Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Habitat International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/habitatint

Transforming post-industrial landscapes into urban parks: Design strategies T

and theory in Seoul, 1998–present
Myeong-Jun Lee
Esoo Landscape, Urban Curation Laboratory, 3F, 4-1, Yeouidaebang-ro, 19-gil, Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul, 07433, South Korea

1. Introduction nineteenth century. A second major approach to Brownfield sites is

exploration of ways to conserve and use the sites' history and memory
1.1. Background (Braae, 2015; Chan, 2009; Folkerts, 2015; Hemmings & Kagel, 2010;
Kang, 2014; Kang, Lee, & Choi, 2003; Kirkwood, 2001; Son & Pae,
Over the last two decades in Seoul, many projects for transformation 2017). They have studied design strategies and how designers have
of post-industrial landscapes into urban parks have been carried out. At addressed site history, focusing on various approaches to renovation of
present, the Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) is managing urban the abandoned buildings. Recent research approaches analyze different
regeneration projects for brownfield sites including factories, power perceptions of post-industrial landscapes between the public and pro-
plants, military bases, and transportation facilities. The projects plan to fessionals (Loures, 2015).
revitalize post-industrial areas that no longer serve their initial pur- However, Korean projects during the last two decades have not been
poses and have fallen into urban decay, restoring them through creative well explored in English-language research. Korean scholars, of course,
reuse/recycling into green, open spaces. This design trend emerged in have studied Korean post-industrial landscapes in terms of aesthetics
Europe and North American cities beginning in the mid-twentieth and memory. However, even they have not focused on the Korean
century; it gained influence in Seoul around the turn of the twenty-first specificity of the sites and their restoration, including topographical,
century, and since then it has greatly influenced South Korean land- historical, and political conditions, which strongly influence the design
scape architecture. Several of the projects referred to above have been of Korean post-industrial landscapes. More importantly, they have also
highly acclaimed for their design quality by both Korean and interna- not explored the relationships between practice and theory in Korean
tional critics. For example, Seonyudo Park and West Seoul Lake Park landscape architecture and those in Western landscape architecture,
were recognized at the ASLA (American Society of Landscape including the design of post-industrial landscapes. Indeed, Korean
Architects) professional awards in 2004 and 2011. In reusing derelict landscape architects have embraced the latest (Western-derived) design
sites and making them into urban parks, most Korean landscape ar- trends in practice and theory, as epitomized by their designs of post-
chitects have considered the sites as palimpsests, taking up the notion industrial landscapes.
that the site retains various layers of local and Korean cultural history,
and embracing the “memory” of the site alongside the recycling of its 1.2. Research objective and methodology
physical infrastructure. Since 1998, when post-industrial landscapes
began to appear in Seoul, over the last two decades, attitudes towards This work, with a focus on the Korean context, examines design
post-industrial sites and the specific design strategies applied to them approaches and specific strategies for transforming post-industrial sites
have been gradually but constantly changing, in response to the chan- into urban parks, and explores changes in them over the last two dec-
ging social needs and circumstances of Seoul. ades. It first discusses Korea-specific contextual matters related to post-
Most scholars of landscape architecture have treated the design of industrial landscapes in terms of urban conditions and the practice and
post-industrial landscapes mainly in terms of the reusing/recycling of theory of Korean landscape architecture. It then briefly examines the
physical structures and environments in the sites. One group of studies Korean landscape architects’ three main attitudes towards post-in-
has looked at the unique aesthetic attractions, sensibilities, and ex- dustrial landscapes, which are aesthetic objects, repositories of
periences of industrial ruins (Meyer, 1998, 2007, 2008; Haddad, 1996; memory, and sources of potential ecological, cultural, and educational
Herrington, 2006; Lee & Pae, 2012; Pollak, 2007). They have often value.
interpreted the aesthetic quality characteristic of these sites in terms of In the sections that follow, this work scrutinizes significant projects
the notions of the sublime and melancholy, which are novel char- during the last two decades chronologically. Specifically, it focuses on
acteristics of parks, contrary to the pastoral parks epitomized by Fre- metropolitan Seoul, the capital city of South Korea (Fig. 1). Seoul was
derick Law Olmsted's Central Park, constructed in the mid-to-late the site of many early Korean projects for converting post-industrial

E-mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102023
Received 25 February 2019; Received in revised form 20 May 2019; Accepted 20 July 2019
Available online 31 July 2019
0197-3975/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 1. Distribution of case study sites in Seoul. (1: Yeongdengpo Park, 2: Haneul Park, 3: Seounyudo Park, 4: Seoul Forest Park, 5: West Seoul Lake Park, 6: Yongsan
Park, 7: Gyeongui Line Forest, 8: Seoullo, 9: Culture Tank).
(Source: author's drawing based on a digital map from the National Geographic Information Institute of Korea).

landscapes into urban parks, including projects well known all over the outskirts, because of the city's continuous expansion, those same facil-
world, such as Seonyudo Park and West Seoul Lake Park. Furthermore, ities are now located in the inner city (see Fig. 1). As such, as they have
the city is currently holding many international landscape or archi- become degraded and non-operational, many have been made acces-
tectural competitions for recycling brownfield sites into open spaces. sible to the public by conversion into urban parks. In designing them,
This work examines noteworthy projects since 1998, when urban park designers need to fully consider their surroundings in order to actively
conversion for post-industrial sites first appeared in Korea. Most of use the sites' industrial facilities as urban green infrastructure.
them were occasions for design competitions and were featured in Second, since Korean industrialization began relatively late, in the
Landscape Architecture Korea (LAK),1 the only magazine for Korean late nineteenth century, and since much of it was destroyed in the
landscape architecture. Therefore, the selected projects were or are well 1950s during the Korean War and rebuilt, the post-industrial landscapes
known to the public as well as professional Korean landscape architects and buildings in them are not particularly old. Furthermore, Seoul and
and scholars. other Korean cities rapidly industrialized in the second half of the
Methodologically, this study carries out a literature review, case twentieth century. Thus, most of Seoul's post-industrial sites for urban
studies, and site visits. That is, it first examines existing scholarly re- park design were constructed after the mid-twentieth century.
search, books, magazines, and proposals submitted to design competi- Third, there is no legislation for conservation of late-twentieth-
tions, in order to fully understand the wide range of issues related to century post-industrial landscapes as industrial heritage in Korea, and
post-industrial landscapes in design practice and theory. Next, it carries thus such sites have been frequently recycled and converted into urban
out site visits to learn how designers’ proposals were embodied in real parks at the discretion of landscape architects. Globally, TICCIH (The
space and to collect visual materials. Through this analysis, it illustrates International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial
changes in design strategies for post-industrial sites over the last two Heritage) was founded in 1973, and specific criteria for registration and
decades as well as relationships between Korean and western landscape conservation of post-industrial landscapes have been formulated by
architectural practice and theory. ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) and UNESCO
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
World Heritage. In Korea, a Registered Cultural Heritage system was
2. Contexts: Korean post-industrial landscapes and landscape first implemented in 2001 to designate architectural structures or
architecture monumental sites, including industrial facilities that have significant
value in representing the modern period. (Cultural Heritage
To fully understand the design of post-industrial sites in Seoul, we Administration of Korea, CHA, 2019)2 However, even this system, the
need to consider Korean contexts, including Seoul's urban circum- only legislation for conservation of industrial heritage in Korea, in-
stances as well as professional landscape-architectural practice and cludes only facilities built before the Korean War (see Cho & Shin,
theory in Korea. In terms of the urban circumstances and environment, 2014). In other words, the lack of legislation on facilities constructed
because of Korea's small, mountainous land area, Korean post-industrial since the Korean War has allowed designers to creatively recycle and
sites tend to be situated in or near cities. In particular, in Seoul, al- transform post-industrial sites into urban open spaces.
though many industrial facilities were initially constructed in the Fourth, Korean public design projects tends to depend on the

1
LAK is the new name (since January 2014) of Environmental & Landscape
2
Architecture of Korea (January 2000–December 2013)/Korea Landscape Korean scholars began to explore the notion of cultural heritage, its con-
Architecture (before January 2000). servation and creative reuse, around 2003 (Kang et al., 2003).

2
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

political and social situation. Initial designs have often been changed places is displayable in the form of visual materials including photo-
according to the needs of many interested parties, including the SMG, graphs and videos as well as in items of everyday life (Fig. 5).
associated ministries, and civic groups. For example, the initial design
of Youngsan Park, a plan to transform a US military base into an urban
3.3. Potential for ecological, cultural, and educational value
park, continues to be modified to address different needs of government
ministries and to remove environmental contamination associated with
Post-industrial sites have been used to generate ecological processes
past military use (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 2017).
and cultural and educational programs, which have helped regenerate
As a result, the design and the following construction processes have
derelict industrial structures, driven no longer by fossil fuels but by
been delayed.
ecology and culture.
Shifting to Korean landscape architecture, practitioners have tended
First, Korean landscape architects have frequently used rusting ar-
to rapidly embrace Western design trends. Many international design
chitectural structures to embody ecological processes (Fig. 3). As Eli-
competitions have been held in Korea, especially in Seoul, where in-
zabeth Meyer explains, an ecological park using industrial ruins mimics
ternational star landscape architects have participated and collaborated
not the appearance of nature but instead evokes its processes, thereby
with Korean firms. Second, Korean landscape architecture has rapidly
embodying “sustaining beauty” (Meyer, 2008). Post-industrial land-
embraced Western landscape-architectural theory, for example
scapes in which rusting structures and nature are intertwined generate
Landscape Urbanism, large parks design, and resilience for urban parks
a unique, dynamic aesthetic experience by revealing the natural forces
(Waldheim, 2006; Czerniak & Hargreaves eds., 2007). To fully under-
that destroy the structures and the structures’ resistance (Crawford,
stand the Korean design of post-industrial sites, the recent history of
1983, p. 55). Second, the industrial structures have been recycled to
Korean landscape-architectural practice and theory need to be ex-
convey various types of culture, including both traditional and new
amined in more detail, which the next section will do.
regional culture, pertaining to the sites and their surroundings (Fig. 5).
Furthermore, both ecological and cultural programs fulfill educational
3. Attitudes towards post-industrial landscapes in Korea
functions (Fig. 3), in that the ecological system of the parks embodies
the healing power of nature, which revives abandoned, degraded, and
3.1. Aesthetic objects
toxic sites (Lee & Pae, 2012). Thereby, the aesthetic experience of the
post-industrial landscapes can promote the apprehension of the re-
Landscape architects have treated the architectural structures of
lationship between energy consumption, environmental pollution, and
post-industrial sites as aesthetic objects. They have creatively reused
ecological health (Meyer, 2008, pp. 20–21).
raw materials and exploited the appearance of the crumbling, rusting
industrial ruins, emphasizing the materiality of the sublime, to provide
a unique aesthetic landscape experience for people. Visitors are able to 4. Changes of design strategies and theory for post-industrial
view the industrial ruins, symbols of progress and advanced economy, landscapes in Seoul
and creatively reconstruct the history of the industrialization period.
Furthermore, according to studies on landscape aesthetics (Crawford, 4.1. Industrial ruins as exhibition objects (early days, before 2000)
1983; Herrington, 2006; Meyer, 1998), visitors can also contemplate
the incursion of nature within the industrial ruins, and feel melancholy In 1998, Seoul's first urban parks using post-industrial landscapes
at the sites’ decline and the transience of the present. were opened to the public. They were products of an SMG project be-
Korean landscape architects have adopted two design strategies for ginning in 1996 that aimed to transform post-industrial sites including
post-industrial landscapes. First, some designers preserve industrial factories and industrial facilities into urban parks to expand urban
structures and reveal its aesthetic characteristics and those of its ruin as green space. These early parks tended to use rusting architectural
much as possible. The attitude is further subdivided into two ap- structures as objects for display. The former use of Yeongdengpo Park
proaches to design: one is use of the rusting industrial structures as (designed by Dong Myeong Engineering Consultant and Architecture), a
sculpture artifacts, for exhibition (Fig. 2); the other is actively reusing typical example, had been a famous Korean brewery, the Oriental
architectural structures to form the spatial structure of the park (Kang, Brewery (OB) built in 1933. The only industrial structure that remained
2014) (Fig. 3). Second, some designers prefer to tame the rough char- in its original state was a huge, pure copper pot for boiling hops and
acteristics of industrial structures, embellishing and reorganizing the malts. The artifact is located in the middle of the park square, like a
structure and its appearance (Fig. 4). sculpture. As a Korean scholar pointed out, the artifact is not enough to
fully reveal the site's whole memory and history, that is, its sense of
3.2. Repository of memory place (Fig. 2). This is because, except for the rusting cooper pot, there
are no traces of the history of the site, whose design has produced a
Landscape architects consider industrial structure as a repository of rather indistinctive appearance (Pae, 2007, pp. 33–34)
memory, and represent the sites' industrial history by reusing/recycling This attitude towards industrial ruins seems inherited in part from
the industrial structure and designing new cultural programs using the the Gas Works Park, designed by Richard Haag in 1971 and featured in
sites' memory. As discussed earlier, most Korean post-industrial sites LAK in July 1992 (Park, 1992), which was well-known to Korean
were built in the later twentieth century and are not designated landscape architects.3 Similar to the huge manufacturing structures si-
Registered Cultural Heritage. Thus, they have been creatively alterable tuated and displayed on the open lawn, Yeongdengpo Park uses the
according to designers’ own ideas. rusting copper pot as an aesthetic component. However, whereas the
Design strategies for exploiting the industrial history of the sites can former's structures support cultural programs and are used by the
be roughly divided into two. First, designers have recycled architectural visitors, the latter's industrial ruin functions only as an object of visual
structures as the medium of conveying memory. Since ruins are them- pleasure. In Korean landscape architectural theory of the late twentieth
selves fragments or parts of a structure, they embody the memory of the
site (Crawford, 1983, pp. 52–53). Thus, industrial ruins evoke for 3
Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord (designed by Latz + Partner in 1991) had
visitors a sense of their industrial past and allow them to appreciate and already been constructed at that point, and, as it had been featured in LAK in
associate with that past. Some designers preserve architectural struc- 1995 (Meinicke, 1995; Schmid, 1995), was known to Korean landscape archi-
tures in their original state, leave parts of them, or construct new ar- tects. However, an ecological park recycling industrial structures, as epitomized
tifacts using construction debris. Second, sites have been captured in by the Landschaftspark, did not appear in Korea until 2002, when Seonyudo
creative ways in exhibition programs. The industrial history of the Park was opened.

3
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 2. Pure copper pot for boiling hops and malts, used as an exhibition object. Yeongdengpo Park.
(Source: author's photograph, 22 August 2018).

century, discourses on the sense of place and design methods employing former waste materials were not actively reused, the park was the first
it were important, dominant issues, by which design strategies using Korean design project for the regeneration of open space that tried to
post-industrial landscapes were supported.4 However, Korean works use recovery of nature as a main design concept.
had a limitation: the tendency to use industrial ruins like exhibition
objects, in which visitors could not actively participate.
4.3. Recycling industrial ruins for ecological process (Seonyudo Park,
opened in 2002)
4.2. Transforming landfill into park (Sky Park, opened in 2002)
Seonyudo (Seonyu Island) Park is the first Korean project to recycle
After 2000, several works acclaimed for their design qualities began post-industrial sites into an ecological park. The site is one of the few
to appear in Seoul. One such early park is Haneul Park (Sky Park), islands in the Han River, traversing Seoul's east to west, which made the
designed and constructed beginning in 2000 and opened in 2002 (de- island, Seonyubong (peak of the Seounyudo) a famous scenic location
signed by Yangkyo Chin). The site, named Nanjido, had been func- during the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897). Then, during Japan's colonial
tioning as Seoul's landfill for about fifteen years since 1978. In con- occupation of Korea (1910–1945), the island peaks were cut and carried
structing the main stadium for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the place and to other places for raw materials. From 1978 to 2000, the Seonyu Water
its surroundings were transformed into an urban park. Stabilizing the Purification Plant ran here. In 1999, a design competition to transform
landfill and then creatively using the condition of high landform, the the site into an urban park was held, and the team of SeoAhn Total
designer established a wide field of reeds atop the landform and si- Landscape, Johsungyong architect's office, and Dasan Consultant won,
tuated several observation points on it, which provided an unobstructed opening the park in 2002 (ASLA, 2004; SeoAhn, 2000; Sung, 2002).
view of the city and the Han River, from the sloping sides of the site. The park was acclaimed as a design masterpiece by many Korean
This scenery conveys the healing power of nature, and the image of a landscape design critics as well as designers and scholars of the fields of
living ecology reviving the degraded and polluted site (Fig. 6). Fur- the built environment (Pae, 2007, pp. 56–73; Lee & Pae, 2012). Fur-
thermore, the park uses methane gas out of the landfill as a power thermore, the park was the first Korean winner of an ASLA Professional
source and produces renewable energy with wind turbines. Award in 2004 (ASLA, 2004). It is still considered one of Korea's most
The park design was highly influenced by that of Byxbee Park in famous urban parks by the public as well as the best urban design
Palo Alto, designed by Hargreaves Associates in 1992. The designer of project in Korea selected by Korean landscape architects and archi-
Sky Park stated that like the designers of Byxbee Park, he tried to tects.5 Whereas former Korean works had tended to use industrial
embody the former history of the site as a huge landfill by designing structures as objects for display, as discussed above, Seonyudo Park
sculptures recycled out of waste materials from the landfill (Chin, 2000, used the complex structures of the facilities to organically form an
p. 95). However, in the construction process, the original design using overall spatial framework, actively revealing the distinctive appearance
the sculptures did not materialize, and thus the methane gas pipes of the rusting industrial ruins. The park embodies the sublime and
evoke for visitors the park's former history as a landfill. Although
5
For example, the park came in third place in a survey for selection of Korean
4
In Korea, the notion of “sense of place” means the identity of the place, that modern architectural masterpieces carried out by the Korean newspaper the
is, the genius loci including the place's various historical, social, environmental, DongA Ilbo and prominent Korean architectural magazine SPACE in 2013 (Park,
and cultural layers (Lee & Hwang, 1997). 2013).

4
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 3. Industrial structures of a settling basin for chemicals now functioning as a nest for aquatic ecological processes. Seounyudo Park.
(Source: author's photograph, 22 August 2018).

Fig. 4. Bones of buildings of existing water purification plant functioning as frames of geometric gardens. West Seoul Lake Park.
(Source: author's photograph, 12 November 2018).

melancholic sensibilities in the way it performs the spatial choreo- importantly, the park was the first work in Korea to creatively use the
graphy of the complex facilities and the ecological processes covering ecological process, which filled the derelict and empty architectural
them (Fig. 7). In addition, the strategy of revealing raw materials suc- structures. Specifically, the ‘Water Purification Basin’ is now an ecolo-
cessfully conveys the site's industrial history, so that visitors can im- gical garden situated in the remnants of the original structure, a settling
mediately understand that history as embodied knowledge. Third, most basin for chemicals. The garden is full of various aquatic plants, which

5
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 5. Museum exhibition displaying the industrial history of the oil tank. Culture Tank.
(Source: author's photograph, 31 January 2019).

function to purify water in nature. In other words, the garden is a 4.4. Designing large parks (Seoul Forest Park, opened in 2005)
product of the creative interpretation of its original function, as pur-
ification of chemicals as an ecological process (Fig. 3). Fourth, the park After the advent of ecological uses of Korean post-industrial sites,
provides an environmental educational effect for visitors in the way it design strategies transforming large brownfield sites into urban parks
embodies the healing power of nature, reviving the derelict and en- began to appear. One of them is Seoul Forest Park, situated in
vironmentally degraded sites (Lee & Pae, 2012). Ttukseom, which had functioned for a variety of purposes, including
In this sense, Korean scholars and critics have commented on the the royal hunting grounds during the Joseon Dynasty; Seoul's first water
similarity between the design of Seonyudo Park and that of purification plant, built in 1908; and a horse race track, recreation park,
Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord, designed by Latz + Partner (Peter and golf course in the second half of the twentieth century. In 2003,
Latz) in 1991 (Lee & Pae, 2012). Although other works converting post- SMG announced a plan to convert the site into an urban park and then
industrial sites into urban parks, including the Parc de la Villette (de- held a design competition won by the team of Dongsimwon Landscape
signed by Bernard Tschumi and OMA/Rem Koolhaas in 1984) and Gas Design and Construction Co., Daewoo Engineering, and Kyungjin Zoh.
Works Park, were already well-known to Korean landscape architects, The park was constructed and opened in 2005.
the Landschaftspark, presented in LAK in May and December 1995 Similar to Seonyudo Park, the Gallery Garden of Seoul Forest Park
(Meinicke, 1995; Schmid, 1995), enormously influenced the design of left the remnant of the water purification facilities which the various
Seonyudo Park (Lee & Pae, 2012; Pae, 2007, p. 83). Whereas the Gas plants cover (Fig. 8). Thereby, the garden provides sublime and mel-
Works Park took advantage of the visual and cultural valences of the ancholic sensibilities. The race course was used to form a circulatory
industrial structures, the Landschaftspark intended to recycle these spine through the park, conveying the former history of the site. Fur-
rusting industrial structures to inject ecological processes in them, in- thermore, the existing reservoir was used to create a wetland ecological
tertwining them with wild plants to represent a sensibility of wild- park, where pillars of water purification facilities were left to function
erness. This strategy seems similar to that of Seonyudo Park, whose as sculptures. (Ahn, 2005). Whereas Seonyudo Park actively used the
ecological transformation then sparked an important fashion in the industrial structures to create the spatial structure throughout the site,
design of post-industrial sites in Korea. Seoul Forest Park retained these remnants as they were but found new
functions for some and integrated into the park.

6
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 6. Methane gas out of the landfill recycling as a power source. Haneul Park.
(Source: author's photograph, 31 January 2019).

Fig. 7. Incursion of nature within the industrial ruins, evoking melancholic sensibilities at their decline and the transience of the present. Seounyudo Park.
(Source: author's photograph, 22 August 2018).

More importantly, the park received attention because it constituted for demonstration of the design strategy, including layering diagram
the first Korean work designing large urban park sites. First, the win- overlaying various forms of organization on the site, such as walking
ning proposal created a phasing plan, although it was not specific, for a paths, streams, and green spaces. Third, the park introduced Korea's
flexible long-term construction process (Fig. 9) (Pae, 2007, p. 87). first public–private partnership to manage an urban park and fostered
Second, the proposal explored computerized visualization techniques citizens' participation at every stage, from planning and operation to

7
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 8. Various plants covering remnants of the water purification facilities. Seoul Forest Park.
(Source: author's photograph, 30 August 2018).

Fig. 9. Phasing plan (left) and design strategies (right), the former illustrating construction sequence of water purification plant, the latter demonstrating the
evolution, network, and regeneration of the park. Winning proposal of Seoul Forest Park competition, 2003.
(Source: Dongsimwon Landscape Design and Construction Co., Daewoo Engineering, and Kyungjin Zoh).

management. These design strategies, including supporting visuals, 4.5. Recycling for ecological process as a cliché (West Seoul Lake Park,
were influenced by proposals in design competitions for Downsview opened in 2009)
Park in Toronto in 2000 and Fresh Kills Landfill Park in New York in
2001 (Pae, 2007, p. 92)6 Furthermore, in terms of theory of landscape West Seoul Lake Park, similar to Seonyudo Park, has a history as a
architecture, Landscape Urbanism, which mainly addresses post-in- water purification plant, built in 1959 and operated for over fifty years.
dustrial sites, has become influential among Korean theorists since its In 2007, a design competition for its transformation into an urban park
introduction to Korean landscape architecture in 2001 (Pae, 2001b, was won by Ctopos Design; the park was completed and opened in 2009
2004a, 2004b). Thus, Seoul Forest Park was the first Korean large post- (Son, 2010).
industrial site revitalization project designed under a long-term process, Korean design critics commented that the design strategy of the
including planning, construction, and management. park was similar to that of Seonyudo Park (Lee & Pae, 2012), since both
parks actively used rusting industrial facilities to create a spatial fra-
mework for the whole park. Especially in the Mondrian Plaza, a fea-
6
tured space at the park, remnants of old reinforced steel concrete tanks
The Downsview Park competition was featured by LAK in January 2001 and
from the former water purification plant were recycled to create a
published in a Korean academic journal in 2002 (Pae, 2001a; 2002a). Fresh
variety of scaled geometric gardens introducing the Mondrian compo-
Kills Park was addressed by LAK in February and March in 2002, and in an
academic journal in 2005 (Jeong & Corner, 2005; Pae, 2002b). sition. Furthermore, the regenerated structures embodied the former

8
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

history of the site as an industrial facility and function as the ecological Korean theorists and designers in 2010. (Czerniak & Hargreaves eds.,
process of the water cycle system in the garden (Choi, 2009, p. 29). The 2007).8 The discourse addressed the concept of resilience not only as an
design was highly acclaimed by Korean and international design critics ecological concept but also as a tool for design and management of
and scholars. In 2011, the park, following the first award for Seonyudo urban parks. The resilience of an urban park, Julia Czerniak has stated,
Park in 2004, won the ASLA Professional Awards (ASLA, 2011). is its ability to accommodate diverse and changing social, cultural,
However, the two parks also differ in terms of ways of recycling technological, and political circumstances while maintaining its iden-
industrial ruins and their aesthetic appearance. Seonyudo Park em- tity (Czerniak, 2007, p. 216). Embracing the discourse of resilience, the
phasized the materiality of the sublime in the appearance of the in- general plan for the park included a phasing plan with an open-ended
dustrial structures, revealed in their rough state, permeated by ecolo- process to enable the park to adapt to ecological, economic, political,
gical processes. In contrast, West Seoul Lake Park tamed and partly and social changes (Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs,
used the rough quality of industrial ruins, in which other artificial in- 2010). However, despite the long-term vision of the plan and the
terventions were added, as shown in the Mondrian Plaza (Fig. 4).7 winning proposal, it is still unpredictable when construction will begin,
Given that the two parks achieved great success among both the Korean given the variety of issues onsite, including when the garrison will be
public and design critics, the design strategy that injects ecological relocated, how environmental contamination associated with military
processes into post-industrial sites became a dominant trend in Korean activities will be dealt with, and changing social and political condi-
landscape architecture (Kang, 2014, p. 151). Although the design ap- tions including surrounding urban development and the timing of re-
proach had initially been considered a creative new design strategy, it location of US Army base. The initial plan has been modified due to the
gradually came to be viewed as a cliché, producing monotonous eco- needs of different interested parties, including associated ministries,
logical parks using industrial facilities. SMG, and civic groups (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport,
2017).9

4.6. Resilient park design (ongoing Yongsan Park project, General Basic
Plan in 2009–2010/competition in 2012) 4.7. Constructing new cultural identity (Gyeongui Line Forest, Seoullo,
Culture Tank)
Yongsan Park had been planning to transform one of Seoul's US
Army garrisons into an urban park. In 2003, Yongsan garrison was More recently, transportation infrastructures including derelict
slated to be relocated to Pyeongtaek, and a special law for Yongsan's railroad tracks and highway overpasses have been converted to linear
conversion into an urban park was enacted in 2007. Under this law, the open space with new cultural identities, to attract many visitors
General Basic Plan for the Creation and Zoning of Yongsan Park was (Kullmann, 2011). Gyeongui Line Forest, one well-known example, was
carried out during 2009–2010 (Ministry of Land, Transport and a series of trails repurposing abandoned railroad tracks at ground level
Maritime Affairs, 2010), and, then, based on the plan, an international into open spaces. One part of Gyeongui Line Forest, Yeonnam-dong
design competition was held in 2012 (Pae et al., 2013). The West 8 and district, opened in 2015, is a current Seoul hotspot. It is located in
Iroje team won the first prize (Rosenfield, 2012; West 8, 2012). Hongdae, the district around Hongik University, which is known for
The site is large at 2.4 km2, similar to the size of Hyde Park in Korean indie music, clubs, and urban arts, with which the trail func-
London. Occupied by the Japanese military in the early twentieth tions as a Korean youth and foreign tourist destination. This simple and
century and by US Army during the second half of the twentieth cen- considerate gesture transformed derelict transportation facilities into
tury, the site has a variety of urban infrastructure, including roads, public green spaces and generated new identities for Korean post-in-
buildings, and green spaces. Most importantly, due to its location in the dustrial landscapes by providing linear, healthy walking paths for re-
center of Seoul, the site is accessible to many. The general plan and the sidents of downtown Seoul.
following winning proposal determined the priorities of conservation, Seoullo is a famous linear elevated park, constructed atop a former
part-conservation, or demolition of existing buildings, including bar- highway overpass itself constructed in 1970, situated right next to Seoul
racks and billets built during Japanese and US Army occupations, ac- Station. In 2015, an international design competition for its transfor-
cording to their perceived historical, artistic, academic, and social va- mation into green public space selected MVRDV's proposal Seoul
lues. The specific priorities for the conservation and reuse of the site's Arboretum plan, and the arboretum opened in 2017 (Kim, 2015). The
history reflected an advanced approach to urban park design, which winning proposal created a novel design idea for the arboretum, which
had not been the case before (Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime transforms linear post-industrial structures into a raised public green
Affairs, 2010; Pae et al., 2013). For instance, the winning proposal space full of a variety of local plants and flowers. Using the original
creatively explored a strategy for recycling existing buildings, under a infrastructure's linear form and direct connection to the city, the pro-
new interpretation of Korean spatial tradition (Lee & Pae, 2018). Spe- posal created green veins permeating adjacent places at the center of
cifically, the team designed various types of madang, the Korean tra-
ditional multi-purpose yard, recycling various traces of the existing
8
buildings, whether in their original state or mere fragments and even Large park discourse is part of Landscape Urbanism. Landscape Urbanism
footprints of demolished structures, into new platforms for the various has often been criticized by adherents of New Urbanism for fostering spatial
inequality through the spectacularization and commercialization of space en-
activities and culture of the park (Fig. 10).
couraged by Landscape Urbanism projects. Responding to these criticisms, it
The general plan and the winning proposal for the park were the
revised and strengthened its ideas and evolved into Ecological Urbanism
first Korean works with phasing plans, which used the concept of re-
(Duany & Talen, 2013; Lee & Pae, 2015), which still influences the practice and
silience as a tool for Korean large parks' design and management theory of Korean landscape architecture (Kim & Jeong, 2014).
(Fig. 11). Whereas Seoul Forest Park's phasing plan roughly determined 9
Because unforeseeable changes including rescindment of the plan for an
the construction sequence, that of Yongsan Park tried to prepare a re- international business district surrounding of the site and also led to the tem-
silient long-term plan to adjust in the face of the various challenging porary presence of the ROK/US Combined Forces Command, the initial basic
conditions of the site. The strategy came from the Western discourse on plan was revised responding to the changing social circumstances of the site and
large parks, which was translated by Korean scholars and introduced to its surrounding in 2014 (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 2014).
Furthermore, although the planning and construction of the park have been
carried out by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, different needs of
7
This design strategy for West Seoul Lake Park reflected the recent interior related ministries, including the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of
and architectural design trend of industrial style or industrial chic, which tends National Defense, as well as SMG and related civic groups, make further
to reuse industrial structures by artificially embellishing them. planning and construction hard to carry out.

9
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 10. New platforms for various activities and cultural affordances recycling various traces of the existing buildings. Winning proposal of Yongsan Park com-
petition, 2012.
(Source: West 8 and Iroje et al.).

Fig. 11. Phasing plans for resilient long-term design and management of large park. Winning proposal of Yongsan Park competition, 2012.
(Source: West 8 and Iroje et al.).

the city. Furthermore, the park functions as a viewing place for Seoul's city's most famous places and provides nighttime views of Seoul that
historic landmarks, including the old Seoul Station, built in 1925, and attract visitors (Fig. 12). It was highly influenced by High Line Park in
Namdaemun built in 1398, which is one of the Gates in the Fortress New York (designed by James Corner Field Operations, Diller Sco-
Wall of Seoul dating to the Joseon Dynasty, designated the first Na- fidio + Renfro, and Piet Oudolf in 2005 and opened in 2009), the re-
tional Treasure of Korea. At present, the Seoullo functions as one of the generation of an abandoned railway to create an elevated linear park

10
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 12. Seoullo functioning as viewing place for Seoul's historic landmarks including the old Seoul Station. Seoullo.
(Source: author's photograph, 22 August 2018).

(Zorthian, 2017).10 Seoullo shows how the exploration of creative de- the specific design strategies applied to them, since the first projects in
sign ideas has become important to the construction of new identities 1998, have been gradually but constantly changing in response to the
for post-industrial landscapes. Because the ecological park strategy has changing social needs and circumstances of metropolitan Seoul and also
become a cliché in design for Korean brownfields, as discussed earlier, in response to landscape design trends and theories. This work first
distinctive design concepts and suitable programs have needed devel- discussed Korea-specific contextual matters related to post-industrial
opment. landscapes. Specifically, in terms of urban conditions, Korean post-in-
SMG too has increasingly promoted regeneration projects for dere- dustrial sites tend to be located in or near cities; most of Seoul's post-
lict industrial sites, including several of the ones looked at here. Among industrial sites for urban park design were constructed after the mid-
them, the Culture Tank project converted a former oil tank into public twentieth century; no legislation covers these facilities constructed
space (Fig. 13). The tank was built after the oil crisis in 1973, in since the mid-twentieth century, allowing designers to transform such
1976–1978, for emergency oil storage, and then it was closed in 2000. sites into urban open spaces; and overall, Korean public design projects
In 2014, for its regeneration into public culture complex, SMG held an tends to depend on the political and social situation. In terms of practice
international design competition won by Heo Seo Goo + RoA archi- and theory of landscape architecture in Korea, practitioners have
tects; Culture Tank opened in 2017. This work reused/recycled the tended to rapidly embrace Western design trends as well as Western
rusting oil tanks into containers for various types of cultural content, landscape-architectural theories. Next, this work discussed Korean
including exhibitions of site history, art exhibitions, and performances landscape architects' three main attitudes towards post-industrial
(Fig. 5) (Lee, 2017). As shown in this and other recent projects, Seoul's landscapes. Specifically, they have treated the architectural structures
post-industrial sites are increasingly converted into open spaces that of post-industrial sites as aesthetic objects; they consider industrial
embrace not only ecological processes but also a variety of cultural structure to be a repository of memory; and such sites have been used to
materials, uses that become new identities for these derelict sites. Since generate or support ecological processes and cultural and educational
urban regeneration projects will continue to be promoted in Seoul, a programs.
range of creative design ideas suitable for the site conditions (aesthetic Chronologically, design attitudes and specific design strategies have
characteristics, history, and future ecological, cultural, educational changed, in interaction with landscape architectural design theory. In
value) needs to be explored. terms of practice, early projects reused the industrial ruins as exhibition
objects, and then, after Seonyudo Park in the early twenty-first century,
Seoul's many post-industrial sites were converted into ecological parks,
5. Conclusion
in which rusting industrial ruins became venues for ecological process.
In more recent works, other cultural functions have been embedded in
As this article has shown, in relation to Seoul's urban park design
post-industrial sites, establishing these open spaces' new identities. In
projects that reuse post-industrial sites, attitudes towards the sites and
terms of theory, early practices were mainly influenced by the discourse
of the sense of place, which inspired designers to reuse industrial ruins
10
The High Line Park competition review was carried out by LAK in May and exploit their history and memory. Since the early twenty-first
2005, and the opening of the park was featured by LAK in July 2009 (Jeong, century, under the influence of Landscape Urbanism, with its discourse
2005; Yoon, 2009). An academic article of the design was carried in this Korean of large park design and resilience of urban parks, Korean landscape
journal in April 2010 (Yoon, 2010). Website Seoullo describes the High Line as architecture practitioners began to produce flexible long-term plans
an important foreign regeneration work at this post-industrial site (Seoullo).

11
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Fig. 13. Remodeled and existing rusting oil tanks performing as containers for various cultural content. Culture Tank.
(Source: author's photograph, 3 November 2018).

responding to various changing urban contexts, including social, poli- Appendix A. Supplementary data
tical and environmental conditions. In other words, the latest Western-
driven design trends and theory have largely influenced those in Korea, Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
especially Seoul. doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102023.
Several problems remain. First, Korean practitioners need to rethink
their frequent reliance on urban projects reusing post-industrial struc- References
tures in Korea's small, mountainous land area; the SMG's urban re-
generation projects are inspired by just one urban design trend, and Ahn, G. D. (2005). The plan of the Seoul Forest. Environment & Landscape Architecture of
alternative approaches might better fit Korean conditions. Second, thus, Korea50–53 209.
ASLA (2011). ASLA 2011 professional awards: West Seoul Lake park, Seoul, South Korea.
the legislation of preservation of post-industrial facilities constructed https://www.asla.org/2011awards/526.html/, Accessed date: 15 February 2019.
after the mid-twentieth century, considering their historical and cul- ASLA (American Society of Landscape Architects) (2004). ASLA 2004 professional awards:
tural value, need to be more discriminating. In other words, whereas Seonyudo park, Seoul, South Korea. https://www.asla.org/awards/2004/04winners/
entry557.html/, Accessed date: 15 February 2019.
valuable cultural heritage needs to be preserved, less valuable facilities Braae, E. (2015). Beauty redeemed: Recycling post-industrial landscapes. Risskov & Basel:
do not. Third, landscape architects and urban designers need to explore IKAROS Press & Birkhäuser Verlag.
creative design strategies for reuse of post-industrial sites. Of course, as Chan, E. C. (2009). What roles for ruins? Meaning and narrative of industrial ruins in
contemporary parks. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 4(2), 20–31.
seen in most recent projects, creative design ideas have been applied Chin, Y. K. (2000). Prairie hanging in the sky: Spatial metaphor of nanji Sky windflowers
and have gradually helped construct new identities for open spaces. park. Environment & Landscape Architecture of Korea, 150, 92–97.
Ecology is still a dominant concept in transforming post-industrial sites Choi, S. H. (2009). Design of West Seoul Lake Park in reusing the sin-wol filtration plant.
Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 37(5), 24–30.
into urban parks (Pae, 2007, pp. 56–73; Kang, 2014). Finally, most
Cho, M. H., & Shin, S. H. (2014). Conservation or economization? Industrial heritage
importantly, the practice and theory of Korean landscape architecture conservation in Incheon, Korea. Habitat International, 41, 69–76.
including transformation of post-industrial sites into urban parks need Crawford, D. (1983). Nature and art: Some dialectical relationships. The Journal of
to more fully consider the specific conditions of Korea. Landscape Ur- Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 42(1), 49–58.
Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea (CHA) (2019). http://english.cha.go.kr/cha/
banism and other aforementioned discourses and related design trends idx/SubIndex.do?mn=EN/, Accessed date: 15 February 2019.
reflect mainly Western conditions, including culture, history, and en- Czerniak, J. (2007). Legibility and resilience. In J. Czerniak, & G. Hargreaves (Eds.). Large
vironment.11 Thus, they need to be adequately revised to address parks (pp. 215–251). New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Czerniak, J., & Hargreaves, G. (Eds.). (2007). Large parksNew York: Princeton
Korean circumstances. In doing so, Korean landscape-architectural Architectural Press.
projects reusing post-industrial sites will improve in design quality and Duany, A., & Talen, E. (Eds.). (2013). Landscape urbanism and its discontents: Dissimulating
help establish a new identity for Korean urban parks. the sustainable city. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers.
Folkerts, T. (2015). Landscape as memory. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 10(1),
68–77.
Haddad, L. (1996). Happening: Paradigms of light aBlaze (a dialectic of the sublime and
the picturesque). Landscape Journal, 15(1), 48–57.
Hemmings, S., & Kagel, M. (2010). Memory gardens: Aesthetic education and political
emancipation in the Landschaftspark Duisburg-nord. German Studies Review, 33(2),
242–261.
11
For instance, whereas in Western culture the term landscape tends to refer Herrington, S. (2006). Framed again: The picturesque aesthetics of contemporary land-
to horizontal surface or infrastructure, in Korean culture it tends to refer to scapes. Landscape Journal, 25(1), 22–37.
ecological environment including mountainous land (Lee, 2018; Zoh, 2010). Jeong, W. J. (2005). The High Line open space design competition. Environment &

12
M.-J. Lee Habitat International 91 (2019) 102023

Landscape Architecture of Korea, 205, 122–128. emerging field of the landscape urbanism. Environment & Landscape Architecture of
Jeong, W. J., & Corner, J. (2005). Fresh Kills park design, staten island, New York. Journal Korea, 164, 90–95.
of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 33(1), 93–108. Pae, J. H. (2002a). New strategies for contemporary landscape design: Downsview Park
Kang, H. J. (2014). A study on the types of space reinterpretation of park projects on international design competition and its implications. Journal of the Korean Institute of
facility relocation sites. Journal of the Urban Design Institute of Korea, 15(4), 141–152. Landscape Architecture, 29(6), 62–71.
Kang, D. J., Lee, S. H., & Choi, D. S. (2003). An analysis of concept and conservation Pae, J. H. (2002b). Theory and critical practice in contemporary landscape design (9): A
methods for industrial heritage. Journal of Korea Planning Association, 38(2), 7–20. synaesthetic landscape design as an alternative of ocularcentrism. Environment &
Kim, J. E. (2015). International competition for Seoul station overpass. Landscape Landscape Architecture of Korea, 166, 80–85.
Architecture Korea, 327, 12–19. Pae, J. H. (2004a). Landscape Urbanism: hybrid of architecture, urbanism, and landscape.
Kim, Y. M., & Jeong, W. J. (2014). Development of landscape urbanism in practice. In J. H. Pae (Ed.). Theory and critical practice in contemporary landscape architecture
Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 42(1), 1–17. (pp. 157–182). Paju: Jogyeong.
Kirkwood, N. (Ed.). (2001). Manufactured sites: Rethinking the post-industrial landscape. Pae, J. H. (2004b). Theoretical terrains and design strategies of Landscape Urbanism.
New York: Spon Press. Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 32(1), 69–79.
Kullmann, K. (2011). Thin parks/thick edges: Towards a linear park typology for (post) Pae, J. H. (2007). Beyond landscape architecture. Paju: Jogyeong..
infrastructural sites. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 6(2), 70–81. Pae, J. H., Kim, Y. K., Kim, Y. M., Nam, K. J., Noh, S. I., & Ryu, Y. R. (2013). Criticism of
Lee, M. J. (2017). The temperature of design. Landscape Architecture Korea, 356, 34–36. international competition for the master plan of Yongsan park, Korea. Namudosi: Goyang.
Lee, M. J. (2018). Functions and roles of digital landscape architectural drawing. Journal Park, C. Y. (1992). ‘Gas Works Park’ in Seattle, U.S.A. Korea. Landscape Architecture, 51,
of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 46(2), 1–13. 56–61.
Lee, S. H., & Hwang, K. W. (1997). The ambiguous concepts of place and placeness. The Park, S. J. (2013). Best architectural works 3: Seonyudo park. DongA Ilbo, 13 March 2013.
Journal of Korea Planners Association, 32(5), 169–184. http://news.donga.com/3/all/20130313/53654441/1/, Accessed date: 15 February
Lee, M. J., & Pae, J. H. (2012). An aesthetic interpretation of post-industrial parks with a 2019.
perspective of the sublime. Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, Pollak, L. (2007). Matrix landscape: construction of identity in the large park. In J.
40(4), 78–89. Czerniak, & G. Hargreaves (Eds.). Large parks (pp. 87–119). New York: Princeton
Lee, M. J., & Pae, J. H. (2015). Landscape Urbanism as ‘re-distribution of the sensible’. In Architectural Press.
G. Niin, & H. Sekhar Mishra (Eds.). Peer reviewed proceedings of European council of Rosenfield, K. (2012). West 8 + Iroje wins Yongsan Park competition in Seoul. ArchDaily.
landscape architecture schools conference 2015_landscapes in flux (pp. 177–179). Tartu: 25 April 2012 http://www.archdaily.com/229398/west-8-iroje-wins-yongsan-park-
Estonian University of Life Sciences. competition-in-seoul/, Accessed date: 15 February 2019.
Lee, M. J., & Pae, J. H. (2018). Photo-fake conditions of digital landscape representation. Schmid, A. S. (1995). The IBA Emscher Park project. Korea Landscape Architecture, 85,
Visual Communication, 17(1), 3–23. 158–167.
Loures, L. (2015). Post-industrial landscapes as drivers for urban redevelopment: Public SeoAhn (2000). The Seonyudo Park design competition. Environment & Landscape
versus expert perspectives towards the benefits and barriers of the reuse of post- Architecture of Korea, 143, 38–39.
industrial sites in urban area. Habitat International, 45, 72–81. Seoullo (2019). http://seoullo7017.seoul.go.kr/, Accessed date: 15 February 2019.
Meinicke, S. (1995). Ecological urban planning and landscape architecture in Western Son, S. B. (2010). West Seoul Lake Park. Environment & Landscape Architecture of Korea,
Europe. Korea Landscape Architecture, 92, 176–181. 261, 62–77.
Meyer, E. K. (1998). Seized by sublime sentiments: Between terra firma and terra in- Son, E. S., & Pae, J. H. (2017). The aesthetic experience in the landscape of memory.
cognita. In W. S. Saunders (Ed.). Richard Haag: Bloedel reserve and gas works park (pp. Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 45(3), 129–140.
5–28). New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Sung, J. S. (2002). Seonyudo Park. Environment & Landscape Architecture of Korea, 170,
Meyer, E. K. (2007). Uncertain parks: Disturbed sites, citizens, and risk society. In J. 50–57.
Czerniak, & G. Hargreaves (Eds.). Large parks (pp. 59–85). New York: Princeton Waldheim, C. (Ed.). (2006). The landscape urbanism reader. New York: Princeton
Architectural Press. Architectural Press.
Meyer, E. K. (2008). Sustaining beauty: The performance of appearance. A manifesto in Yoon, H. Y. (2009). The High Line Section 1. Environment & Landscape Architecture of
three parts. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 3(1), 6–23. Korea, 255, 58–71.
Ministry of Land, & Infrastructure and Transport (2014). Revised general basic plan for the Yoon, H. Y. (2010). Landscape Urbanism in special West Chelsea district rezoning and
creation and zoning of Yongsan park. Seoul: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and High Line open space redevelopment project. Journal of the Korean Institute of
Transport. Landscape Architecture, 38(1), 84–97.
Ministry of Land, & Infrastructure and Transport (2017). Yongsan Park essence. Seoul: Zoh, K. J. (2010). Prospect of Korean Landscape Urbanism: dilemma and potential.
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. Proceedings of international symposium of Korean Institute of landscape architecture
Ministry of Land, & Transport and Maritime Affairs (2010). General basic plan for the 2010_Landscape urbanism: The new paradigm of landscape architecture and urbanism for
creation and zoning of Yongsan park. Seoul: Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime green-led regeneration in the 21st century (pp. 203–213). Seoul: The Korean Institute of
Affairs. Landscape Architecture.
Pae, J. H. (2001a). A ‘new landscape’ in Downsview Park international design competi- Zorthian, J. (2017). Seoul's garden in the sky. Time. 1 June 2017 http://time.com/
tion. Environment & Landscape Architecture of Korea, 153, 68–75. 4800807/seouls-garden-in-the-sky/, Accessed date: 15 February 2019.
Pae, J. H. (2001b). Theory and critical practice in contemporary landscape design (8): An

13