed literature that states setting goals for a healthier lifestyle will

eventually result in a better purchase decision. Studies showed a correlation between

setting goals for children to live healthy and them making a healthier choice when

buying food (Ebbeling, Pawlak and Ludwi, 2002).

The results of this study showed that children tend to stick to unhealthy food purchase

behaviour of advertised on social media when parents do not set the correct goals for

them (i.e. setting incorrect lifestyles). As mentioned by Büttner, Florack and Serfas

(2014), this type of intervention is implicit in nature and requires repetition and

discipline exercised by parents in order for it to work.

This is a promising result as it can be effective at the second stage of the advertising

process, a stage that received less attention in literature, as well as it being an implicit

intervention. Goal setting intervention can be used as a defence against social media

advertisements knowing that the food industry spends about $ 1.8 billion per year in

marketing products for adolescents and children with more than 1,000 advertisements

per year for children who range in age from 9 to 12 years (Gentile et al., 2012). Goal

setting intervention can be carried out in many forms like shopping and eating with

children while emphasizing the importance of living healthy. Parents should

accompany their children when shopping and teach them how to read the health benefits

of food, lipids, carbohydrates, sugars, and calories for each product as a way to live a

healthier lifestyle. It is also necessary to eat with the child and how to ensure that their

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choices are healthy, and even strengthen bonds of love and family warmth. Researchers

found that the more children watched social media advertisements, which broadcast

advertisements about unhealthy food, the more the family visited those restaurants, as

37% of parents confirmed they made monthly visits, 54% of children asked to visit at

least once a day, and 29% of the children collected toys from restaurants (Harris and

Graff, 2012). This shows that parents are pestered by their kids as well as they have the

power to direct children to specific lifestyles.

H4c: Imitation of parents moderates the relationship between advertising-based

defensive memory formation and advertising based memory application

Imitation of parents was found to have a significant moderating effect on the

relationship between ABMF and ABMA. Since the hypothesis for the main effect

(ABMA <--- ABMF) is still significant after IP enters the model, based on that, the type

of moderation is partial. This study showed that IP has a moderation effect that

strengthens the positive effect of advertising-based defensive memory formation

(ABMF) on advertising-based defensive memory application (ABMA). The result of

this hypothesis testing is in line with the reviewed literature pointing out the importance

and the influence parents have on the formation of values, attitudes and patterns of

purchase for their children. Many children follow the same basic family patterns that

have been practiced for a long time (Carlson and Grossbart, 1988; Gaber and Wright,

2014). Parents' attitudes to everyday life have an impact on younger children. Parental

views of advertisements promoting a particular food product have a direct impact on

young children as children usually mimic the actions and adopt the views of their

parents (Gentile et al., 2012; Mikeska, Harrison and Carlson, 2017).

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Marketing managers are aware of the power parents exert on their children simply by

imitation since children are influenced by the opinions, advice and purchasing decisions

of their parents (Gaber and Wright, 2014; Henderson et al., 2009). Unfortunately, many

parents ignore or are unaware of this power.

It has been noted that the real and effective need for the diet starts at very young age.

Thus, the mother's diet affects the child during pregnancy and later on as well. Parents,

especially mothers, are influenced by social media unhealthy food advertisement as

well without them even noticing (Doub, Small and Birch, 2016). Eating pattern of

mothers is very influential on the physical health, emotions and feelings, and also

affects the mental health of the child (Marchi et al., 2015). Previous research also found

a link between unhealthy food and diet passed by parents and the psychological

behaviour of the child, which causes psychological problems including anxiety,

disorder and depression (Garcia‐Mantrana, and Collado, 2016; Wilson and Wood,

2004).

6.6 Summary

This chapter has offered a summary of the study’s major results, and then discussed them

in comparison with previous studies. This study sought to know the role of the media

(social networks and websites) in the promotion of unhealthy food and its impact on the

purchasing behaviour children. This study showed that the promotion of unhealthy food

through social media result in encouraging the purchase behaviour of children leading to

serious health problems. This study also shed the light on the possible parental role and

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interventions to mitigate the negative effects of social media food advertisements. Five

out of six suggested interventions were proven to be effective in lessen those negative

effects. Stage 1 (explicit) parental interventions (PCC, RU, CV) were all effective as per

the results. On the other hand, stage 2 (implicit) parental interventions that were proven

effective are GS and IP, while IH hypothesis was rejected. The results show that both

stage 1 and stage 2 (or explicit and implicit) parental interventions can be effective.

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 Chapter 7 : Conclusions

7.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter, the findings and analysis of research variables were presented

and results were discussed in relation to the research hypotheses and compared with

previous studies. This chapter will give a brief a summary of analysis results in section

7.1, followed by research aim and objective revisited in section 7.2. Then, research

contribution to knowledge and practice will be explained in section 7.3. In addition,

this chapter will provide some recommendations that researchers and decision makers

can benefit from in section 7.4, followed by research limitations in section 7.5. Then,

this chapter will offer suggestions for future research in section 7.6. Finally, the

summary of this chapter will be presented in section 7.7.

7.2 Summary of Analysis Results

• To verify the reliability of the study instrument, Cronbach alpha coefficient was

calculated. The Cronbach alpha coefficient to all dimensions of the

questionnaire was (0.885). For the sub-dimensions, it was shown that the

highest Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.976% for If, then heuristic strategy

(IH) dimension, while the lowest Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.930% to

Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) dimension.

• Social Media Unhealthy Food Advertisement Exposure (ESM) dimension

obtained the highest mean (3.86), followed by If, then heuristic strategy (IH)

dimension (3.23), while Advertising-based Defensive Memory Formation

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 (ABMF) and Rules of use (RU) dimensions obtained the lowest mean (3.00).

• The results showed that Advertising-based defensive memory formation

(ABMF) partially mediates the effect of Social Media Unhealthy food

Advertisement Exposure (ESM) on advertising-based defensive memory

application (ABMA).

• The first main hypothesis H1 (There is a significant impact of Social Media

Unhealthy food Advertisement Exposure on advertising-based defensive

memory formation) was accepted.

• The second main hypothesis H3 (There is a significant impact of Advertising-

based defensive memory formation on advertising-based defensive memory

application) was accepted.

• The moderation effect hypotheses results for stage 1 parental interventions were

as follows:

1. There was a significant impact of parent-child communication on

advertising-based defensive memory formation.

2. There was a significant impact of rules on advertising-based defensive

memory formation.

3. There was a significant impact of co-viewing which a positive effect on

advertising-based defensive memory formation.

• The moderation effect hypotheses results for stage 2 parental interventions were

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 as follows:

1. There was no significant impact of if, and then heuristic strategy on

advertising-based defensive memory application.

2. There was a significant impact of goal setting on advertising-based

defensive memory application.

3. There was a significant impact of imitation of parents on advertising-

based defensive memory application.

The revised model is presented in figure 7.1 and a summary of the results for
hypotheses testing is presented in table 7.1.

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 Parent- Child

Parental Interventions
Rules of Use (RU) Co- viewing (CV)
Communication (PCC)

at stage 1
H2a

Advertising- Based Advertising- Based

Exposure to Social Media
Memory Formation Memory Application
Unhealthy Food Advertising
(ABMF) (ABMFA)
(ESM)

H4b
Parental Interventions

at stage 2

If, then Heuristic Imitation of Parents

Insignificant Goal Setting (GS)
strategy (IH) (IP)
Significant

Figure 7.1 Conceptual Model (final)

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 Path
Research Hypotheses Coefficients,
p-value

H1 Exposure to Social Media Unhealthy Food -0.12* Supported

Advertising → Advertising- Based Memory
Formation

H2a Exposure to Social Media Unhealthy Food - 0.099* Supported

Advertising *
Parent- Child Communication → Advertising-
Based Memory Formation

H2b Exposure to Social Media Unhealthy Food 0.179* Supported

Advertising *
Rules of Use → Advertising- Based Memory
Formation

H2c Exposure to Social Media Unhealthy Food - 0.061* Supported

Advertising *
Co- viewing → Advertising- Based Memory
Formation

H3 Advertising- Based Memory Formation → 0.69 * Supported

Advertising- Based Memory Application

H4a Advertising- Based Memory Formation * -0.049 ns Not

If, then Heuristic strategy → Advertising- Based supported
Memory Application

H4b Advertising- Based Memory Formation * −0.081*** Supported

Goal Setting → Advertising- Based Memory
Application

H4c Advertising- Based Memory Formation * 0.097*** Supported

Imitation of Parents → Advertising- Based Memory
Application
Table 7.1 Results summary for hypotheses testing, Structural path significant at ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p
< 0.05, ns = not significant

7.3 Research Aims and Objectives Revisited

The main aim of this research was to investigate how parental interventions affect the

buying decisions of their children that are exposed to social media food advertising

influence. The above aim was achieved through examining the sub-objectives. Table

7.1 presents those objectives and how and where they were met.

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 Research Objectives Chapter Summary of how the Objective was Accomplished

a. Exploring the recent literature Chapter 2 Chapter 2 identified and discussed factors affecting children's eating habits
related advertising targeting children highlighting the role of food advertising in the increase of unhealthy eating patterns
and examining the relationship Moreover, chapter 2 identified and discussed the introduction of new media, its
between advertising effects and increased popularity among children and how advertising on these platforms are
unhealthy eating habits. causing concerns.

b. Examining the current literature and Chapters 2 Chapters 2 and 3 presented and discussed the different theories and models that
reviewing the models and theories and 3 discussed the different relationship between study variables, which contributed
that aid in understanding concepts significantly to the construction of the model for this research. A conceptual model
related to social media advertising, was developed using the advertising process as well as the inclusion of Büttner,
children's buying behaviour and Florack, and Serfas (2014) model as a base taking into account other identified
parental interventions, as well as constructs from literature. The defined constructs and their relationships within the
suggesting hypotheses supporting the proposed model were supported by theories and models.
proposed conceptual model.
As for hypotheses, 8 were proposed for this research.

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 c. Outlining the framework for the Chapters 4 The approach of the study was single-method approach that consists of quantitative
methodology utilized throughout the method. The purpose of using this method was to analyse the outcomes and emphasize
research for testing the proposed the significant relationships between the constructs proposed in the hypothesized model.
hypotheses. The researcher used questionnaires (hard and soft copies) targeting sample consisted of
parents with at least one child between 8 and 12 that are exposed to social media food
advertising in the GCC region. To ensure validity of the conceptual model the reliability
of the data, the researcher conducted a pilot survey prior to conducting the main survey.

d. Analyzing the outcomes and Chapters 5 SPSS and AMOS 21 programs were used to analyse data. In this research. Kaiser-
emphasizing the significant Meyer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's test were used to measure sampling adequacy. In
relationships between the constructs order to construct measure goodness-of-fit of research variables, Structural Equation
proposed in the hypothesized model. Modelling (SEM) was performed. Moreover, this research presented a descriptive
analysis that showed parents' perceptions and agreement with the statements on
measuring parental interventions with regards to social media food advertising
influence children's food buying behaviour. In addition, a correlation matrix test was
conducted to ensure that multicollinearity was avoided. As the value of Pearson
correlation coefficient was significant. In order to test proposed hypotheses, path

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 analysis with AMOS was used. Outcomes of path analysis were used to examine the
effect of mediating and moderating variables separately.

e. Discussing the outcomes and Chapters 6 Results of this research were discussed and contributions were outlined in chapters 6
findings and linking them to the and 7 and 7. Outcomes highlighted the impact of unhealthy food advertising targeting
literature, drawing the major children on social media platforms on their food purchase behaviour. The results of
theoretical and practical implications this study have great implication on the GCC society. These outcomes can be used to
of the study and offering directions inform GCC parents about the importance of intervening and their important role they
for future research might play in elevating the health of their children and their overall lifestyles. This
research also offers many recommendations and future work, so that researchers in the
future can be built on the results of this study.

Table 7.2 Meeting the Aim and Objectives of the Research

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7.4 Contribution to Knowledge

There have been several contributions offered by this thesis:

Firstly, a dual-step and dual-process model was taken into consideration to assess

advertising effects on children as suggested by Büttner, Florack, and Serfas (2014)

which was built on the advertising processes and model like AIDA, DAGMAR and

Hierarchy of effects model. This suggests that advertisements may affect children at

two stages and via two systems of information processing. Previous studies studied one

or the other. This research acknowledges that advertisements may affect children at two

stages meaning interventions must target the two stages. Interventions can target the

first stage which is the exposure of the commercial stage or the second stage which is

the consumption stage. Literature also emphasized the existence of dual processes:

implicit (or S1) and explicit (or S2) (Smith and DeCoster, 2000; Kahneman and Egan,

2011; Kahneman and Frederick, 2002; Evans, 2003; Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999;

Strack and Deutsch, 2004). Therefore, this thesis included interventions that use both

systems and the conceptual model was developed taking into account all these factors

pointed throughout literature as issues to investigate. Also, in this research,

interventions in the two stages act as moderators that affect the relationship between

advertisement exposure, memory formation and the final consumption decision.

Secondly, this study highlighted the role that parents can play in mitigating the negative

effects of social media food advertising. Previous studies suggested other interventions

such as advertising literacy. Brian Young (1990) has stated that children must acquire

advertising literacy. However, the acquiring of advertising literacy depends on both

consumer socialization and cognitive development (De la Ville and Tartas 2010; John

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1999) and despite the fact that the process of acquiring advertising literacy is a gradual

one (Gunter, Oates and Blades, 2004; Kunkel et al., 2004), there has been an on-going

debate on the age at which children possess mature levels of advertising literacy.

Additionally, advertising literacy requires children to use explicit or S2 system of

processing which is harder to achieve with younger children according to researchers

in the fields of psychology and consumer behaviour (Piaget 1952; John, 1999). This

research introduced parental interventions that used both systems (implicit and explicit)

making a contribution to the body of literature with regards to type and processing

system of the intervention.

Thirdly, most previous studies investigated traditional or conventional media

advertising effects on children. In addition, previous studies suggested that social media

advertising is different and can be more alarming than traditional advertising (O'Keeffe

and Clarke-Peatson, 2011; Wilking et al., 2013; Dietz, 2013; Harris, Schwartz and

Munsell, 2013). Thus, researcher investigated the effects of social media advertising

which is considered part of the "new media". This research contributes to the body of

literature in the field of advertising, specifically, social media advertising effects

literature.

Finally, data were collected from GCC thus adding to the body of knowledge about this

region. Few studies discussed the issue of social media advertising to children or the

dangers of unhealthy eating habits in general despite data collected from GCC countries

showing one out of every five children was obese after finishing primary school (Alhyas

et al., 2011). This study examined an issue concerning children and the impact of

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advertising on their purchasing behaviour. This study is considered a new initiative in

stimulating many studies related to many fields such as: social media advertising impact

on children in the GCC, development of advertising in social media, the public health

within the GCC and the effect of advertising on the overall GCC families’ lifestyles.

7.5 Implications for Practice

Conclusions and implications drawn from this thesis are presented below:

• Advertising is a powerful motivator for a child to make a purchase decision by

offering information about products in the finest detail, focusing on the use of

mental and emotional inputs to attract his/her attention by employing famous

personalities or cartoon figures that the their psychological and social desires,

leading to a decision to buy. Companies use explicit advertising, which involves

short and direct sales messages to target children as well as using implicit

advertising by associating their products with a psychological or symbolic

element. With the introduction of social media, children are subjected more and

more to unhealthy food advertising. Collected data suggest that exposure to

advertisements has a significant effect on children's buying behaviour.

Therefore, it is necessary to join efforts to protect children from the unfair

practice performed by companies producing high-calorie foods through their

tempting advertisements via social media. Moreover, these children will

become future buying customers as well with loyalty to a particular brand of

food or drink, developed and encouraged at a young age, making this allegiance

a habit that cannot be easily eliminated (Harris and Graff, 2012).

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 • Previous studies found that many countries have established organized rules and

foundations for the process of commercial advertising in general and

advertisements aimed at young people and adolescents in particular, which

makes the advertising material addressed to this age group carefully selected

(Clarke and Svanaes, 2014). However, in many developing countries, especially

in the GCC, there are hardly any practices or rules to regulate advertising

targeting children as highlighted by past research. It is worth mentioning that in

terms of behavioural, health and educational aspects, close monitoring is

required from the competent authorities (Gentile et al., 2012). This research

provide the extent to which social media unhealthy food advertising impact

children which intended in turn to evoke policymakers concern to this issue in

the GCC.

• This research revealed new and alarming information about the daily habits of

children, and their impact on their buying behaviour. Concerned parties must

take this information into account moving forward. Social media advertising is

one of the most important sources of information for these children thus

directing their wishes to a certain type of food leading to shortages of some

important nutrients such as vegetables and fruit that are advertised less on social

media, while a child's rapid growth and high metabolism require a higher

proportion of growth and dietary energy components for the children's body

(Gentile et al., 2012). Many concerned parties voiced their concerns in this

regard (Kunkel et al., 2004) and this research is as added evidence of the

seriousness of the problem. Also, it has been noticed the need to introduce media

literacy training programs to children as well as parents, especially for

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 understanding the integrated nature of social media advertising.

• The influence of parents on the formation of values, attitudes and patterns of

purchase for their children is something that cannot be ignored as results

indicated. Many children follow the same basic family patterns that have been

used for a long time. On the other hand, advertisers are interested in knowing

the degree to which parents influence their children in purchasing decisions.

This research suggested 6 interventions, however one (IH intervention) was

rejected as explained in chapter 6. Children pester their parents to buy them

unhealthy food. Also, many parents are unaware of the implicit nature of

advertisements on social media. Thus, parents must educate themselves about

the effects of social media advertising on children and ways to mitigate their

effect.

• Based on the results of this research, there is a significant relationship between

parental interventions and the buying decision of children as seen in chapter 5

tables 5.33 to 5.38. Parents have the main role in supporting children financially

and psychologically it is the duty of parents to educate their children wisely

about the dangers of these advertisements and their products to ensure a

generation of healthy people who can benefit themselves and society (Gaber

and Wright, 2014). Since it is an open world, blocking and prevention is not the

answer, but the effective parent-child relationships further facilitating such

interventions.

• In light of the findings (as seen in table 5.34), rules of use can be an effective

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 intervention. However, parents need to develop skills for using technology,

following up, and learning about advertising via social media. It is essential that

parents use monitoring programs for internet-connected devices. However,

parents should not rely on these programs to block websites and because

children are now more skilled than ever. Therefore, it is important to talk to the

child not only about marketing and advertising, but about the specific foods that

are advertised and the impact of these foods on his/her health later on. It is also

necessary to set an example as a parent by eating healthy and with the child to

strengthen bonds of love and family warmth which, in turn, increase influence

of parents on their children.

• Since Social media advertising proven to be very effective as hypotheses H1

and H3 suggested. Therefore, it can be used to promote healthy lifestyles by

using counter-advertising strategy. Kelly et al. (2015) provided an example of

such strategy which is the advertising campaign against the commercial of

Coca Cola that focused on the dangers of sugary drinks. In addition, counter-

advertising was successful in getting the sugary drinks and ‘unhealthy food

tax implemented in Mexico (Kelly et al., 2015).

7.6 Limitations of this Research

This research is influenced by several determinants like other social studies. Given the

available physical resources, the selected sample was limited to some areas in the GCC

considering that Saudi Arabia is a big country. Future studies may expand the scope of

the sample to include more than one region, and perhaps extend it to various Arab

countries, not only in the GCC.

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Findings of this research are only based on parents’ perspective on constructs and

relationship identified within the conceptual model. Other perspectives such as children

themselves are not covered in this research. Also, researcher opted for parents with

children from one age group (8 to 12 years) meaning interventions suggested may or

may not work on children from other age groups.

The adopted research methodology was quantitative. Although it can be supportive for

generalization of the findings, this may limit the ability of the research to obtain an in-

depth understanding of how these advertising influence children and ways to intervene.

The researcher was unable to employ a hybrid/mixed methodology due to time

constraints of the research in hand.

While results and findings of the research are particularly applicable to the specific

context where this study was conducted, GCC, generalization to other Arab countries

who share similar economic, political, and cultural structure is possible. Generalization

beyond the suggested region may be difficult and special attention must be given to the

differences in the family structure, values and parenting styles when interpreting the

outcomes of this study in other contexts.

Considering the effect of peer pressure was not included in this research which might

gave some additional understanding of the advertising effects on children. However,

the main aim of the research was to determine interventions rather than discussing

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influence.

The abovementioned limitations provide directions for future research, which will

further enrich the advertising literature and in particular the areas of social media food

advertising targeting children.

7.7 Further Research

This research offers suggestions for future research. Firstly, the influence of the child

on household purchasing decisions in the GCC according to family monthly income,

the order a child is born in the family, the gender of the child, and whether the mother

is working or a housewife, so future research is necessary in this field.

Secondly, possible future research can focus on studying other age groups mentioned

by John (1999). These other groups have different cognitive and social skills and results

may be different as well as accepted/rejected interventions.

Thirdly, future research can investigate other factors that impact children's buying

behaviour when subjected to advertising via social media. Also, future research can

explore advertising of food on other new media such as advergames, websites, mobile

applications, etc.

Fourthly, research in the future could be conducted in different contexts and countries

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using different methods (qualitative or mixed). This could add beneficial information

to the body of knowledge.

Finally, future research should conduct an in-depth study and research into the role

played by the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of

Information Affairs in children's behaviour and consumption patterns. It is also

necessary to conduct studies to investigate the impact of school on children's behaviour

and consumption patterns.

7.8 Summary

This chapter presented the research conclusions to the thesis investigating how parental

interventions influence the buying behaviour of their children that are subjected to

social media food advertising. Parents should be aware of the different type of social

media advertising, and their relative strengths, and weaknesses. After conducting the

study and applying it in practice, it is expected that the results of this research will

contribute to shed the light on measures that can be used to reduce these negative effects

of social media food advertising and taking advantage of the findings to improve

children's dietary habits and overall lifestyles. The great role played by parents in

protected and helping their children from unhealthy food advertisements is very

important, undeniable and can affect the health of the upcoming generations.

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Appendix 1: Survey (English Version)

Thank you for participating in this survey. Your feedback is important.

If you have more than one child falling in the age group stated below, please
answer for one child only

What is child's age?

8
9
10
11
12
None of the above (if this option is chosen, then the questionnaire will close)

Does your child use social media?

Yes
No (if no, then the questionnaire will close)

Which social media platform is most used by your child?

Youtube

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 Instagram
Snapchat
Facebook
Twitter
Whatsapp
Other (please specify) __________

How many Hours does your child spend on social media per day?
Less than 1 hour
1 to 2 hours
3 to 4 hours
More than 4 hours

What is your child's gender?

Boy
Girl

What is your gender?

Male
Female

To which age group do you belong?

25-30 years old

31-36 years old
37-42 years old
43- 48 years old
Above 48 years old

What is your educational level?

High school
Diploma
Graduate (B.Sc., BA,..)

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 Master
PhD
Other (please state)

What is your monthly income (in Bahraini Dinar)?

Less than 500
500-1000
1000-1500
1500- 2000
2000-2500
More than 2500

ESM 1. My child is exposed to advertised unhealthy food frequently on social media.

Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ESM 2. My child is exposed to advertised unhealthy food for long periods of time on
social media .
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ESM 3. My child is repeatedly exposed to advertisement of unhealthy food on social

media.
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

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IP 1. My child tends to repeat my unhealthy food purchase behavior that is advertised
on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IP 2. My child tends to replicate my unhealthy food purchase behavior that is

advertised on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IP 3. My child tends to mimic my unhealthy food purchase behavior that is advertised

on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IP 4. My child tends to follow my behavior when it comes to purchasing healthy food

advertised on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

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GS 1. My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behavior of advertised on
social media when I repeat it as a parent
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

GS 2. My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behavior of advertised on

social media when I fails to exercise self- control during purchase process as a parent
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

GS 3. My child tends to repeat unhealthy food purchase behavior of advertised on

social media when I continue to practice this behavior as a parent
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

GS 4. My child tends to stick to unhealthy food purchase behavior of advertised on

social media when I don't show its risks as a parent
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMF 1. My child tends to dislike brands associated with unhealthy food advertised
on social media

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Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMF 2. My child tends to dislike brands that advertise unhealthy food on social
media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMF 3. My child tends to be annoyed with brands associated with unhealthy food
which are advertised on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMF 4. My child tends to stay away from brands that advertise unhealthy food on
social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMA 1. My child tends to purchase healthy food advertised on social media

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMA 2. My child prefers healthy over unhealthy food advertised on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMA 3. My child is tends not to be susceptible to purchasing unhealthy food

advertised on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

ABMA 4. My child tends to make a correct purchase decision when it comes to

unhealthy food advertised on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

CV 1. As a parent, I am aware of what social media platform(s) my child uses

Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral

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Disagree
Strongly disagree

CV 2. As a parent, I am aware of food advertisements viewed by my child on social

media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

CV 3. As a parent, I monitor food advertisements viewed by my child on social media

Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

CV 4. As a parent, I check food advertisements viewed by my child on social media

Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

PCC 1. As a parent, I talk to my child about food advertisement on social media

Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

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PCC 2. As a parent, I discuss with my child the selling tactics used by food advertisers
on social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

PCC 3. As a parent, I communicate to my child the selling intent of food advertisement

on social media
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

PCC 4. As a parent, I explain to my child the biased nature of food advertisement on

social media
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

RU 1. As a parent, I monitor the use of specific social media platforms by my child to

lessen unhealthy advertisement exposure
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

RU 2. As a parent, I restrict my child from specific social media platforms to lessen

unhealthy advertisement exposure

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Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

RU 3. As a parent, I restrict my child to specific hours of use that he/she uses social
media platforms to lessen unhealthy advertisement exposure
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

RU 4. As a parent, I use parental software/ program to monitor my child’s use of social

media to lessen unhealthy advertisement exposure
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IH 1. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a healthier option when they are

purchasing food advertised on social media to maintain a good health condition
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IH 2. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a healthier option when they are

purchasing food advertised on social media to maintain healthy body weight
Strongly Agree

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Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IH 3. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a healthier option when they are

purchasing food advertised on social media to maintain better lifestyle
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

IH 4. As a parent, I encourage my child to go for a healthier option when they are

purchasing food advertised on social media to maintain a healthy body shape
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

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 ‫)‪Appendix 2: Survey (Arabic Version‬‬

‫اﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن‪ :‬اﻻﻧﻤﺎط اﻟﺸﺮاﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﻸطﻔﺎل ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻸطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫ﺷﻜﺮا ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻻﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن‪ .‬إن ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻘﺎﺗﻜﻢ وآراﺋﻜﻢ ﻣﮭﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻨﺎ‪ .‬إذا ﻛﺎن ﻟﺪﯾﻜﻢ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ طﻔﻞ ﯾﻘﻊ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺌﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺪدة‬

‫ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎن‪ ،‬أرﺟﻮ اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻦ طﻔﻞ واﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ‪.‬‬

‫ﻛﻢ ﻋﻤﺮ طﻔﻠﻚ ‪ /‬طﻔﻠﺘﻚ؟‬

‫‪8‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪9‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪11‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫•‬

‫أي ﻣﻦ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ أدﻧﺎه ھﻲ اﻻﻛﺜﺮ اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﺎ ُ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ طﻔﻠﻚ ‪ /‬طﻔﻠﺘﻚ ؟‬

‫ﯾﻮﺗﯿﻮب‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻧﺴﺘﻐﺮام‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﻨﺎب ﺷﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻓﯿﺲ ﺑﻮك‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻮﯾﺘﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫واﺗﺲ اب‬ ‫•‬
‫أﺧﺮى )ارﺟﻰ اﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ(‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻛﻢ ﻋﺪد اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﻀﯿﮭﺎ طﻔﻠﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﯿﻮم اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ؟‬

‫أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻣﻦ ﺳﺎﻋﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺳﺎﻋﺘﯿﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻦ ‪ 3‬ﺳﺎﻋﺎت إﻟﻰ ‪ 4‬ﺳﺎﻋﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪ 4‬ﺳﺎﻋﺎت‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻣﺎ ھﻮ ﺟﻨﺲ طﻔﻠﻚ؟‬

‫وﻟﺪ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺑﻨﺖ‬ ‫•‬

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 ‫ﻣﺎھﻮ ﺟﻨﺴﻚ؟‬

‫ذﻛﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﺜﻰ‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻣﺎ ھﻲ ﺟﻨﺴﯿﺘﻚ؟‬

‫ﺑﺤﺮﯾﻨﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﻌﻮدي‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻛﻮﯾﺘﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻤﺎﻧﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫إﻣﺎراﺗﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻗﻄﺮي‬ ‫•‬

‫إﻟﻰ أي ﻓﺌﺔ ﻋﻤﺮﯾﺔ ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ؟‬

‫‪ 30 – 25‬ﺳﻨﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ 36 – 31‬ﺳﻨﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ 42 – 37‬ﺳﻨﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ 48 – 43‬ﺳﻨﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪ 48‬ﺳﻨﺔ‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻣﺎ ھﻮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﻚ؟‬

‫اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﯾﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺷﮭﺎدة دﺑﻠﻮم‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺧﺮﯾﺞ )ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮرﯾﻮس‪ ،‬؟؟‪(.. ،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺎﺟﺴﺘﯿﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫دﻛﺘﻮراه‬ ‫•‬
‫أﺧﺮى ) ﺣﺪد ﻣﻦ ﻓﻀﻠﻚ(‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻣﺎ ھﻮ دﺧﻠﻚ اﻟﺸﮭﺮي )ﺑﺎﻟﺪﯾﻨﺎر اﻟﺒﺤﺮﯾﻨﻲ(‬

‫أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪500‬‬ ‫•‬

‫‪1000-500‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪1500-1000‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪2000 -1500‬‬ ‫•‬

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 ‫‪2500-2000‬‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪2500‬‬ ‫•‬

‫طﻔﻠﻲ ﻣﻌﺮض ﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت أطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫طﻔﻠﻲ ﯾﺸﺎھﺪ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ ﻟﻔﺘﺮات طﻮﯾﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫طﻔﻠﻲ ﻣﻌﺮض ﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت أطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻜﺮر ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻜﺮار ﺳﻠﻮﻛﻲ اﻟﺸﺮاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ إﻋﺎدة ﺳﻠﻮﻛﻲ اﻟﺸﺮاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺤﺎﻛﺎة ﺳﻠﻮﻛﻲ اﻟﺸﺮاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

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 ‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﺗﺒﺎع ﺳﻠﻮﻛﻲ اﻟﺸﺮاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻤﺴﻚ ﺑﺴﻠﻮك ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ أﻛﺮره ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬ﻛﺄم‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻤﺴﻚ ﺑﺴﻠﻮك ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ أﻓﺸﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ ﺿﺒﻂ‬

‫اﻟﻨﻔﺲ أﺛﻨﺎء ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺮاء ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬ﻛﺄم‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻜﺮار ﺳﻠﻮك ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ أﺳﺘﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ ھﺬا‬

‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬ﻛﺄم‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻤﺴﻚ ﺑﺴﻠﻮك ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻻ أظﮭﺮ ﻟﮫ ﻣﺨﺎطﺮة ﻛﺄب ‪/‬‬

‫ﻛﺄم‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺪم اﻹﻋﺠﺎب ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‬

‫اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺪم اﻹﻋﺠﺎب ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑﺎﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ أطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻻﻧﺰﻋﺎج ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‬

‫اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻻﺑﺘﻌﺎد ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑﺎﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ أطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻄﻌﺎم ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺘﻢ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻔﻀﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﺼﺤﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺘﻢ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ اﻟﻰ ﻋﺪم اﻟﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺑﺎﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ وﺷﺮاءھﺎ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ طﻔﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﺗﺨﺎذ ﻗﺮار ﺷﺮاء ﺻﺤﯿﺢ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ اﻷﻣﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻐﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﻋﺮف وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﮭﺎ طﻔﻠﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﻋﺮف إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺸﺎھﺪھﺎ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

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 ‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أراﻗﺐ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺸﺎھﺪھﺎ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺗﺤﻘﻖ ﻣﻦ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺸﺎھﺪھﺎ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺗﺤﺪث ﻣﻊ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻦ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

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 ‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺗﻨﺎﻗﺶ ﻣﻊ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻦ أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﮭﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻨﻮ اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪.‬‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺑﻠﻎ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻦ ﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪.‬‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺷﺮح ﻟﻄﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺤﺎزة ﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪.‬‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أراﻗﺐ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام طﻔﻠﻲ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪ .‬ﺑﻐﺮض ﺧﻔﺾ اﻟﺘﻌﺮض إﻟﻰ ﻣﺨﺎطﺮ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ‬

‫اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﻗﯿﺪ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام طﻔﻠﻲ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪ .‬ﺑﻐﺮض ﺧﻔﺾ اﻟﺘﻌﺮض إﻟﻰ ﻣﺨﺎطﺮ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺣﺪد وﻗﺖ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام طﻔﻠﻲ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪ .‬ﺑﻐﺮض ﺧﻔﺾ اﻟﺘﻌﺮض إﻟﻰ ﻣﺨﺎطﺮ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ‬

‫ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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 ‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻤﺮاﻗﺒﺔ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام طﻔﻠﻲ ﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪ .‬ﺑﻐﺮض ﺧﻔﺾ اﻟﺘﻌﺮض إﻟﻰ ﻣﺨﺎطﺮ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت‬

‫اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺷﺠﻊ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺘﺮون اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻘﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺻﺤﯿﺔ ﺟﯿﺪة‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺷﺠﻊ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺘﺮون اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫وزن ﺻﺤﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

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 ‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺷﺠﻊ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺘﺮون اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫أﺳﻠﻮب ﺣﯿﺎة أﻓﻀﻞ‪.‬‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫ﻛﺄب ‪ /‬أم‪ ،‬أﺷﺠﻊ طﻔﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻷطﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺘﺮون اﻟﻄﻌﺎم اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺻﺤﻲ‬

‫أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

‫أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أﻋﻠﻢ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ‬

‫ﻻ أواﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪه‬

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