1.
Explain the distinctive features of the Royal Centre of Vijayanagara
Empire.
[2024, 2023]
Answer:
The Royal Centre
The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the Vijayanagara
settlement and included over 60 temples.
Patronage of these temples and cults was crucial for rulers to establish
and legitimize their authority through association with the divinities
housed in the shrines.
Approximately thirty building complexes identified as palaces were
relatively large but not associated with ritual functions.
Unlike temples constructed entirely of masonry, the superstructures of
these secular buildings were made of perishable materials.
The Mahanavami Dibba
One of the most distinctive structures in the royal centre is the
Mahanavami Dibba, a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000
square feet to a height of 40 feet.
Evidence suggests it supported a wooden structure, with the base covered
in relief carvings.
Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami
(literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the
autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dusehra
(northern India), Durga Puja (in Bengal) and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in
peninsular India). The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power
and suzerainty on this occasion.
Ceremonies included worship, animal sacrifices, dances, wrestling
matches, processions, and the king’s inspection of his army.
Other Buildings in the Royal Centre
The Lotus Mahal: The lotus Mahal is one of the most beautiful buildings in
the royal centre, though its exact function remains uncertain. Suggested
as a council chamber where the king met his advisers, its name was given
by British travelers in the nineteenth century.
The Hazara Rama temple: The Hazara Rama temple is likely used by the
king and his family. While the central shrine’s images are missing, the
sculpted panels on the walls depicting scenes from the Ramayana remain.
Despite the destruction of many structures during the sacking of
Vijayanagara, the nayakas continued the tradition of building palatial
structures, many of which have survived.
2. Why was Vijayanagara city chosen to be the capital of Vijayanagara
empire? Explain any five features of this city.
[2024]
Answer:
Vijayanagara city was chosen as the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire for
several strategic and practical reasons:
1. The city was located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, providing a
natural defence barrier. The surrounding rocky terrain and hills also
offered protection against invasions.
2. The area around Vijayanagara, particularly Hampi, had historical and
religious significance with ancient temples and monuments. This made it a
culturally important site, enhancing its prestige as a capital.
3. The fertile land along the Tungabhadra River supported agriculture,
which was crucial for sustaining the population and the economy.
Additionally, the region was rich in resources like minerals and stones,
which were used in construction.
4. Establishing a new capital in Vijayanagara allowed the founders,
Harihara and Bukka, to consolidate their power and establish a strong
administrative center away from the influence of existing political entities.
Features of Vijayanagara City:
1. Fortifications: Vijayanagara was known for its extensive and robust
fortifications. The city was surrounded by massive walls and gates, which
provided security against invasions. The fortifications included multiple
layers of defense, making it one of the most well-protected cities of its
time.
2. Temples and Religious Structures: The city was home to numerous
temples, the most famous being the Virupaksha Temple. These temples
were not only places of worship but also centers of economic and social
activity. The architecture of these temples reflected the grandeur and
artistic excellence of the Vijayanagara Empire.
3. Royal Enclosures: The royal center of Vijayanagara included opulent
palaces, administrative buildings, and audience halls. The Lotus Mahal
and the Hazara Rama Temple are notable examples of the architectural
brilliance found in the royal enclosures.
4. Markets and Trade Centers: Vijayanagara was a bustling trade hub with
markets that sold a variety of goods, including spices, textiles, and
precious stones. The city’s strategic location made it a center for both
inland and overseas trade, attracting merchants from different parts of the
world.
5. Water Management Systems: The city had an advanced water
management system, including aqueducts, canals, and reservoirs. These
systems ensured a steady supply of water for drinking, irrigation, and
other purposes, contributing to the city’s sustainability and growth.
3. Examine the main reasons for the rise and decline of the
Vijayanagara Empire.
[2024]
Answer:
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE) was one of the most prominent
and powerful empires in South India, known for its cultural achievements,
economic prosperity, and architectural marvels. Its rise and decline can be
attributed to a combination of political, military, economic, and social
factors.
Rise:
There were too many claimants to power.
The first dynasty – Sangamas, exercised control till 1485.
They were succeeded by the Saluvas, who ruled till 1503.
Replaced by the Tuluvas. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to Tuluva dynasty.
Krishnadeva Raya’s rule – characterised by expansion & consolidation.
He acquired the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers.
The rulers of Orissa were subdued.
He defeated the Sultan of Bijapur.
The kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness.
The empire saw peace and prosperity during Krishnadeva Raya’s reign.
He built beautiful temples and added gopurams to many south Indian
temples.
He founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram.
Decline
After Krishnadeva Raya’s death, his successors were troubled by rebellious
nayakas or military chiefs.
By 1542 control shifted to the Aravidu dynasty.
Clashes between the rulers of Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates
resulted in shifting alignments.
Sultanates formed an alliance against Vijayanagara and defeated Rama
Raya, at the battle of Talikota.
The city was destroyed and abandoned within a few years.
4. Explain the significance of fortification and roads of Vijayanagara as
described by Abdur Razzaq.
[2023]
Answer:
The fortifications and roads of Vijayanagara, as described by Abdur
Razzaq, hold significant historical and strategic importance, reflecting the
sophistication and strategic foresight of the city’s rulers.
Great Fortress Walls
Abdur Razzaq, a fifteenth-century Persian ambassador, noted seven lines
of forts encircling the city and its hinterland. The outermost wall linked
surrounding hills with massive masonry constructed without mortar, using
wedge-shaped stone blocks. These fortifications were designed to protect
against invasions and prolonged sieges, reflecting the rulers’ strategic
foresight.
Agricultural Tracts Within Fortifications
The most remarkable aspect of these fortifications was their inclusion of
agricultural tracts within the enclosed area. Abdur Razzaq noted that
fields, gardens, and houses existed between the first, second, and third
walls. Archaeological evidence supports these accounts, revealing an
agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core, serviced
by a canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra River. This
strategic move ensured a continuous food supply during sieges, allowing
the city to withstand prolonged attacks without succumbing to starvation,
a common tactic used in medieval warfare.
Inner Lines of Fortification
A second line of fortification surrounded the inner urban complex, while a
third line enclosed the royal centre, with each major building set within its
own high walls. These multiple layers of defense further secured the city’s
core administrative and ceremonial areas, highlighting the importance of
protecting the heart of Vijayanagara’s political and religious life.
Gateways and Roads
The fort was accessed through well-guarded gates linking the city to major
roads. The gateways featured arches and domes typical of Indo-Islamic
architecture, reflecting cultural exchanges with local practices.
Archaeologists have traced roads within the city, winding through valleys
and extending from temple gateways lined by bazaars, promoting trade
and movement.
Strategic Significance
Vijayanagara’s fortifications and roads were integral to its survival and
prosperity. Including agricultural tracts ensured food security during
sieges, while efficient roads facilitated trade and communication. The
blend of architectural styles underscores cultural interactions, highlighting
the city’s strategic and cultural significance, contributing to its legacy as a
well-planned, sophisticated metropolis.
5. Analyse the features of the sacred centre of Vijaynagar Empire.
[2023]
Answer:
Choosing a Capital
The rocky northern end of Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra
was significant due to its association with sacred traditions, such as the
monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the Ramayana, and the
penance of Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, to marry Virupaksha.
These traditions, alongside pre-Vijayanagara Jaina temples, influenced the
choice of the capital. The site held deep religious importance, with the
Vijayanagara kings claiming to rule on behalf of Virupaksha and using the
title “Hindu Suratrana” to signify their divine sanction.
Temple Building Tradition
Temple building in the region had a long history, influenced by the
Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas. Rulers used temple
construction to associate themselves with the divine, thus legitimizing
their authority. Temples functioned as religious, social, cultural, and
economic centers, supported by land grants and resources from rulers.
The construction, repair, and maintenance of temples were key to
demonstrating power, wealth, and piety, winning support and recognition.
Architectural Innovations: Gopurams and Mandapas
The period saw new architectural features, such as large structures
symbolizing imperial authority, like the raya gopurams or royal gateways.
These towering structures marked the presence of the temple and
reminded of the king’s power. Mandapas (pavilions) and long, pillared
corridors often surrounded the shrines within the temple complex,
enhancing the grandeur and functionality of the temples.
Key Temples: Virupaksha and Vitthala
The Virupaksha temple, with origins in the ninth-tenth centuries, was
significantly expanded during the Vijayanagara Empire. Krishnadeva Raya
added a hall with delicately carved pillars and the eastern gopuram. The
temple complex included halls for various purposes, such as hosting
music, dance, drama, and deity marriages.
The Vitthala temple, dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu worshipped in
Maharashtra, reflected the rulers’ strategy of integrating different
traditions. The temple featured several halls and a unique chariot shrine,
with chariot streets paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared
pavilions for merchants.
Legacy of Temple Building
The local nayakas continued and elaborated on the traditions of temple
building, constructing some of the most spectacular gopurams. This
continuity ensured the sacred centre remained a vibrant, culturally rich
part of the Vijayanagara Empire
6. Examine the architectural and ritual features of Mahanavmi Dibba.
[2023]
Answer:
Architectural Features of Mahanavami Dibba
1. Structure and Location
Massive Platform: The Mahanavami Dibba is a large platform with a base
area of about 11,000 square feet and a height of 40 feet.
High Point: It is located on one of the highest points in the city,
emphasizing its importance.
Wooden Structure Support: Evidence suggests it supported a wooden
structure.
Relief Carvings: The base of the platform is adorned with intricate relief
carvings.
2. Associated Structures
King’s Palace Enclosure: The Mahanavami Dibba is part of the King’s
Palace, the largest enclosure in the royal center.
Audience Hall: Another significant platform in the complex is the Audience
Hall, which had slots for wooden pillars and a staircase to the second floor.
3. Surrounding Features
High Double Walls: The entire complex is enclosed by high double walls
with a street running between them.
Ritual Features of Mahanavami Dibba
1. Festival Significance
Mahanavami Festival: The platform is associated with the Mahanavami, a
significant festival during the autumn months, celebrated as Dusehra,
Durga Puja, or Navaratri in different regions of India.
Display of Prestige: The Vijayanagara kings used the occasion to display
their prestige, power, and suzerainty.
2. Ceremonies and Rituals
Worship and Sacrifices: Rituals included worship of the image, worship of
the state horse, and animal sacrifices (e.g., buffaloes).
Cultural Events: The festival featured dances, wrestling matches, and
processions of decorated horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers.
Presentations: Ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the
chief nayakas and subordinate kings were integral to the ceremonies.
3. Military Inspections and Tribute
Army Inspection: On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his
army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony.
Tribute and Gifts: The nayakas brought rich gifts and the stipulated tribute
for the king during this event.
7. Examine the role of Rayas and Nayakas in the Vijayanagar Empire.
[2023]
Answer:
Role of Rayas in the Vijayanagara Empire
1. Central Authority
Political Leadership: The rayas were the central authority in the
Vijayanagara Empire, providing overarching leadership and governance.
Territorial Control: They had direct control over certain territories and
exercised power through various administrative and military means.
2. Military Organization
Amara-Nayaka System: The rayas implemented the amara-nayaka
system, a significant political innovation derived from the Delhi
Sultanate’s iqta system.
Military Commanders: Under this system, the rayas appointed military
commanders, known as amara-nayakas, who governed assigned
territories and maintained military contingents.
3. Revenue Collection and Maintenance
Tax Collection: The rayas oversaw the collection of taxes and other dues
from peasants, craftspersons, and traders, which were crucial for the
empire’s revenue.
Tribute and Loyalty: They received annual tribute and gifts from the
amara-nayakas, reinforcing their loyalty and the central authority of the
rayas.
Role of Nayakas in the Vijayanagara Empire
1. Military Command and Territory
Military Chiefs: Nayakas were military chiefs who controlled forts and
commanded armed supporters.
Territorial Administration: They were assigned territories by the rayas,
where they governed and collected revenue.
2. Revenue and Resources
Revenue Collection: Nayakas collected taxes from local peasants,
craftspersons, and traders, retaining part of the revenue for personal use
and military maintenance.
Resource Allocation: The revenue was also used for the upkeep of temples
and irrigation works, ensuring the prosperity and stability of their
territories.
3. Loyalty and Tribute
Tribute to Rayas: Nayakas sent annual tribute to the rayas and presented
gifts at the royal court, demonstrating their loyalty and allegiance.
Military Support: They maintained a contingent of horses and elephants,
providing a significant portion of the empire’s fighting force.
4. Independence and Rebellion
Rebellions: Nayakas often rebelled against the central authority of the
rayas and had to be subdued by military action.
Independent Kingdoms: In the seventeenth century, many nayakas
established independent kingdoms, weakening the central imperial
structure and leading to the eventual decline of the Vijayanagara Empire.
8. Describe the main features of the temples of Vijayanagara.
[2008]
Answer:
The city of Vijayanagara city is associated with many religious beliefs.
Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties
such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers very often
encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with
the divine. The deity was often identified with the king. Temples also
functioned as centres of learning. Consequently, temples developed as
significant religious, social, cultural and economic centres. For the rulers,
constructing, repairing and maintaining temples were important means of
winning support and recognition for their power, wealth and piety. It is
likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the
existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi.
There were new innovations in temple architecture during this period.
There were huge structures that were a mark of imperial authority best
exemplified by the gopurams or royal gateways. These generally made
the towers on the central shrines look small. It made the temple visible
from a great distance and reminded of the king’s might signifying its
resources, skill and technology to construct them.
Other distinctive features were the mandapas or pavilions and long,
pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple
complex.
The hall in front of the main shrine of Virupaksha temple was built by
Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession. This was decorated with
delicately carved pillars. He also constructed the eastern gopuram of the
temple.
The characteristic feature of the Vitthala temple is the chariot streets that
extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.
