1.

INTRODUCTION
The caves were the early abodes of man. The first hut with bamboo and
leaves may be the first civil engineering construction carried out to
satisfy the man’s need for a shelter. Man has been molding his
environment throughout the ages for more comfortable living. In this
process various building structures have come up. Egyptians constructed
huge pyramids. The Greeks developed a style of proportions of building
elements; these proportions are known as “The Order of Architecture”.
Romans developed arches for vaults and domes. During the gothic
period of architecture (1100-1500 A.D.) churches with pointed arches
and the vaults were constructed. The arched ribs were supported by
stone pillars strengthened by buttresses. These structures led to the idea
of framed structures. The period from 1750 A.D. onwards is known as
‘the period of modern architecture’. Due to industrial development,
many new methods and materials of construction were developed.
A building is a habitable structure or construction of more or less
permanent nature. Any structure that is movable or designed for a
purpose other than their occupancy is not a building. Constructing the
building that sits on the ground, houses some form of human activity,
gets rained on, is in place through many seasons and years, must be built
by skilled persons engaged in construction business using best material
and products available.
Due to industrial development many new methods and materials of
construction were developed. The use of reinforced concrete
construction triggered the rapid development of modern architecture.
Structural components like columns, chajjas, canopies, R.C.C slabs
became popular because of the increased speed in construction.
Buildings have typical parts and building design involve dealing with
basic factors relating to the functions of those parts and to the problems
of making them. Designing of any selected building part must be done in
the context of the problems of the whole building. Dealing with the
individual elements of building construction requires some attention to
their eventual co-ordination in the whole building construction. The main
considerations while designing a building are.

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 2. ORGANIZATION INTRODUCTION

A school had a history in field of education since 2006 BS. Shree

Tribhuvan Secondary School is located near the main market in
Gaushala-5, Mahottari (Nepal) and offers many subjects to study in
school as well as bachelor’s degree.
Our school also offer Diploma in Civil Engineering affiliated by
National Examination Board. Our principal Mr.Amodh Prasad Sah is
very dedicated principal for our education. Our civil engineering faculty
co-ordinator Er.Surendra Sah always help we to empower our
education and training work. There are three building in our school
which is named as Block A, Block B & Block C. We study our civil
engineering class in Block C.

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 3.Various types of construction materials used in building
construction:
a) Cement
b) Reinforcement steel
c) Bitumen
d) River sand and natural sand as a construction material
e) Concrete
f) Ready mix concrete
g) Binding wires
h) Aggregate
i) Bricks
j) Timer (wood) as a construction material

a) Cement:
A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets,
hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together.
Cement is seldom used on its own but rather to bind sand and gravel
together. Cement companies produced mixed with fine aggregate
produce mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel produces
concrete.
Some types of cement

i) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

ii) Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
iii) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
iv) White Cement
v) Low Heat Cement
vi) Quick Setting Cement

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vii) High Alumina Cement
i) Ordinary Portland Cement:
Ordinary Portland cement is one of the most widely used
type of Cement. Types, properties, constituents, manufacture,
uses and advantages of Ordinary Portland Cement is discussed.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin gave the name as Portland cement as it
has similarity in colour and quality found in Portland stone,
which is a white grey limestone in island of Portland, Dorset.
ii) Portland Pozzolana Cement:
Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is
formed by synthesising OPC cement with pozzolanic materials in
a certain proportion. It is commonly known as PPC cement. In
this article we discuss about the properties, manufacture,
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of Portland
Pozzolana cement.
iii)Rapid Hardening Cement:
Rapid hardening cement is a special type of cement that
achieves high strength in less time. Normally the strength
achieved by conventional cements in 7 days is same as the
strength achieved in 3 days. This type of cement is also called as
High-Early Strength Portland Cement.
iv) White Cement:
This type of cement is manufactured by using raw materials
that are free from iron and oxide. White cement needs to have
lime and clay in a higher proportion. It is similar to OPC but it is
more expensive.
v) Low Heat Cement:
This low heat cement is used in mass concrete construction
like gravity dams. It is important to know that it is less reactive
and the initial setting time is greater than OPC.
vi) Quick Setting Cement:
Cement suppliers in Malaysia also offer quick setting
cement which sets faster than OPC but the strength remains the
same. In this formula, the proportion of gypsum is reduced.
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 Quick setting cement is used for constructions that need a
quick setting, like underwater structures and in cold and rainy
weather conditions.
vii) High Alumina Cement:
High alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining
bauxite and lime with clinker during the manufacturing process
of OPC.
To be considered high alumina cement, the total amount of
alumina content should be at least 32%, and the ratio of the
weight of alumina to lime should be kept between 0.85 to 1.30
b) Reinforcement steel:
Steel reinforcement bars or rebars are used to improve the tensile
strength of the concrete since concrete is fragile in tension but is
strong in compression. Steel is only used as rebar because of the
elongation of steel due to high temperatures (thermal expansion
coefficient) nearly equal to that of concrete. It is available in spiral
shape, herringbone shape, crescent shape.
Different sizes of reinforcement steel in diameter:
i) 6mm vi) 16mm
ii) 7mm vii) 20mm
iii) 8mm viii) 25mm
iv) 10mm ix) 32mm
v) 12mm x) 40mm
c) Bitumen:
Bitumen is a material obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum as an end product. According to IS: 334-1951, bitumen is
a non-crystalline solid or viscous material having adhesive properties
derived from petroleum either by natural or refinery process.
Bituminous materials are used for road construction, roofing,
waterproofing, and other applications. For the main application,
which is road construction, the major concerns, as with concrete, are
cost and durability.
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d) River sand and natural sand as a construction material:
This sand is white-grey and is one of the fine graded sands used in
the construction of buildings. They are mainly used in concrete and
masonry work. They can also be used for RCC, plastering, and many
other brick or block works.
e) Concrete:
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the
entire world. These materials include cement, water, fine aggregate,
and crushed stones or gravel. Sand and gravel or crushed stones are
examples of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, respectively.
f) Ready mix concrete:
Ready-Mix Concrete is manufactured in a batch plant, according
to a set engineered mix design.
g) Binding wires:
Binding wires are used for tying applications in the field of
construction. It is used extensively in the construction sector to tying
the rebars at the joints to keep the structure intact. Binding wire is
also called annealed wire and is made of mild steel.

h) Aggregate:
Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category
of course to medium-grained particulate material used in
construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete, and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most
mined materials in the world.
i. Brick:
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements, and other elements in
masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of
dried clay but is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured
construction blocks.
Bricks can be joined together using mortar, adhesives, or by
interlocking them. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types,
materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period and are
produced in bulk quantities.
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j) Timber (Wood):
Timber is used indoors, windows, cabinet, cupboards, shelves,
tables, and railings, etc. Timber is also popularly used in the form of
plywood & raw wood. Products like ply blocks and ply boards,
heavy patterned doors, and windows are made of solid wood/Timber
to provide strength, toughness, and durability.
Also, Wood is one of the most used natural building materials in
the world. Hardwoods are commonly used to construct walls,
ceilings, and floors, while softwoods are often used to make doors,
furniture, and window frames.
4. Sequence of Building Construction Work.

a) Site Clearance
b) Positioning of central co-ordinates as per grid plan
c) Surveying and layout
d) Excavation
e) Brick Soling
f) Laying of PCC (Plain Cement Concrete)
g) Bar Bending and placement of foundation steel
h) Footing Foundation
i) Plinth Beam
j) Earth Filling in plinth

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a) Site Clearance:
The very first step is site clearance which involves removal of
grass and vegetation along with any other objections which might be
there in the site location.

Figure No.1: Site Clearance

b) Positioning of central co-ordinates as per grid plan:

The whole area on which construction to be done is marked so as to
identify the construction zone. In our project, a plot of 40*60 ft. was
chosen and the respective was marking.

Figure No.2: Foundation Layout

c) Surveying and layout:

The centre point was marked with the help of a measuring tape,
thread and plumb bob as per the grid drawing. With respect to this
center point, all the other points of columns were to be decided so its
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 exact position is very critical. After determining the width and depth
of foundation, a drawing showing the width of foundations of
various walls is prepared. It is known as foundation plan. To start the
commencement of excavation, the centre line of one of the longest
walls is just mark-ed out by stretching a string between two wooden
pegs, driven at the ends. Now set out the centre lines of other walls,
The reference to this wall.

Figur

e No.3: Surveying and Layout

d) Excavation:
Excavation was carried out both manually as well as
mechanically. Normally 1-2 earth excavator (JCB’s) were used for
excavating the soil. Adequate precautions are taken to see that the
excavation operation does not damage the adjoining structures.
Excavation is carried out providing adequate side slopes and dressing of
excavation bottom. The soil beneath the surface was too clayey so it was
dumped and was not used for back filling. The filling is done in layer
not exceeding 20cm layer and the its compacted. Depth of excavation
was 5’4: from ground level.

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 Figure No.4: Excavation for foundation

e) Brick Soling:
The method of brick flat soling is very easy, in this process, the
brick is laid into the foundation trenches. For Brick Soling, skilled
workers are not required.

Figure No.5: Brick Soling

f) Laying of PCC:

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 After the process of excavation & brick soling, laying of plain
cement concrete that is PCC is done. A layer of 3 inches was made
in such manner that it was not mixed with soil. It provides a solid
base for the foundation. Plain concrete is vibrated to achieve full
compaction. Concrete placed below ground should be protected from
falling earth during and after placing.

Figure No.6: Laying of PCC

g) Bar Bending and placement of foundation steel:

A reinforcement bar is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used in
reinforced concrete and masonry structures to strengthen and aid the
concrete under tension.
Proper placement of reinforcement bars, as per the specified
drawings is vital for the structure's performance. Additionally,
anchoring, welding, forming bonds and hooks, and binding of
reinforcement bars in the concrete contribute to the overall strength
and durability of the structure.

Figure No.7: Bar Cutting & Bending

Terms used in Reinforcement:
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i) Bar Bending Schedule: Bar bending schedule is the schedule of
reinforcement bars prepared in advance before cutting and bending
of rebars. This schedule contains all details of size, shape and
dimension of rebars to be cut.
ii) Lap Length: Lap Length is the overlap of bars tied to extend the
reinforcement length. Lap length about 50 times the diameter of
the bar is considered safe. Laps of neighbouring bar lengths should
be staggered and should not be provided at one level/line. At one
cross section, a maximum of 50% bars should be lapped. In case,
required lap length is not available at junction because of space
and other constraints, bars can be joined with couplers or welded
(with correct choice of method of welding)
iii) Anchorage Length: This is the additional length of steel of one
structure required to be inserted in other at the junction. For
Example, main bars of beam in column at beam column junction,
column bars in footing etc. The length requirement is similar to
the lap length mentioned in previous question or as per the design
instructions.
iv) Cover Block: Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel rods
from touching the shuttering plates and there by providing a
minimum cover and fix the reinforcements as per the design
drawings. Sometimes it is commonly seen that the cover gets
misplaced during the concrete activity. To prevent this, tying of
cover with steel bars using thin steel wires called binding wires
(projected from cover surface and placed during making or casting
of cover blocks) is recommended. Covers should be made of
cement and mortar (1:3). Ideally, cover should have strength
similar to the surrounding concrete, with the least perimeter so that
chances of water to penetrate through periphery will be
minimized. Provision of minimum covers as per the Indian
standards for durability of the whole structure should be ensured.
Shape of the cover blocks could be cubical or cylindrical.
However, cover indicates thickness of the cover block. Normally,
cubical cover blocks are used. As a thumb rule, minimum cover of
2” in footing , 1.5” in columns and 1” for other structures may be
ensured.

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 Structure Element Cover to reinforcement (mm)
Footings 40
Columns 40
Slabs 15
Beams 25
Retaining Wall 25 for earth face & 20 for
other face

Figure No.8: Foundation wire mesh

h) Footing Foundation:
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure
that is in direct contact with the soil which transfers loads from the
structure to the soil safely. Generally, the foundation can be
classified into two, namely shallow foundation and deep foundation.
A shallow foundation transfers the load to a stratum present in a
shallow depth. The deep foundation transfers the load to a de eper
depth below the ground surface.

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 Figure No.9: Construction of foundation

i) Plinth Beam:
Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the
wall and its foundation. Plinth beam is provided to prevent the
extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into the wall
above when the foundation suffers from settlement. Plinth beams
distributes the load of the wall over the foundation evenly.

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 Figure No.10: Construction of plinth beam
j) Earth filling in foundation trenches:
Backfilling is the process of filling the excavated Plinth or
trenches after the construction of footing. Plinth filling is done to fill
the area within the Plinth.

Figure No.11: Earth filling in foundation trenches

l) Column Construction:
RCC column is a vertical structural member which transfers loads
from beam and slab directly to the foundation underneath soil. That
means an entire building stands on columns & foundations. Most of
the building failure occurs not only for design fault but also for poor
construction practices.
i) RCC columns are mainly constructed in four different stages,
a) Column Layout Work
b) Column Reinforcement work.

a)Column Layout Work: This is the step of column construction. In

this step, the location of columns is decided practically in the field.
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 It is done by laying rope as per the grids are shown in the drawing
afterward, the location of columns is marked.

Figure No.12: Column Layout work

b)Column Reinforcement work: When marking of column location

is done, the reinforcement of columns are placed according to the
structural to the structural drawing.
For example, C1-4#12mm∅ and stirrup- 7mm∅@6”c/c This
means, the column C1 will have 4 numbers of 12mm diameter
bars as the vertical bar and 7mm diameter steel should be placed
6-inch center to center spacing as the stirrup.

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Figure No.13: Column reinforcement work

5.CONCLUSION

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 The main aim of studies within this project was to investigate how a
structure is constructed within its desired properties. We get knowledge
about the basic & advanced techniques of building construction as well
as saw the challenges which a civil engineer must face during
construction i.e. labour problems, cost management, environmental
challenges etc. We cleared our many doubts regarding building
construction. We had seen dewatering system at project site for
construction, which is not used at our state anymore, so it was a new
thing for us.
Although are subjects more important for technicians, in the project
we have been studied some mechanic or electro-mechanic machinery
such as the ready-mix plant because basic knowledge about their
working is important for an engineer but also because was the
opportunity to see and understand them.
Overall, it must be said that the construction methods and quality
control on a building.
Project needs a very good coordination and large quantities of
manpower, equipment and funds.
During the period of three months all of our school staff helped us a
lot to provide all the information about any query. So we are grateful to
all the staff of Shree Tribhuvan Secondary School Gaushala-5, mahottari
(Nepal) as well as we are so thankful to our Er.Surendra Sah, Er.Raj
Bahadur Sah & Er.Pappu Raushan for their kind support.

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 6.References
♦ Mentor’s notes
♦ Building Construction book of BC Punmia
♦ Website of slideshare.net
♦ Under the suggestion of our technical teacher’s team
♦ Some other notes from our senior’s
♦ Building Construction book of D.Prasad & R.K. Shrestha

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 6.Appendix

Figure No.14: Excavation Work

Figure No.15: Layout of Building

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 Figur

e No.16: Reinforcement work over PCC

Figure No.17: Tying stirrup in plinth beam & column

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 Figure No.18: Pedestal Column

Figure No.19: Bar cutting and bending for stirrup

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Figure No.20: Mixing of concrete

Figure No.21: Site Preparation

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Figure No.22: Getting tips about construction

Figure No.23: Learning about safety precaution

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