Assignment Set 1

Q. No 1. Explain the seven layers of OSI model.

Answer: - The OSI model also known as the Open Systems Interconnection model explains the
functions of networking systems or telecommunication systems. It has 7 layers, each layer
responsible for specific work needed for the communication of 2 or more devices. Below are the
7 layers of the OSI model: -

Physical Layer

Data Link Layer

Network Layer

Transport Layer
OSI Model from
Session Layer Lowest to Highest

Presentation Layer

Application Layer

1. Physical Layer: - The physical layer is responsible for the transmission

of bit stream over a physical medium. It is the responsibility of this layer to carry the
physical part of communication in terms of electrical or optical signals. This is the lowest
level in OSI model.
2. Data Link Layer:- This layer helps to build reliable communication between devices on
same network. This layer divides data into blocks(frames) and send it with necessary
synchronization, error control and flow control.
3. Network Layer: - This layer is responsible for routing data between different networks. It
determines the best path for data to travel from the sender to the receiver. It defines the
 addressing and routing of data packets across multiple networks. Switching and routing
technology is responsibility of this layer only. It is responsible for establishing,
maintaining and terminating connections.
4. Transport Layer: - This layer is responsible for transferring the data reliably and
efficiently between two or more devices. This layer helps in detecting and correcting the
error in data transmission. The transport layer ensures that the entire message arrives in
place and all together, checking both error and flow control at source to destination level.
5. Session Layer: - This layer is responsible for managing the communication between
applications on different devices. This layer can establish, manage, and terminate
connections(sessions) between applications on different devices.
6. Presentation layer: - This layer is responsible for maintaining the syntax and semantics
of the data exchanged between communication devices. This layer can translate, encrypt,
and compress the data before exchange and do the reverse on other device after
exchange.
7. Application Layer: - This is the topmost layer in OSI model. The application layer
provides services to end-users, such as email, file transfer, and web browsing. It interacts
with the software applications that generate and use data, and provides an interface
between the user and the underlying network.

Q. No 2. Explain the structure of circuit switches.

Answer: - Circuit switches are devices used to establish a connection between two points in a
communication network. These switches operate by establishing a dedicated, physical path
between the two points, allowing for continuous communication throughout the duration of the
connection.
The structure of a circuit switch consists of three parts:
1. Input Ports: - This is the entry point of data into switches. It receives data from a source
device like phone or computer.
2. Switching Office: - This connects the input port to output port. It handles the data
communication and assign the incoming data to correct output port based on the address
given for the data.
3. Output Ports: - This is the exit point of data from the switches. It transmits the data to
destination devices like another phone or computer or other digital devices.

The Actual communication in a circuit-switched network happens on three phases: -

1. Connection Setup Phase: - This is the phase where a connection is established between
two endpoints, and a dedicated path is assigned for better quality.
2. Data Transfer Phase: - This is the phase where the actual data transfer happens between
the two devices. The data is being sent on the dedicated path assigned in connection setup
phase.
3. Connection Tear Down Phase:- Once the communication is completed, the dedicated
path and resources will be released for other communications.
Efficiency in Circuit Switches Network: - Circuit switches are not as efficient as others because it
requires a dedicated path and resources for communication, and these are not available for other
communications needs.

Delay in Circuit Switches Network:- The delay in circuit network is minimal because of dedicated path
and resources. There is no waiting time once the communication is started.

Q. No 3. Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission

Answer: - Guided and unguided transmission are two different types of transmission media used
in communication networks. The main difference between them is one is wired another is
wireless. Guided transmission uses physical conductor whereas unguided transmission uses
electromagnetic waves.
Guided Transmission: - In guided transmission devices are connected through physical
conductors like twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber optic cable. In guided transmission
signals travels through specific path.
A) Twisted-Pair Cable:- A twisted pair consist of two copper conductors each with its own
insulation twisted together. In twisted pair cable, one of the wires is used to carry signals to
receiver and the other is used only as a reference. It has less interference and is commonly
used in telephone and ethernet network.
B) Coaxial Cable: - Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted -pair
cable. It consist of a central conductor surrounded by a layer of insulation, which is in turn
surrounded by a conductive shield. This type of guided transmission is commonly used in
cable TV networks.
C) Fiber-Optic Cable:- A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and it transmits signals in
the form of light. Light travels in straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substances. If a ray of light traveling through one substances suddenly enter another
substance, it changes its direction. Fiber optics wide bandwidth is very cost-effective.

Unguided Transmission:- Unguided transmission is also known as wireless transmission where

transmission happens through the air or free space. In unguided transmission signals are not
guided to specific path it can travel in any direction. It transports electromagnetic waves without
using any physical conductor.
A) Radio Waves: - Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are called as radio waves. Radio waves propagate in all the direction and sending
and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. This type of unguided transmission is
commonly used in radio and TV broadcasting, as well as in wireless communication
networks like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
B) Microwaves: - Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. Sending and receiving antennas need
to be aligned properly. This type of unguided transmission is commonly used in satellite
communication and microwave communication systems.
 C) Infrared: - Infrared waves having frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz and can be
used for short range communications.

Assignment Set 2
Q. No 4. Describe frequency division multiplexing.
Answer: - Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique used in communication
networks to transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single communication channel. A
different frequency is assigned to each signal within the main channel. FDM is used when the
useful bandwidth of the transmission medium exceeds the required bandwidth of signals to be
transmitted. A number of signals can be carried simultaneously if each signal is modulated onto a
different carrier frequency and the carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated that the
bandwidths of the signals do not overlap. The input signals may be either digital or analog, but
the composite signal transmitted across the medium is analog. In case of digital input signal, it is
converted into analog by passing it through modems. Input analog signals then be modulated to
move it to the appropriate frequency band. The reason for using this technology is using existing
physical media more efficiently by maximizing the amount of data that can be transferred. Once
data is multiplexed, we can amplify, conduct, or change the frequency of the signal as needed to
match our needs. An attractive feature of FDM is that the transmitting end and receiving end do
not have to be close to each other. This made FDM widely used in the first telecommunication
mediums. This was later replaced with digital methods. Broadcast and cable television are
familiar examples of FDM. For years, cable TV companies have used FDM to transmit many
channels over the same wire. The cable company simultaneously sends the signals for all TV
channels we need, at the same time through a single coaxial cable. When FDM is used in a
communications network, each input signal is always sent and received at maximum speed. But,
if many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line and the necessary bandwidth is
large, a different method known as time division multiplexing is used. Another method of FDM
is orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). This technology was first developed in
1960s and 1970s during research to minimize interference among channels that had frequencies
near each other. OFDM is like FDM in a few aspects. The difference lies in the way in which
signals are combined and separated. With OFDM, priority is given to minimize the interference
among the channels rather than focusing on improving the individual channels. OFDM is used in
European digital audio broadcast services such as digital television. It is also used in wireless
local area networks.

Q. No 5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of CDMA.

Answer: - Below are the advantage of CDMA also knows as Code Division Multiple Access: -
A) Enhanced Capacity: - Same frequency is used by many user users without interfering
with each other. CDMA provides more capacity than other technologies like GSM and
TDMA for data and voice transmission by efficiently utilizing fixed frequency spectrum.
It has no limits on number of users and addition of more user is very easy.
B) Security: - Each user in CDMA has unique code assigned making it very difficult for
unauthorised access and make it impossible for hackers to intercept and decrypt.
C) Better Call Quality: - CDMA uses a wider frequency band which reduces noise and
interference which turns to provide better signal strength and call quality.
D) Roaming: - CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies which allow seamless
roaming across regions.
E) Enhanced multimedia and faster data transfer:- CDMA allows video calling and
conferencing, access of internet Video and Audio on mobile . It also provides faster data
transfer making multimedia experience super rich.
F) The combination of digital and spread-spectrum modes supports several times as many
signals per unit bandwidth as analog modes.
G) In CDMA there is no sense of handoff while exchanging cells. It uses soft handoff, which
minimize signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another.
H) Global Standard:- CDMA is globally accepted standard which help devices to run on any
CDMA network across the world, making is a perfect choice for international travellers.

Below is the disadvantage of CDMA: -

A) Limited device compatibility: - Option are limited for CDMA network compatible
devices making it difficult for consumers to choose from limited option.
B) Complex Technology: - CDMA required more advanced software and hardware than
other wireless communication technologies, which makes it more difficult to implement
and maintain.
C) Cost: - Advanced and complex technology used in CDMA network makes it more
expensive to maintain and operate.
D) Capacity limitation: - In CDMA same frequency band is used by many user without
interfering with each other , but still it has limitation on number of users in same
frequency band.
E) Interference: - CDMA prevents user interference in same frequency band but it can still
be affected by weather and other wireless signals.
F) Limited network coverage: - CDMA network is not seamlessly available in all the area
specially remote or rural area.
G) Bandwidth limitation: - CDMA has limited bandwidth, which may affect the quality
and speed of data transfers.
H) Roaming limitation: - Although CDMA is global standard but international roaming
may be affected by the limited network availability in remote and rural areas.
I) Unavailability of voice and data service together:- CDMA network does not support
Voice and data service together which is a big disadvantage.
Q. No 6. Describe IEEE standards.
Answer:- IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, which provides
guidelines and protocols for design, development and operation of many electrical and
electronics devices. Below are the some of the IEEE standards: -
A) IEEE 802.11: This standard defines wireless local area network (WLAN) technologies,
including Wi-Fi, which is widely used for wireless internet access in homes, offices, and
public places.
B) IEEE 802.3: This standard defines Ethernet, which is the most widely used wired
networking technology in the world.
C) IEEE 802.1Q: This standard defines virtual LAN (VLAN) technology, which allows
multiple networks to be created on a single physical network
D) IEEE 802.16: This standard defines the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access (WiMAX), which is a wireless broadband technology that can provide high-speed
internet access over long distances.
E) IEEE 802.15: This standard defines wireless personal area network (WPAN)
technologies, including Bluetooth, which is used for short-range wireless communication
between devices.
F) IEEE 1547: This standard defines requirements for interconnecting distributed energy
resources (DERs) with electric power systems, including renewable energy sources like
solar and wind power.

Purpose of IEEE Standards:- The main purpose of IEEE standards is to facilitate

interoperability and promote innovation. Interoperability refers to the ability of different
systems or components to work together seamlessly. IEEE standards help achieve
interoperability by specifying common protocols, formats, or interfaces that allow different
systems to communicate and exchange data. This, in turn, enables the development of new
applications and services that can leverage existing technologies. IEEE standards also
promote innovation by providing a common platform for researchers, engineers, and
developers to collaborate and share knowledge. Standards help accelerate the development of
new technologies by providing a framework for testing, evaluating, and validating new ideas.
This, in turn, can lead to the creation of new markets and industries, as well as the
improvement of existing products and services.
Benefits of IEEE Standards:- IEEE standards offer several benefits to various stakeholders,
including industry professionals, consumers, and regulators. Below are some of the benefits:
-
A) Improved interoperability: IEEE standards help ensure that different systems or
components can work together seamlessly, reducing compatibility issues and increasing
efficiency.
B) Enhanced reliability and safety: IEEE standards provide guidelines and requirements
for ensuring the reliability and safety of various technologies, reducing the risk of failures
or accidents.
C) Increased efficiency and productivity: IEEE standards provide best practices and
recommendations for optimizing the performance and functionality of various
technologies, increasing productivity, and reducing costs.
D) Facilitated innovation: IEEE standards provide a common platform for researchers,
engineers, and developers to collaborate and share knowledge, accelerating the
development of new technologies and applications.
E) Simplified regulation: IEEE standards provide a common framework for regulatory
bodies to ensure the safety and compatibility of various technologies, reducing the need
for complex and fragmented regulations.