STUDY ON SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE OF THARU COMMUNITY

(A Case Study of Gunjanagar VDC, Chitwan, Nepal)

A Thesis
Submitted to:
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Central Department of Rural Development
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Arts
in Rural Development

By
Nawa Raj Subedi
Exam Roll No.: 3207
Reg. No.: 43605-95
Central Department of Rural Development
Tribhuvan University
Kathmandu, Nepal
2006

1
 LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION

The thesis entitled "Study on Socio-Cultural Change of

Tharu Community: A Case Study of Gunjanagar VDC,
Chitwan" has been prepared by Nawa Raj Subedi under my
supervision and guidance in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of Arts in Rural Development. I hereby
recommend it to the thesis committee for final evaluation and
approval.

…………………………
Dr. Mahendra Singh
Professor
Central Department of Rural Development
Tribhuvan University
Kirtipur

Date…

2
 APPROVAL LETTER

This Thesis entitled “Study on Socio-Cultural Change of Tharu

community: A Case Study of Gunjanagar VDC, Chitwan, Nepal"
submitted by Nawa Raj Subedi has been accepted as partial fulfillment of
requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Rural Development.

Evaluation Committee

…………………………
Prof. Dr. Pradeep Kumar Khadka
Head of Department
………………………………..
Mr. Rameshwor Koirala
External Examiner
……………………………..
Prof. Dr. Mahendra Singh
Supervisor

Date:……………………………..

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish express my deep gratitude to Prof. Dr. Mahendra Singh,

Central Department of Rural Development, T.U. for his guidance
and supervision.

I am very much indebted to Prof. Dr. Pradeep Kumar Khadka,

Head of Central Department of Rural Development. For giving me a
chance to conduct research on this topic. Thanks to my brother Tek
Raj Subedi for his kind co-operation offered during various stages
of my study.

I am sincerely grateful to brother Lekhnath and friends Yuba

Raj, Tika, Sharad, Pawan and other friends for their support during
the preparation of this report.

I would like to give many thanks to Tharu people of

Gunjanagar for responding me honestly and timely support.

I would be failing in my duty if I express my gratitude to my

parents to their unending inspiration and immense love which have
been very instrumental in completing this thesis.

Finally I am also thankful to Mr. Manik Dangol, Proprietor of

M.M. Communication, Hanumanghat, Kirtipur for best typing and
printing.

August, 2006 Nawaraj subedi

4
 ABSTRACT

This study has been conducted in wards 2, 8 and 9 in

Gunjanagar VDC. The objective of the study is to analyze the socio-
cultural change of Tharu Community with an emphasis on marriage,
family, life cycle ceremony, religion, feast and festival, dress and
food habit and to find out the responsible factors for the change. this
research is based on primary data which were collected by direct
interview, field observation. Besides, other secondary data were also
used to clarify the objectives. The collected data are systematically
organized and presented on a sheet in order to facilitate description.

After the migration of hill people in this area; Tharu people

have been interacting with different ethnic groups. In such
interaction they are accepting and imitating numerious techniques
and indeas from them which is a good aspect however they have last
their land. According to field survey, it was found that the number of
Tharu people having no own land has increased rapidly. Before
migration of the hill people in this area. Tharu people were the
landlord but now almost 10% of Tharu people are landless. On the
one hand their land holding have been losing on the other hand the
open land for pasturage and dense forest in the vicinity area have
incroached by over population due to which they have to face with
new problems for subsistence. Mean while, the adopted new method
in farming system such as use of new and improved seeds, plantation
of cash crops, they have been able to yield more grains from the
same areas of land than before. However, due to increased of family
member on the one hand and the other hand they also came into
contact with the people of different occupation they have not been

5
able to meet their food sufficiency and daily expenses. Therefore to
solve food insufficiency they have been changing their traditional
occupation. Thus after the migration of hill people the economic life
of the Tharu seem to be quite changing.

The most important positive impact on Tharus after migration

of hill people is that of attraction towards education sectors.
According to field survey it was found that the enrollment of Tharu
children of this area reached to 92% among son and 73% among
daughter.

It was found that while field survey, they are aware about clean
drinking water and using toilets. Now more than 85% of total
sampled household reported that they consulted health post and
private clinic rather than Gurau, it shows their attraction towards
modern treatment system.

The Tharu of this area have been found to adopt Hindu religion
such as adoption of Brahmin priest in different rituals rather than
Gurau. They started to observe Hindu festivals such as Dashain and
Tihar with giving more priority rather than their own festivals such
as Jitia, Faguwa, etc. They started to participate in social activities
more than before on the one hand and on the other hand, due to the
fear of the hill people the ethnic feelings among them have also
developed. Thus such types of economic, social and cultural change
on the life style of the Tharu people of Gunjanagar village have
carried by the migration of the hill people.

6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
RECOMMENDATION
APPROVAL SHEET
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ABBREVIATION/ACRONYMS

Page No.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1-8

1.1 Background 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3 Objective of the study 5
1.4 Limitation of the study 6
1.5 Importance of the study 7

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9-21

2.1 Origin of Tharu 9
2.2 Socio-Economic Status 11
2.3 Socio-Cultural Change 14
2.4 Festivals and Life Cycles 19

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 22-24

3.1 Research Design 22
3.2 Sampling Procedure 22
3.3 Nature and Source of Data 23

7
3.4 Method of Data Collection 23
3.4.1 Primary Data Collection 23
3.4.1.1 Interview Schedule 23
3.4.1.2 Key Informant Interview 24
3.4.1.3 Participatory Rapid Appraisal 24
3.4.2 Secondary Data Collection 24
3.5 Data Analysis 24
CHAPTER FOUR: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGE IN
THARU COMMUNITY 23-46
4.1 Change in Land Holding System and Land Pattern 25
4.2 Change in Land Pattern 27
4.3 Change in Animal Farming (Livestock Keeping) 27
4.3.1 Change in Farming 27
4.3.2 Change in Farming System 28
4.4 Changes in Life Standard 36
4.4.1 Change in Housing Types 36
4.4.2 Educational Aspect 37
4.4.3 Health and Sanitation 38
4.4.3.1 Drinking Water 38
4.4.3.2 Toilets 39
4.4.4 Family Planning 42
4.4.5 Gender Aspect 42
4.4.6 Language 42
4.4.7 Mobility 42
4.5 Occupation 42

8
CHAPTER FIVE: SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE IN THARU
COMMUNITY 47-69
5.1 Changes in Education 47
5.2 Changes in Health Treatment System 49
5.3 Socio-Cultural Change 50
5.3.1 Life Cycle Ceremonies 51
5.3.1.1 Birth 51
5.3.1.2 Marriage 52
5.3.1.3 Death Rites 54
5.3.2 Change in Cultural Activities 56
5.3.2.1 Clothing 56
5.3.2.2 Fooding and Drinking 56
5.3.2.3 Ornaments 57
5.3.2.4 Song and Dance 58
5.3.2.5 Others 58
5.3.3 Religious Change 58
5.3.4 Festivals 59
5.4 Development of Ethnic Feeling 63
5.5 Material Cultural 64
5.6 Factors of Change 65
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 70-74
6.1 Summary 70
6.2 Conclusions 73
6.3 Recommendations 74
Bibliography
Appendix

9
 LIST OF TABLE

Table Title Page No.

1. Land Holding Status of Sampled House 26
2. Seasonal Cropping System 30
3. Food Sufficiency from Their Own Land Now 33
4. Food Sufficiency from Their Own Land in the
1980th Decade 34
5. Structure of the House of the Study Area 36
6. Educational Status of Tharu People in the Study Area 38
7. Facilities of Clean Drinking Water 39
8. Types of Toilets in the Study Area 40
9. Distribution of Sampled House by Main Occupation 43
10. Subsidiary Occupation of the Tharu People 44
11. School in the Gunjanagar VDC 47
12. Change in School Enrollment of Tharu Children 48
13. Change in Health Treatment System 49

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page No.
1. Conceptual Framework 21
2. Current Land Holding Status of Tharu People
(Sampled House) 26

10
 ABBREVIATION

BS - Bikram Sambad

CBO - Community Based Organization

CBS - Central Bureau of Statistics

CDRD - Central Department of Rural Development

DDC - District Development Committee

INGO - International Non Government Organization

NGO - Non Government Organization

RCNP - Royal Chitwan National Park

UG - User Group

UN - United Nation

UNDP` - United Nation Development Program

VDC - Village Development Committee

11
 CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Nepal is one of the small country in the world. It lies in the

centre of Asia and it is also known as the "Heart of Asia.: In the
world map, Nepal lies between 26.22 degree to 30.27 degree North
latitude and 80.4 degree to 88.12 degree east latitude. It is
landlocked country, sand witched between Tibet under the people's
republic of china to the north and up and Bihar state of India to the
south.

Chitwan is a very famous district among 75 district of Nepal

which lies about the central part of the country. It is also known as
the 76 th district because of the different mixed ethnic groups and
community settled here who came from the different parts of the
country. It extent is 83.55' to 84.48' to east longitudes and 27.29' to
27.46' north latitude. The length of the district is up to 98 km and
width varies from 46 km to 0.5 km. It covers about 2,218 sq km
area. District headquarters Bharatpur is at 209m height from sea
level. In the Northern part of this district is Tanahun, Gorkha and
Dhading districts. In the south and west of Chitwan district is Bihar
region of India; in the east is Makawanpur and Parsa district. From

12
the geographical point of view 1/3 hill and 2/3 plain lie with in this
district.

Nepal is a country of rural villages where the vast majority of

the population is poor. By the report of UN 2005 around 38%
people are under poverty line. The government of Nepal has been
given out most priority to the development of rural people but all
the development plans and programs have failed to improve the
socio-economic condition of rural poor because lack of people
participation in all stages of development programs.

Nepal, from the cultural point of view, is divided into the

regions; i.e. the hill culture and the plain culture (Gaize, 1975).
These two main cultural regions are inhabitant by different caste
and ethnic groups. The hill culture is predominantly a Hindu culture
of twice-born castes, which is known as 'National Culture' of Nepal.
Moreover, if we analyze Nepali culture anthropologically. It can be
divided into three major types. I.e. group culture, regional culture
and National Culture. Such as Sherpa Culture. They culture, Gurung
culture, Newa-culture etc. Regional culture is the culture adopted by
the inhabitants of specific geographical regions. The national
culture refers to the culture of national identification of any nations
such as Nepali culture, French culture etc.

Nepal is a country of multilingual, multi-religious, multiethnic

and multicasts society. There are 61 ethnic group and many caste
groups throughout the country. Among them Tharu is the 2nd

13
largest ethnic group of Nepal. The total population of the Tharu
according to the National Census 2001 is 1533879 which are
constituted 6.75% of the total population of Nepal (CBS, 2005).
According to the Census 2001, total population of Tharu in Chitwan
is 59835 which are 3.9% of total Tharu population of country.

Tharus are one of the backward indigenous people settled in

the Terai region. Tharus are basically agricultural peasant. Tharu
are mostly found on foothills of Chure and Siwalic to lower
Himalayan ranges. This region was to densely forested area
stretching from eastern to western Nepal with only scattered patches
of cultivated land. The whole region is also known as the terai,
meaning of the plain land area. Thus Tharus are found along the
Terai of Nepal and also some part of North India. Tharus along with
the Darai, Majhis and Chepangs are endogenous to the Terai region
of Nepal. Vast majority of the Tharus population is backward and
deprived of mainstream of development.

Although the slavery system was abolished many years ago.

Tharus are sold and bought still now and they are compelled to live
as a bounded labour and Kamaiya as in mediaeval period. Because
of general illiteracy, lack of awareness about their right as citizens
and a feudal system of economic exploitation, Tharus have been
subjected to the very lowest status in the society.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

14
 Nepal is one of the poorest country of the word. According to
the World Bank report 2005, around 40% people are still below
absolute poverty line. In this condition, there are such caste, tribes
and ethnic groups, who are bounded to give up their traditional
acceptation because they could not meet their basic needs by doing
their traditional occupation in the changing condition.

Nepal is a composition of vast ethnic groups. There are several

aspects which illustrates the significance of these races. But we
have still failed to throw ample light on their cultural transformation
and social trends, traditions, beliefs, morals, customs, religion,
economy, education and history have significant role in the national
culture and national building activities.

In the Chitwan there are various ethnic groups among them.

Tharu is the oldest inhabitant with its own tradition and culture.
From the ancient period they developed their own customs, arts,
morals, belief and socio-economic institutions. Taking this fact into
consideration this study attempts to document the social and
cultural change of Tharu people.

"Cultural change is a process by which the existing order to

society is transformed from one type to another. Cultural change
thus covers the more or less rapid process of modification in the
political construction of a society in its domestic institution and its
mode of territorial settlement, in its belief and system, material
tools and their use and the consumption of goods on which its

15
socio-economy is based. In the widest sense of the term, cultural
change is predominant factor of human civilization. It goes on every
where and at all the time. (Acharya, B.R. 2000)

Tharu are the true sons of the soil and nature, they have been
exploited through generations and centuries. Tharu never protested
against all those exploitations due to their simple nature. Gradually
they went on facing the loss of their economy, society and culture.
This study aims to trace the Tharu living style with major emphasis
on finding out the socio-cultural change and economic changes.

In this context, from sociological/Anthropological point of

view, it is important to find out as to what the main causes are for
the change in the Tharu society. On one hand they are giving up
their traditional occupation and on the other hand their economic
condition is degrading. Therefore, the problem of the study is to
understand, what is the history and origin of Tharu in the study
area, as to what extent Tharu society in Chitwan has undergone
change, what are the factors of change, the study also seeks to as to
what extent their organization, clans, family and marriage system
has changed and what extent Tharu have been sanskritised. So, the
main problem of the present study is to seek answer of the above
mentioned questions.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The change in social and cultural system of each and every

community of Nepal is increasing day by day. The causes for these

16
changes are more or less similar with other ethnic community. The
hill people culture (i.e. migrant, mostly Brahmin and Chhetry
culture, which is dominant culture of this community). The Tharu
culture is following the migrant culture of hills people and the
migrant are following the western culture. Migrant culture and
western culture are attacking the Tharu culture. So the broad
objective of the study is to analyze the socio-cultural change of
Tharu community. In spite of an intense design to give this profile a
research shape Tharu are limitations such as lack of any written
documents about Tharu of this VDC and so on. This research may
not be the best one but much care has been taken to present the
actual situation of this research area. Accordingly, the following
objectives have been stipulated.

1. To study the localization patterns of Tharu community.

2. To examine the Tharu culture and their community.

3. To study the factors for such socio-cultural change.

1.4 Limitation of the Study

Each and every research study has its own limitations. This
study has also some limitations. This study aims to focus on the
socio-cultural change of Tharu community of Gunjanagar VDC,
Chitwan. Tharu population is dense in ward 2, 8 & 9 of Gunjanagar
VDC. So the study is limited only in these areas, which is a small
part of the whole Tharu community of Nepal. So, this study may not

17
reflect the socio-cultural change of whole Tharu community of the
country

The study intended to focus only socio- economic and socio

cultural change of Tharu community of Gunjanagar VDC. Thus,
other caste and ethnic groups are strictly excluded. This study may
have many weaknesses as it is completed with a limited resources
and time

1.5 Importance of the Study

Nepal is a country inhabited by heterogeneous group of

people, where unity prevails in diversity. Diversity of the total
culture of Nepal can be amalgamated into one culture the national
life culture.

Each and every society is changing day by day. Much has

been written on rural people and more on ethnic groups of Nepal.
About such types of change many researcher have paid proper
attention and have been conducted by both national and
international researcher on this ethnic groups in many aspects
(economic, educational health, culture and other). But very little
study have been done in socio cultural change of these ethnic
groups

So the present study tries to provide an ethnographic

description and socio cultural change in morals, norms, beliefs
marriage, kinship, tradition, economic, education, health and life

18
style of Tharu of Gunjanagar VDC of Chitwan district. This study
tries to trace out the factors which are responsible for the socio
cultural change among the Tharu people.

The village has much potential but the lack of appropriate

technique to mobilize the local resources, the village remains
backward. The failure of previous "Top down" development
approach, there has been a gradual shift among development agents
to involve more of the local people in the planning, implementation
and maintenance of the development projects.

The findings of the study will be helpful theoretically as a

literature to the forth coming research and those who are interested
to accumulate knowledge about this and would help them to
preserve their culture. Moreover, research findings will be helpful
to policy and program makers to formulate appropriate strategies for
making the program more effective and fruitful in different aspects
such as development and welfare.

19
 CHAPTER-II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin of Tharus

There are many controversies about the origin of Tharus.

Scholars have not been able to come to definite and clear conclusion
regarding the origin of Tharus. Some scholars have derived their
origin through etymologies and some tried to trace their origin
through a legend.

The first western scholar to give some information on the

Nepalese Tharu is Pracis Buchanon Hamilton. While describing
Eastern Nepalese Tharu, he said that the Tharu caste resembling in
its manners the Gangai of Morang, composes the great part of the
population as the plain.

Describing the origin of Tharu, Iswar Baral (2009) has

mentioned that Rajput women of Chetaur were sent to the northern
hills with their servants to protect them from Muslim invasion in
12 th century. The Rajput women expected their husband for long.
But they did not come back again. As they did not see hope of
returning their husbands, they got married with lower caste people

20
of the area and their servants, who come along with them. Thus the
offspring from their reunion were called Tharu.

DN Majumdar (1942) argued that Tharu are definitely a

Mongoloid tribe. They can not be placed in any other tribes and
caste through a DNA test. Thus it is concluded on the basis of
evidence that Tharu are Mongoloid, who are successfully
assimilated non-Mongoloid physical features.

Bista (1967) writes: Tharus are probably among the oldest

groups to inhabitat the Terai. They usually live very close to the
heavily forested regions. A great number of the villages of
Tharuwan are found in small clearing in the middle of the forest
itself. Most of the large compact Tharu settlements are found in
tropical areas, infested with wild animals such as elephant,
rhinoceros, beer, tigers and poisonous snakes.

Meyer (1995) argued that the "Forest People" came from many
regions at different times to seek peace and shelter of the jungle; the
environment then molded them, over a long period of time into
groups of special people, all of them called the Tharu.

Some scholars have mentioned the Tharus relation with the

shakya dynasty among the Newars of Nepal. Babu Ram Acharya
(1972) mentioned the origin of the Tharus from around the
Himalaya region.

21
 Few foreigners bothered to collect information on these
mysteries of Tharus who were not considered as original inhabitants
and where counted within the group of Indian origin. These
foreigners were not ready to accept Tharu as a unique group,
considering them to be a tribe of very inferior rank of Hindu Caste
System. Thus in most of accounts written by the foreigners the
people of the Terai especially Tharus, were mentioned in one of two
paragraphs only. All of these short descriptions bear the same type
of hearsay accounts about Tharus. They are one of the major tribal
people with dark Mongoloid complexion, having a good knowledge
of black magic with craft and sorcery and able to live in the highly
malarial plains since they are immune to malaria.

In this way, many scholars have tried to determine the origin

of Tharus. These theories about origin are only plausible and there
is not a single or monolithic solution since cultural and racial
difference exists among Tharus of Nepal, their origin may stem
from somewhat different circumstances.

2.2 Socio-economic Status

The terms socio-economic status mans "in a system of social

stratification, it refers to a combination of various social and
economic indexes of rank which are used in research studies. The
term is often used to deal with stratification in a society without the
need for the assumption that these are distinct social classes."

22
 According to concise oxford dictionary 'Socio-economic'
means relating to or concerned with interaction of social and
economic factors.

Social discrimination on the basis of caste, ethnic and gender

difference plays a significant part in marinating social inequality in
Nepal. In the same way, the structure of the agrarian economy of
traditional form is also at the root of poverty. Various ethnographic
studies have been undertaken in Nepal, some studies have focused
on demographic, behavioral, socio-economic and cultural change in
Nepalese people. He is pioneering on who has attempted to sketch
an ethnographic map of all ethnic groups of Nepal. He has given
some description on different aspects of the socio-economic life of
Tharus, based on field observation.

Pyakuryal (1982) has assessed the general socio-economic

situation of the Tharus and mentioned that they are one of the major
ethnic groups which are most marginalized in Nepal. Major reasons
to be backwardness and superstitious are mainly due to their
physical and social isolation. From development activities and
contacts from other people and their culture. They are unschooled;
they lack awareness about their rights and privileges. The gap
between them and non-Tharus is very widely spread,

Gunarantee (1994) summarized in his Ph.D. Thesis on the

Tharu of Chitwan that "the most important issue acting as a catalyst
for the genesis of Tharu identity has been the loss of land both a

23
symbol of identity and the root factor in the development of ethnic
consciousness. Although the Tharus are the indigenous people of
terai, who cleaned the forest land for cultivation for the first time
they failed to understand the significance of registration of land;
and at last but by no means the least, many of them lost some or all
of their lands due to in migration through chicanery and fraud."

Krauskoff (2000) has explained Tharu not only as the

hardworking peasants, who cleared the dense forest in to a fertile
agriculture land fighting with dangerous creatures and malaria
disease but also they were the land lord and king of terai. Tharu
have social functions at least once in month and right from seeding
to harvesting of the crops they under go several social functions
keeping their fields off and pay heavy expense on social functions.
Their social functions is not lesser than the function of
Jyapu(Newar) of Kathmandu valley. But Jyapu sustains their
economy because they are not Kamaiya or bonded labour and not
exploited by land lord or clever people. But the Tharu have every
fear from all sides to be exploited and is a "fresh cucumber" even a
grass needle puncture inside it and damage a lot. In marriage, birth
and all other function alcohol is a must. No works finish with out
alcohol. Alcohol is like water. They cannot work and go at without
alcohol." Alcohol is their life". They are born on alcohol, breath on
alcohol and die on alcohol as Kamaiya or bonded labourer are born
as bonded and as bonded lanourers (IBID)

24
 D.R Dahal (1987) in "Rural poverty in Nepal" used
secondary data on land tenure, income, food, production and
consumption ,employment, literacy, health and other demographic
variables and descriptive method to highlight the dimension of
poverty. He found that population growth, low minimum landing
and lack of employment opportunities, poor education attainment,
lack of marketing facilities and overall socio-economic structure
which favors the rich over the poor, was determinant of poverty in
rural Nepal. Getting appropriate solution for those entire
frameworks is seen socio-economic development.

Puspa Neupane (1997) analyzed that the poverty is one of the

social phenomena and is determined by illiteracy, working age,
occupation, size of land holding, low health condition, low sanitary
provision, polluted water supply, low income, unemployment, low
participate in decision making or the causes of poverty and which
are social norms.

Agriculture is the main occupation of the peop0le of

Gunjanagar VDC. Besides, there are some office holders,
technician, carpenters, drives and wage labour. Wage rate for male
and women are generally same. Almost 10% households are
landless and more than 50% households can not fulfill their
substance means from the production of their agriculture land.

2.3 Socio-Cultural Change

25
 Stuart (1955) wrote the most hopeful approach to the concept
of the cultural change would seem to regard the process as
selectively accumulatively in time and cyclical in character and
cultural forms are as inescapable as they are in all living things on
the basis of these theories it may be concluded that social and
cultural change refer to all the changes going on the Tharu society.
It is a change in the institutional and normative structure of society.

According to U.M. Boker (1999) "Change is the law of nature,

which denotes a difference in some period of time what is today
shall be different from what would be tomorrow. In connection with
change Mazumdar (1961) states "Social change may be defined as a
new fashion or mode either modifying or replacing the old in the
life of the people or in the operation of a society." Ethnological and
linguistic interest has been shown since the end of 19 th century
towards the Tharu population of India and less towards that of
Nepal. Nepal-related Tharu research with few exceptions (Tucci,
1956; Mcdougal, 1968; Mac Donald, 1969) got under way
considerably later and has been concentrated upto now, in only
case, primarily on the Tharus of Dang."

Dr. R. K. Raj Regmi (2035 B.S.) has mentioned about physical

resources and culture in his book "Yak shrot tin dhara" that the
civilized and well-cultural communing influences other community
effectively during the social development process or assimilation.
Dr. Regmi has indicated that Tharu community first times should
have learned better and progressive culture from other community,

26
probably more civilized and well-cultured community. Thus they
formed the elements of their socio-culture what they have learned
from others.

Rajaure (1977) viewed that due to geographical cross-cultural

and cross linguistic factors, several regional variations of Tharu
culture have developed in different parts of the country within the
narrow belt of Tharu inhabitation. He has loosely put these cultural
variations into the major two groups- less influenced by other
cultures and more influenced by other cultures. Tharus of Nawalpur
and Chitwan valley, Dang-Deokhuri and Surkhet valleys and Bardia
belongs to first group while the Tharu of east-Japha, east-Koshi
region, Bara and Parsa and farwest-Kailali belongs to latter group.
There was no interaction in significant degree between Tharu and
non Tharu in the time before the readication of malaria (1957) as
few absentee non-Tharu landlords who had controlled over most
land in Dang valley, used to come down only for few months in
winter of a year while the Tharus were working there as their tenant
farmers for the whole year. But there occurred great interaction
between the Tharu and the non-Tharu, the immigrants from the hill,
after the implementation of malaria eradication and land reform
programs, which provided less fruitful and unfortunate to the
Tharus. They were the people of different natures and attitudes.
Tharus prefer disciplined manner-are peaceful and obey the rules of
society while the hill people in the other hand are a freedom loving
people with a material spirit-dislike to remain under the control or

27
domination of others. So the first impact that took place in Tharu
villagers, after the immigration of hill people, according to
Rajaure's finding was the decay and neglect of the village-level
rules, costumes and disciplines which had been imposed up till then
by the committee of the Mahaton and Tharu household chiefs.

Guneratne (1994) studied about Tharu class and concluded

that the Tharu groups came increasingly into contact with each
other as forests were cleared and networks of communication
established continued to reproduce themselves as societies and
moral communities distinct from one another, the elites began to
reconstitute themselves as new sub-units of social reproduction.
They established marriage ties with their class fellows in other
groups, and then cause to share symbolic forms based on a common
education and assimilation. Nepalese culture and their material
culture and styles of consumption began to diverge from that of the
poorer strata within their local societies. Modernization, in other
words, acted to homogenize the upper level of Tharu society.

Parajuli (1995) studied the socio-cultural change in

Biswokarma of Dang and find out that they had started to adopt new
types of clothing which were restricted to the untouchables and
were only common elites of high-castes, to make use of Brahmin
priest/shamans instead of their own priest/shamans instead of their
own priest/shamane to worship the temple even struggling with the
people of high castes and local government authorities. Similarly,

28
they have started to enhance relationship with high caste people and
start to behave in accordance with that kin-relation.

(Kumar, 1997) "Culture is constantly undergoing change in

occurring to environment and due to this transformation, it is
constantly being adapted to external force but once it is developed,
the influence of the natural environment begins to decrease.
Besides, the various aspects of culture are also undergoing
development and some internal adaptation among them
consequently being necessitated."

The term cultural change and social change has been dealt
separately by some sociologist and anthropologists but prasai
(1998) have the opinion that the term socio-cultural change is broad
that it encompasses the way of life customs, traditions, occupations,
languages, religions and several other aspects of the people of a
particular society. Because of the close affinity overlapping between
two social and cultural aspects will be derived synonyms.

Bhattarai (1998) studied the socio cultural change in Lepcha

and concluded that the impact of modernization, behaviour pattern
of other community or advanced society has changed the Lepcha.
The food habit has changed Folklore's and Folksongs are gradually
loosing. In the past of these people know a good of folksongs and
folktales but now only a few among them remember the same. Their
traditional dress and ornaments are also going through changes and
developments of modernized idea are taking place.

29
 P. Upadhay (1999), "Due to the infiltration of people from at
directions a prosperous community began to grow and the people as
the different background of languages, culture and ethnicity began to
develop here a common life style with a common language and
culture. This perhaps accelerated the process of Nepalization in the
Teria was vehemently opposed by the more sophisticated plain
Hindu culture of terai, but plain tribal of terai have yielded to the
presence of aggressive hill culture which have converted them in to
a Hindu follower."

According to Marx, "Technology discloses man’s mode of

dealing with nature and the process of production by which the
sustains his life and thereby lay bare the mode of fore nation of
serial relations and the mental conception that flow from them."

Acrharya (2000) "Indicator of socio-culture change is in social

relation. status, role, institution, structure, customs, economic
education, perspective, attitude, fooding , clothing , physical ,
development , religion, technology , culture , economic , political ,
psychosocial, and ideological."

2.4. Festivals and Life Cycle

In 1969 Prof. A. W. Mac Donald published an article on two

Dangura Tharu festivals which had observed in Dang valley of
Midwestern tarai. This article was the first to present the Tharu
festival of Nepal in a truly anthropological perspective.

30
 Sharwan (1991) has done the anthropological study of festival
tharu in Dang and included that they have their own type of culture.
Festivals of tharu are a part of Tharu culture. Due to contact with
other outside people as well as Hindu emigrants from hill. Tharu
culture has been highly influenced by Hindu culture. Their festivals
have socio- culture important and have undergone some significant
change. For e.g. food habit, dress pattern, way of observing various
festival and way of living.

Chhetri (1996), "Tharu have customs and of celebrating

festival and enjoying there. Tharu celebrate Dasai, Tihar, phagu
purnima, Maghi sankranti, Jitia etc. A Maghi festival is the most
important festival of Tharu. In this festival, they do not work before
three or four day for the celebration of Maghi festivals. They make
drink and enjoy that festival. They ate lot of verities of food .some
tharus take a fast on that festival. They do not take any thing in
Maghi festival. That is in fast. The whole night they dance and sing.
Maghi festivals take place nearly five days. Holy Purnima. Festivals
held on from the falgun purnima .It takes one month. They do not
work in a whole period of festival. Tharu man and woman drink a
lot of wine. They spray colors in that festival with each other. Tharu
male start to sing and female start dance. In the early morning they
bath in the river and go to worship in the day of Hari sayani Eka
Dashi, they pray to God for good harvest. They pray earth dig with
a spade and worship to god the day they do not plough. Their oxen

31
 are free. They believe that if they plough by oxen on the next birth
they would be the same."

Festivals, religion and social customs are major aspect of

socio- culture and life of the Tharus. Their ceremonial customs as
they practice provided them a sense of confidence, comfort and
sense of socio-religious secrecy, social feeling and social solidarity.
In mean time, the unproductive expenses in such ceremonial
customs increase their indebt ness.

Now they are aware about their tradition and festivals and are
eager to preserve. New generation in this community are conscious
about their culture and they try to adopt it the festivals celebrate
here are Jitia, Yomosa, sohari, Maghe sankranti, phagu purnima,
chaite Dshain, Dashain, Tihar.

Fig No.1

Conceptual Framework: Factors Affecting Tharu Community

Migration

Modernization
Technology

Economic
Condition
Education
CHANGE IN
THARU
COMMUNITY
Industrialization
Westernization
32
 Chapter-III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The study has been based on primary data collection from the
field. Descriptive research designs have been adapted to analyze and
interpret the qualitative and quantitative data collection from the
concerned field. It is descriptive because it portrays at the old
tradition and customs prevalent in the Tharu community and it also
describes the pattern of change in that community. This Research is
also analytical as it deals with causes and extent of change in the
socio- economic system of Tharu community.

3. Sampling Procedure

As it is said that the research study is both analytical and

decretive in nature, it explores many aspect of socio-economic
condition and socio- culture change systematically and explain them
in context of rural societies. For this study, proportionate random
sampling was used to select the respondent. Out of nine wards of

33
Gunjanagar V D.C, word no. 2, 8 & 9 are densely populated by
Tharu people. Out of these wards of Tharu community, 90
households were selected taking 50 households from ward no. 9 &
40 house hold were selected from ward no. 2 and 8 as it is less
populated of Tharu people. While sampling, tharu families having
sound and poor economic status, literate, illiterate people and so on
were tried to be covered

3.3 Nature and Sources of Data

This study is based on both primary and secondary data. The

data required for this study have been derived from primary sources.
The primary data were collected through various methods, e.g.
interview, observation, house hold survey etc and some data were
collected through secondary resource.

3.4. Method of Data Collections

3.4.1. Primary data collections

The primary data was collected from the field by various

methods, which are described below:

3.4.1.1. Interview schedule

The structured and unstructured questionnaires were used for

quantitative and qualitative data collection. The basic socio-
economic data such as population structure, ethnic composition,

34
land and live stock holdings etc. collected through structured
questionnaire method.

Interview technique was adopted as main method to obtain

relevant information from the field. It was conducted with a number
of people in the study area repressing different age, sex and
economic background.

3.4.1.2. Key informant interview

Interview was taken with those informants who know Tharu

community from near. Among those, old Tharu people, teacher and
social workers who were able to describe their tradition, customs
and socio- economic condition.

3.4.1.3. Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA)

The most effective means for data collection of this study was
conducted through PRA method. The PRA method was brought
together through community leaders, teacher, woman, social
workers and interested group. The PRA method found to be most
important in getting the knowledge on perceptions, expectation and
vision of local people, their culture, problem, attitude, community
potentialities and existing reasons

3.4.2 Secondary Data Collection

The secondary data was collected from different Tharu related

journals, organization documents, village profile, district profile,

35
books written on Tharu culture documents and many other relevant
literature and publication.

3.5 Data Analysis

The collected data have been analyzed descriptively. Edited,

tabulated systematically. Simple statistical tools were used to
analyze and interpret the findings. All the collected from the field
survey have been shown on simply in the percentage table.

CHAPTER-IV

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGE IN THARU COMMUNITY

4.1. Change in Land Holding System and Land Pattern

The ancient tribe of the land is Tharu, i.e. no any hill side
people were there before 1990 B.S. Babu Ram Shretha was one of
the earliest migrants and bought this land with ' Raiti' from Tharu
landlord. At that time there were two types of land Gimidari land
and Raitane land. Gimidari land was the land of Jamindar and
raitani land was that of raiti. Raiti were the people that were living
under land lord. At that time the landlord should not cultivate or
register the raitane land. So, at that time each family had more than
5-6 bighas of land.

After Rehabilitation programme (2021-2022 B.S.), the

migrated people started to settle in this place. At that time, each
family got 4 bighas of land the Tharu people did not go to get these

36
distributed land because firstly they have land of their own and
secondly they did not know the procedure to get the land. In the
past almost half of the area were covered by forest but that became
good fertile land now a days.

The total area of this VDC is 1620 hectors out of which, almost
1000 hectors is agriculture land.

Table no-1

Land holding status of sampled house (90 houses)

S.N. land holding Before Before Before Now
category 2020 2030 2046 %
B.S. B.S. B.S.
1 landless x 3 8 8.9
2 less than one Bigha x 2 20 52 57.8
3 1-2 Bigha 6 22 44 18 20
4 2-4 Bigha 32 38 16 8 8.9
5 4-6 Bigha 36 16 5 4 4.4
6 6-8 Bigha 10 8 2 x x
7 More than 8 Bigha 6 4 x x x

Sources: Field Survey, 2006.

Fig No.2

Current land holding status of Tharu people ( sampled house )

37
 4.4% 8.9%
8.9%

landless
less than Bigha
20.0% 1-2 Bigha
2-4 Bigha
4-6 Bigha

57.8%

Above table reveals that before migration of hill people, all

the land were under the Tharu people .At the time of “Ukhanda
unmulan” the clever hill people started to Register the land in the
name of their family. Before 43 years, each family had plenty of
land and there were no landless. Now, 57.8% of Tharu people have
less than 1 Bigha of land. Among sampled house hold 8.9% are land
less. So this table shows that the land of Tharu community flows
towards other community of those areas.

4.2 Changes in Land Pattern

When Tharu people had more land, their farming was large but
when after they started to sell the land, the plot became smaller and
smaller

4.3. Change in Animal Farming (live stock keeping)

4.3.1 Change in farming

38
 Tharu people used to rear cow, and buffalos, goats, and sheep,
cock and Duck in large scale. Though, they don't like milk too
much. They rear cow for ox. Oxen were only means for ploughing
the field. They used keep two pair of oxen in each house for
ploughing, one pair at morning and another at evening. This is the
ridiculous saying, if a single person work hold day, Why not one
pair of oxen can’t. It was thought that on ploughing one pair of oxen
whole day they would be tired. it symbolize that Tharu loves oxen
as much as they love their family member. At some years , if they
did not have ox or oxen and were not able to buy them they used
to hire oxen for whole year and for this they should give rice . This
system is called “Bhoti” the system is not found today.

Rearing of animals are decreasing day by day due to the lack

of pasturing land and the cultivation of crops in the field throughout
the year.

4.3.2. Change in Farming System

As in all other rural areas of Nepal, the farming practice of the

study area is characterized by mixed farming which includes
agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture and growing green
vegetables. Agricultural activities are mostly characterized by
simple traditional technique where human lobour and bullock power
are used for ploughing, harvesting and threshing the. A wooden
plough with long handle and long iron (PHALI) is used for tilling
the land. Other tools are spade and hoe for digging and sickles for

39
harvesting. These tools have been used by Tharu people since long
time.

Tharu people fallow most of the traditional method of

cultivation. It seams that agrarian life of the study area hasn’t
changed much however after the migration of hill people. Some new
practice have adopted by these people. They learned from the
migrant people about new technique of farming.

In the past, when the land was in abundance

and population size was relatively small. Tharu people used to grow
mostly paddy and maize. Plantation of improved seeds of paddy was
not prevalent at that time and people used to grow directly by
broadcasting seed in their paddy farms. Planting of paddy was done
in June/ July and harvested in October / November. For the seven
month, most of the land used to be empty and large flock of cattle
and Buffaloes were grazed there. They used to grow local paddy
crop Rather than using improved seeds. The names of local paddy
were, Wason, Battisara, Anadi, Ghaiya, Deshiya Dhan etc

After harvesting, threshing was done by spreading out of

bundle of paddy stalks thickly on the threshing floor and bullock
and buffaloes were separating the grain and straw locally this
process is called "Dawori" in such method of threshing large
number of grains were destroyed either eating by bullock or
buffaloes or by spreading here and there .

40
 At that time farming practice of Tharu people were traditional.
When after hill migrant people started to use their own techniques
about farming practice. Because of interaction with these migrant
people, they accepted new kind of technique and ideas in every field
of their farming.

Changing Practice

The change in farming of Tharu people after the influence of

migrated people can be described in the following passage.

Along with migrant people, they have known about winter

crops and its utilization. These people also started to practice new
and scientific cropping system, earlier they did not know much
about other crops like, Millet, Mustard, lentil etc. Since then, in
addition to paddy and Maize, they started to grow wheat, millet,
paddy and so on. These people started to plant paddy by
transplanting method rather than using seed broadcasting method.
They started to introduce new kinds of hybrid seeds of paddy such
as OR, SHANKER, LOKNATH etc. and other improved seeds of
paddy such as MANSULI, JAPANESE, SABITRI etc. are improved
verities of paddy cultivated by them. The newly introduced relay
cropping system and the various cropping in the area its plantation
and yielding time can be seen from the following table.

41
 Table 2

Seasonal cropping system in the study area

S.N. crops Plantation Yielding time
1 paddy June/July Oct/Nov
2 wheat Oct/Nov April/May
3 pulses Nov/Dec May/Jun
4 Maize Mar/Apr June/July
5 Mustard September/Oct Jan/Feb
Source: Field Survey, 2006

Tharu people started to use insecticides / pesticides, manure

and chemical fertilizes in their farms. They don't leave their land
without cultivation. Migrated people introduce new types of
cultivating techniques because of most of the migrant people have
small land holding; they used new techniques to yield more
production from small amount of land. In these days, threshing is
done before Dawori due to this technique grain can be preserved
from unnecessary destruction the Dawori is done after the
separation of grains from paddy stalks. This is the traditional
method of hill people. Tharu people adopted that method. More
over in the past Tharu people used to use animal labor such as oxen
bullock in the Dawori but today most of the Tharu people also
started to use tractor in such task.

Most of the Tharu people started to use Doko (a special type

of basket made up of Bamboo splits used for carrying things) and
Namlo (Band round forehead for carrying loads on back) for
carrying things such as grass and manure. Actually Doko and
Namlo are the traditional tools of hill people .but, before they came

42
in to contact with migrants from hill they used to carry their loads
on their heads

Gradually production of traditional Agriculture product

confined only on major crops paddy, wheat, Maize in their fields
has been shifted towards money spinner cash crops like green
vegetable, chilies, tomatoes, cabbage, potato etc. Now these kinds
of crops are being cultivation in their land for their own Use as well
as for commercials purpose, which has created a sound impact on
their heath too. They started new ideas about earning money.

They are applying poultry farming, pigs and goats for the
purpose of selling. These are the various new kinds of farming
practices adopted by the Tharu people from migrated people.

Various new kinds of farming methodology and techniques,

the (Tharu) people of this site implement, include practices such as
relay cropping system and use of biological and chemical fertilizers
and insecticides. As a result, the amount of grain production from
the same areas of land before and now has been changing
considerably.

According to Krishna Mahato ward no. 9, hardly 12-15

quintals (1quintal = 100 Kg) of paddy grains were produced from
one bigha of wet land in average once in a year and other grains
were not introduced at that time i.e. before 1980. He said that the
production of grain amount has increased vastly due to
implementation of new techniques and ideas about farming practice.

43
 Now, it is estimated that in the study area, around 25 quintals
of paddy, 1-5 quintals of maize, 3-4 quintals of wheat is produced
from one bigha of land in one year.

Magana Mahato of the same ward, was of the view that now,
he can able to earn around Rs.8000 monthly from the poultry
farming of 1000 chickens. Now, the poultry farming has become
main profession for his economic support.

Despite of adopting new farming practice which helped them

growing more grains from same area of land, they are unable to
make them sufficient in terms of food due to increasing no of
population and loosing of land.

Despite a substantial production deficit, all household budgets

regularly include expenditures on a number of daily necessary
goods such as, cooking oil, soap, sugar, salt, and so on. In addition
to, a household needs, expend on festivals, rituals and construction,
maintenance and repairing houses etc. So average land holding is
not seemed to sufficient in maintaining Tharu family in the study
area. The following table shows the distribution of sampled
household in terms of food sufficiency from their land.

Table No. 3

Food sufficiency from their own land in the study area.

S.N Food sufficiency No. of Percentage
Households
1 Less than one month 6 6.7

44
2 1-3 month 13 14.5
3 3-6 month 22 24.4
4 6-9 month 25 27.8
5 9-12 month and surplus to sell 24 26.6
Total 90 100

Source: Field Survey, 2006

The above table shows that only 24 households are self

sufficient and have surplus to sell grain production to some extent
where as 6 households (6.7%) fulfill their grain production only for
less than one month. 13 households (14.5%) households fulfill their
grain production only for 1-3 month in a year. 24.4% of the total
sampled household have grain to fulfill only up to 3-6 months
Remaining 27.8% sampled household produce grain to meet 6-5
months in a year. this is present food situation of sampled
household. But before 1980 the food situation was very distinct.
The following table shows the distributions of sampled households
in terms food sufficiency.

Table 4

Food sufficiency from their own land in the 1980 th decade

S.N Month of food sufficiency HHs Percentage

1 Less than one mouth X X

2 1-3 1 1.9

3 3-6 3 5.8

45
4 6-9 10 19.2

5 9-12 month and surpluses to sell 38 73.1

Total 52 100

Source: Field Survey, 2006

The above table clearly illustrates that before or around 1980,

38 households (73.1%) of the sampled household were self
sufficiency of grain production in whole year and even surplus to
sell where as 10 households (19.2%) of the sampled households
fulfilled their grain production up to 6-9 month and suffered for
around 3 months. According to field survey which is shown in
above table, there were only 3 households who were able to produce
grain for 3-6 month and only one household reported that even in
that period he had produced grain just to meet only 1-3 months.

Thus by comparing above two tables, it becomes clear that

some of the households who had not problem of grain sufficient in
the period of 1980 have changed into household having grain
insufficient today. Similarly, more than 70 percent of the sampled
households were self sufficient in grain production before 1980. But
now, more than 70 percent of the sampled households have been
suffering from grain insufficiency.

So today's, in order to fulfill the daily necessities of a

household, certain strategies are adopted such as change in

46
traditional occupation, joining side-jobs, adoption cash crop
cultivations, utilization of varieties of opportunities for earning cash
available in the area such as carpentry, small scale business wood
collection and selling, fishing, agriculture laboring etc.

So, after the migration of hilly people, Tharu people have

slightly changed their living strategies and new occupations are
being adopted by them.

4.4 Changes in Life Standard

4.4.1 Change in Housing Types

The economic conditions of the Tharu of the study area are

poor. Now they are attracted towards nuclear family from joint
family system. It is because of the influenced by the hill people in
their community. In old periods their houses were made using
available tools in the locality like wood, Khar, Khadai (a kind of
straw). Now they are building modern types of houses having one or
two storey made of bricks with necessary windows and doors.

Table No. 5
Structure of the house of the study area
S.N. Types of house HH S %
1 Two storey brick house 2 22
2 One storey brick house 7 7.8
3 Mud house with Zink roof 26 28.9
4 Mud house of tayal 22 24.5

47
 5 Mud house with grass 23 25.5
6 Made of Khar./khadai 10 11.1
Total 90 100

Source: Field Survey, 2006

Most of the houses found are of mud with zink roof, with tayel roof
and with grass roof. There are two stored house made of brick and 7
stored brick houses 26 houses are made of mud with zinck roof, 22
houses mud with tayal roof, 23 houses are made of mud with grass
roof. Similarly the number of house made of khar khadai is 10.

From the above table we can conclude that though the house
made of khar khadai is still prevalent, the number of houses with
privileges of modern technologies is constructing rapidly.

4.4.2 Education

There is good education facility in the village. The number of

government schools and boarding schools are established. Now,
there are two secondary high schools, seven primary school and
private boarding schools are also there. Moreover, just recently one
higher secondary school is established named Bhimnagar higher
secondary school.

Student enrollment is increasing day by day in the schools.

Tharus of the study area are also sending their children to school.
But they do not help and guide their children at home. The children
have to look after the cattle and goats in the afternoon. In the

48
beginning, Tharu girls and boys are good in studies. But as they
reach secondary level the number of drop outs increase because of
the growing household responsibilities. Most of the girls marry
before reading secondary level.

Table 6
Education status of Tharu people in the study area.
S.N. Standard Male Female Total
1 Campus level 7 3 10
2 Above SLC 12 3 15
3 Above 8 class 22 8 30
4 Above 5 class 34 30 64
Total 75 44 119

Source: Field Survey, 2006

Government schools have limited resources. They do not have

resources for extra curricular activities.

4.4.3 Health and Sanitation

Most of the Tharu people of Ganjanagar are aware about their

health and sanitation. They clean their hand and utensils before and
after cooking and having meals. They clean their houses and
surroundings frequently. They regularly take bath and wash clothes.
They are aware about clean drinking water and using toilets.

4.4.3.1 Drinking Water

49
 There were limited hand pumps and wells for drinking water
and other household purpose in the past. But four years before NGO
called Jwalamukhi club installed some hand pumps and wells. Now
there is not so much problem of clean drinking water.

Table 7
Facilities of clean drinking water
S. N. Types HH S %
1 Own hand pumps 48 53.4
2 Own well 26 28.8
3 Installed by NGO 16 17.8
Total 90 10

Source: Field Survey, 2006

The above table shows the facilities of clean drinking water.

53.4% households of total sampled households reported that they
have installed hand pumps by themselves where as 28.8% have got
clean drinking water from their own wells and NGO called
Jwalamukhi club with the collaboration of their own social
organization "Tharu Kalyan Samittee" has installed five common
hand pumps and eleven modern facilitated wells in the area where
clean drinking water was scarce.

4.4.3.2 Toilets

Toilets, well sanitation and cleanliness are the terms or

necessities that gives an introduction of having sound condition of

50
village. Toilet is the most essence object. But all the households are
not being able to install toilets though they feel its necessity. Some
of financially strong families have installed their private toilets.
Sukumbasis, who have nothing except the small cottage, are not
able to install toilets. Those who do not have toilets go to the fields
and on the banks of the canals. They are feeling an acute need of fit.

Table 8
Types of Toilets in the study area.
Types HHS Percentage
Absence 18 20
Low 32 35.5
Medium 25 27.8
Best 15 16.7
Total 90 100
Source: Field Survey, 2006

From the above table, it shows that 18 households are without

toilets. 32 households have managed their own toilets though the
quality of toilets are low, which reflects their sincere ness towards
separate toilets, 25 households have medium type of toilet and only
15 households have best quality toilet.

4.4.4 Family Planning

People are aware about family planning except for those who
have hand to mouth problems. Some are aware but have not done it.
The reason behind are some just a baby and some already crossed
their fertility age. Fifty two couples (22 male and 30 female) have
claimed to do permanent family planning in the area. Twelve couple

51
(5 male and 6 female) are found to use temporary device. Tharu's
women rather than men have mostly done permanent family
planning. They believe that permanent family planning makes one
weak. Since men are bread provider of their families they do not
want their men to get weak.

4.4.5 Gender Aspect

This village is not exceptional from other ordinary villages of

Nepal. It follows the same traditions and culture that have been
formed by their ancestors. Regarding field work men and women do
share work. But women are still bound more in household chores
than productive work. Men do not share household works.

Women here are not so backward in the sense that they are
frank and share their problems even with new comers. They are
becoming stronger because of many social institution such as saving
and credit groups, "Ama Samuha" they are involved in. Now, they
have access and control over monetary matters. They mostly take
part in every monthly meeting, which encourages them to take part
in other social meetings as well. They don’t hesitate to put forward
the problems they are facing in front of the mass. They take part in
the different training conducted by different organization but try to
avoid active participation and their participation in such training is
not regular. After participating in the training they share learning
with all the members of the group through group meeting, which is
a good aspect found while field survey.

52
4.4.6 Language

Tharu of Gunjanagar speaks Tharu language. Thrau language

falls under indo-Aryan group. The Tharu language has been greatly
influenced by various north Indian languages found nearby urdu,
hindi, bhojpuri, and Maithili.

The alphabet of the language is written as in devnagry. The

Tharu lanaugage is fourth largest language of Nepal (Census 2001).
It is the second largest language of Chitwan district. 12% of the
people speak this language in this district. But the language is
somewhat different from the other part of the country. All the
chitaune Tharus speaks same type of language.

4.4.7 Mobility

Toady the life of this village is becoming fast and leadning

towards modernization (especially youth generation). Means of
transport has played a major role in their life and has become a part.
In the past times, they mostly used cart for their transportation and
even in their marriage ceremony but now a days some have started
to keep tractor, motorbike, trucks and now cycle has become most
essential tool for their mobility.

4.5 Occupation

53
 Tharus are basically peasant. Traditionally, the main
occupation of these people is agriculture and subsidiary occupation
is livestock rearing. Most of the Tharu people in the study area are
also found to be engaged in agriculture directly or indirectly. Hence
directly means engaged in own farm and indirectly means engaged
in other farms for subsistence.

Most of the landless or marginal land holding households

work as wage labour which can be found in the form of tenant,
share cropper, permanently hired labour e.g. plough hired for the
year, contact labour (in cash or kind), semi-attached labour tied with
credit or casual wage labour. Some of the landless and marginal
landholding households reported that they do cultivate some amount
of land on a share cropping basis on the land of high land holding
household on Tharu or hill people, who usually work else where as
government officials.

Table 9
Distribution of sample household by occupation
S. N. Main Occupation HH S Percent
1 Agriculture with live stock rearing 68 75.6
2 Agriculture without live stock rearing 8 8.9
3 Other 14 15.5
Total 90 100

Source: Field Survey, 2006

The above table shows that 84.5 percent of the total sampled
households have agriculture as main occupation. Among them 75.6

54
percent have livestock rearing and 8.9 percent of total household
performed agriculture without livestock rearing. Most of the
households have their own land for cultivation but that are not
sufficient to meet their food requirements and daily expense only
15.5 percent people are engaged in other sector than agriculture for
their main occupation such as business, carpentry, mechanics etc.

From the earlier discussion, it is obvious that more than 60%

of the total households have to face with food insufficiency problem
more or less. In the same way as the migration of hill people
increased the chances of different works availability also increased.
Most of the poor Tharu people are compelled to change their
traditional occupation in order to meet their daily expenses.

Therefore, to meet the food and daily expenses some of the

Tharu people are engaged in other sector outside from the
agriculture. The following table represents the distribution of
sampled household by subsidiary occupation.

Table 10
Subsidiary occupation of the tharu people.
S. N. Subsidiary occupation HH S Percent
1 Employment in office 8 8.9
2 Service(foreign) 10 11.1
3 Wage labour 12 13.3
4 Business 11 12.2
5 Mechanics 5 5.6
6 Poultry Keeping 4 4.4
7 Driver (tractor/ truck) 6 6.8
8 Carpentry 15 16.6

55
9 No subsidiary occupation 19 21.1
Total 90 100

Source: Field Survey, 2006

The above table shows that 71 households or 78.9% of total

sampled households have other subsidiary occupation where as 26
households or 21.1 percent of the total households have no other
subsidiary occupation than agriculture. Those households which
have no subsidiary occupation are highland holders and agriculture
is their main occupation and they are self sufficient to meet their
food requirements and daily requirements.

The above table also indicates that out of the total subsidiary
occupation having households 15 housholds manage their food and
household requirements from carpentary mostly in off farm seasons
of the number of hill people increased the availability of various
carpentary work also increased. Similarly 8 household manage their
out income from government office and private offices. Among
them three households have employed in school as teacher of lower
secondary level, two households work in private office, three
households work in private office and three households reported
that their sons are joined in Nepal army. The other subsidiary
occupation applied by the Tharu people of this village is service in
aboard and the number of such households are 10.

Likewise 12 housholds manage their out income through wage

labour and 11 households are engaged in business at local area.
Other people of 5 households are engaged in mechanical sector such

56
as motor cycle mechanics, cycle mechanics four households have
managed their daily expense and food requirements from poultry
farming and other 6 people are tractor and truck driver.

According to key informants, it was reported that before the

migration of hill people there were no any household who had
outside occupation than agricultur. Some people wanted to live as
Haruwa (ploughman hired for the year) and charuwa (who looks
after other's cattle) in other houses. According to Krishna Bahadur
Mahato (42 years). In the early years there were few Tharus who
were interested to live as Haruwa and Charuwa in other Tharu
landlords' house although they had their own land. According to
him, it was due to the fact that such people used to think to become
a Haruwa or Charuwa for other houses was easier than to become a
master of own land. For this purpose they used to give their land to
other peson on share cropping basis. But at present such types of
example can not be found. People engaged in non-agricultureal
sector reported that they were attracted by the hilly people's
profession. For example, Tharu people did not like to go to aboard
for service. After the migration of hill people, they knew to go in
other palces for serives.

From the study, it was obvious that most of young generation

are not in favour of their traditional occupation i.e. agriculture and
livestock rearing. Most of them want to go aboard for job, some are
interested to be driver, other job and services. They realized being
only a farmer is very difficult to maintain themselves. Thus after

57
Tharu people are slightly changing their traditional occupation to
modern occupation.

CHAPTER-V

SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGES IN THARU COMMUNITY

This chapter aims to discuss on the changes in socio-cultural

life of the Tharu's of the study site, as a result of migration of outer
people in the locality. Particularly, it will focus on the issue related
to education, health, treatment, family system, festivals, dress
ornaments, life cycle rituals and related social activities.

5.1 Changes in Education

Before the migration of hill people, there was no educational

institution in this village. Almost all of the Tharu people of this
village were illiterate. But now a number of education institution
has been established, So the enrollment of Tharu students is also
increasing day by day.

Table 11

Schools in Gunjanagar VDC

S.N. Number of school Word Established
No. year
1 Bhimnagar higher secondary school 4 2024
2 Gunjanager secondary school 2 2022
3 Dadrahani Ra.pra.bi. 9 2032

58
 4 Saraswati lower secondary 5 2037
5 Bhimchandra Ra.Pra.bi. 4 2045
6 Hirapur Ra.pra.bi. 7 2038
7 Narayani Ra.Pra.bi. 3 2048
8 Jeevan Jyoti Ra.pri.bi. 8 2039
9 Janashikchya Ra.Pri.bi. 1 2036
10 Ganjapur Ra.Pri.b. 6 2044

Source: Field Survey, 2006

There are three other 5 private boarding schools where few

Tharu children read.

After the migrant from hill started to send their children to

school Tharu people were also inspired and started to send their
children to the school. Now the literacy rate of Tharu children is
almost same as the other people's children. The following table
shows the change in school enrollment of children among the
community of Tharu.

Table 12
Change in school enrolment of Tharu children
Now
Children Before
Son 30 20 15 10 5
years years years years years
daughter 5% 15% 35% 60% 78% 92%
2% 6% 16% 30% 58% 73%

Source: Field Survey, 2006

59
 Above table shows the representation of enrolment percent of
the Tharu children in different period. Before 30 years, the
enrolment rate was 5% among male and 2% among female. But
now, the enrolment rate is increasing and reached 92% among male
and 73% among female. Tharu children are good in study in the
beginning but as they reach to class seven/eight their study starts to
fall down because of the growing household responsibilities and
most of the girls marry before reaching to class nine/ten.

5.2 Changes in Health Treatments System

Although the Tharu people are uneducated, they are aware

about the health and sanitation. There is a health post at Gunjanagar
VDC and other private clinics are also established. Moreover
Gnujanagar is not for from Bharatpur because of the transportation
facilities. So, they treat their problems as per their condition. The
pattern of change in health treatment refers table below.

Table 13

Change in Health Treatment System

Method Before Now
30 years 20 years 10 years 5 years
Gurau (faith Healer) 90% 80% 40% 20% 15%
Health Post/Private clinic 10% 20% 60% 80% 85%

Source: Field Survey, 2006

60
 Before 30-40 years people strongly believe in Gurau (Tharu
faith-healer).Their first priority were the treatment with Gurau and
health post and hospital were also not available at that time even if
there were a few number of health post and private clinic they used
to put health post and hospital in 2 nd priority. But now, because of
the increasing facilities of road, market, health, education etc, they
have begun to accept the new needs of society. This can be taken as
the change of thoughts. For example, they don't engage only in
pleasing Gods and spirit but also follow modern medical treatments.
Many of them have started to go to hospitals and health centers for
treatment.

5.3 Socio-Cultural Change

The family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently

precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing
of the children (Maciver and page). Tharu are very laborious people
labour is the base of their life. There is a division of labour among
the family members. They all work honestly according to their
capacity. Men and women have their tasks based on tradition. Aged
persons and children are given light works. Some works and given
according to sex differences. For ploughing, building houses are
done by men while women to work like preparing food, cleaning
home, washing clothes etc. Some tasks are performed together. The
work division in family type, all the work has to be completed by
only husband and wife in the past, Tharu lived with large member in
a family. Tharu are seen to respect their elders, whether male or

61
female, all time. They thought that if a family is a large, the
working pattern is easy in the field and house. Most of the families
were joint type a family consisted up to 40 members. These patterns
are gradually changing recently. Most of the Tharu family are
nuclear type which is the effect of other caste present in this area
because of most of the caste's have nuclear type of family system.

5.3.1 Life Cycle Ceremonies

Every society, there exist certain methods for regulating social

life. Custom, belief, norms are importance means of controlling
social behaviour. They are so powerful that no one escapes from
their range. Every ethnic group reflects their philosophy of life and
death, human relationship and activities, importance and
expectation of human life in terms of religion and life cycle
ceremonies. Such expectations and perception shapes the whole life
activities of the individual and communities. The most important
events of an individual are birth, marriage and death which are
presented below in this section.

5.3.1.1 Birth

After a child is born, the placenta is placed on a ‘Nanglo’

(bamboo tray for cleaning food grains) above a cloth. Some of the
placenta is buried in the place where the mother lives and a fire is
built above the pit where placenta was buried. The fire warmth
supposed to benefits the mother. For eleven days the mother should
not touch any object. There is no particular system in celebrating in

62
naming. But the child and mother are bathed for purification. The
house is purified on that day by spreading cow-dung on the floor.
The naming ceremony was performed either by their own priest
"Gurau" or household head himself but now the naming ceremony is
found to be performed by Brahman priest. Similarly their traditional
naming system was not systematic for e.g. a child was born on
Monday i.e. sombar the name of this child would be "Somla
Mahatto" But nowadays this naming system has been changed.

Thus, these newly adopted cultural practices such as naming

of child after 11 days from birth, use of Brahmin priest and Hindu
naming system are the culture of Hindu caste therefore adoption of
such cultural practices are the examples of cultural change due to
the impact of migration.

5.3.1.2 Marriage

Traditionally there are four types of marriage prevalent among

this community in this study site. They are Jamani Bibaha, Maghi
Bibaha or arranged marriage, elopement with unmarried women and
elopement with some one else wife. Other traditional features of the
Tharu marriage system are mismatched marriage, widow marriage
and settlement of marriage before birth.

Among some communities of Tharu, parents settle marriage of

their unseen children while in gestation and as the child grows
especially girl become pregnant in their own house and later shift to
the house of the man of husband. In miss-matched marriage,

63
generally, a very young 8 to 9 years aged physically immature
husband is married with a more grown up 15 to 16 years old mature
wife. Widow marriage was also common among these people
because they had to face with manpower deficiency for their farms
when malaria was not controlled. Chori Bibaha is another type of
marriage in this society. In this type of marriage, boy drives off
other's wife of Tharu man. After this new husbands have to pay jari
to the first husbands of that woman. After this, wife and husbands
have to stand in front of the society, the society member asked with
both if both agree with this marry, the marriage becomes is legal.
After this, the boys’ relative announced a Bhoj. In this occasion the
entire villager would be invited and marriage ceremony is
completed. If one is not agreed the marriage becomes dismiss and
the lady is drop to the first husband's house.

The first impact that took place among these people is totally
collapse of jamani Bibaha in which parents of newly born boy and
girl from those separate family who could tie in marriage relation
used to come into agreement that they would marry their child when
they would becomes ready physically. Therefore this type of
marriage was decided to totally minimize by boy and girl but now a
days this type of marriage has totally stopped among these group
because hilly people hate such type of marriage and also they taught
them such type of marriage was harmful for them.

Methods of arrange marriage has changed from their

traditional ways to other cast Hindu system. In arrange marriage

64
procession from bride house to groom's house. When the process of
marriage is finished at bride's house, the groom waits for bride for
whole day at the outside of his home and later at evening the bride
comes with marriage procession and then enters with groom in
groom’s house. But in these days after finishing the marriage
process, the bride and groom come together in groom's house,
which is limitation of other Hindu cast marriage system. Widow
marriage has been also minimized in these days among these
people. In this study, not a single cast of widow marriage has been
found among the sampled households.

5.3.1.3 Death Rites

Death is considered as one of the events of great significance

among the Tharu societies as also in other tribal communities.
Tharu accepts the term death with the belief of new life after death.
After death, crop is put on a bamboo frames tied with a strong and
covered with cloth. Married person Kriya called Kaj and unmarried
person's Kriya called Khartel. In Khartel the death events complete
within 5 to 7 days. After death the dead body is surrounded by
Karto (Bohari) and is taken to the river by malami (Ghatoria). A
deep pit dug in the bank of a river, the body is placed in and it is
filled. Rice is spread along the burial route, for it is believed that as
birds start picking the grain, the dead person's sin is washed a way.

After the burial all members of the funeral party take bathe in
the river. If the sons are many, only eldest son set for Kora (Utari)

65
other brothers help him in different activities. The person who lived
in Kora called Kriyaputri (Kqrathar). He leaves one meal in first
day then he leaved salt. The purification completed in the 12 th day
of male and 13 th day of female. In this events, they give ‘Jal’ to the
tree of Bar and Pipal for the memories of their relatives. In 10 th day
they clean house and surrounding, in 11 th day they invite priests
complete Kam Kriya by giving dan. In 12 th day all the villagers
invited and giving Bhoj. The Kriyaputri remains in barakhi up to
one year after death or mage sankranti or pitri aunsi. In the day of
barakhi leaving, he goes to Devghat or Goddhak or bank of river
and cuts the hair, cuts pigeon and gives Tarpan. After this, in every
Pitri Aunsi they give Tarpan in the memory of their pitri.

But now a day the death rites activities are also gradually
changing in that community. In the past, the performance of
mourning rituals might not be started from the day of death as like
other Hindu cast. it was started only in Paush, Magh or Falgun when
the death occurred from Ashad to Kartik but in these days this
tradition has totally stopped and as performed resembling with
Hindu cast and now a days Brahmin priest is invited to perform the
funeral activities similarly to Hindu tribes.

Therefore these new traditions which are accepted by these

people on death rituals can be taken as example of cultural change
due to impact of migration.

66
The most important change has come in the Tharu people to day is
that they are loosing the confidence about their traditional rituals.

5.3.2 Change in Cultural Activities

5.3.2.1 Clothing

Because of their area of inhabitation, Terai, they wear very

little and light clothes. The male tharu wear a bhegva or loincloth of
white cotton clothes and half or full sleeved bhoto. Most of these
people wear topi. The women wear the knee length dress, which is
not much folded in the front and called a thetuwa, gunew. The
young unmarried girls wear cholo or blouse, which has strings on
the back to tie it up. Married women have the same blouse but the
strings are in the front. Now a days young people were modern
cloths such as male: suit, pant and female: kurta shulwar, pant, etc.

5.3.2.2 Food and Drinking

Most of the Tharu people eat rice three times a day with
vegetables but without soup and it is their major diet. They rarely
eat pulses. They are non-vegetarians and their staple food is rice.
Fish and Ghogi is their main dish without which their life is
impossible. They like to consume meat and alcohol called mod and

67
gadala than vegetables, curries and bread. They prefer meat of
chicken, park, pigeons, tortoise, goal etc. The food called kawa
cooked by mixing lentils or pulses and rice is popular among this
community. They take breakfast, lunch and dinner in a day all of
content rice. Mod and gadala is necessary in every festival. They
welcome their guest by mod and gadala with meat and fish. They
like to eat salt and chilly too much in their food. They used to eat
rat but now a days new generation hate it. At festival they eat
chichhar.

5.3.2.3 Ornaments

Tharu women like to wear ornaments as in the case with

women of almost all tribes. On their ears, these women wear the
mundri on which a silver jhilmiliya and hung. On their nostril is a
phuli or sometimes a nattha is also hooked on. On their arms are
bangle-like ornaments called Tra, which are made of base metal or
silver. They wear shell as bangles on their wrists and at the two
ends of this set are placed brass on bronze bangles. The fingers on
the hands, the toes on the feet are decorated with rings too. The
most attractive use of ornaments made by tharu women is on the
neck, where they hang multicolored glass beads or pote necklaces,
real or fake muga necklaces. They wear tika on their foreheads. It is
seen that they use very little ornaments made of gold. Names of
other ornaments are tadia, made of Bronze worn on the ankles and
look like large rings, hasulior necklaces, pachhela or bangles, darki
or earrings, nokshol or nose rings. Married women make tattoos not

68
only their legs but also their breast. It is believed that if this is not
done that woman cooks is not worthy to be eaten.

Nowadays most of the women of this village use modern types

of ornaments like chain, necklace, etc, which are common among
the women of other ethnic groups migrated from hilly region.

5.3.2.4 Song and Dance

The stick dance is a special dance of Tharus. After paddy

cultivation they sing and dance a lot. They sing and dance in
different ceremonies and festivals. The dances and songs are
performed according to season and month. These dances are
ramsari, jhurma, stick, circle, thekara, jhara, damphu, barmash, holi
and jhamta. They sing different type of song i.e. birhun, lagani,
sorathi, barmas, chaitawari, tamura, jhamta etc.

5.3.2.5 Others

They used to keep a barber (hair-dresser) called 'Mardaniya."

His work was to cut hair among the Tharu tribes and in return he
got rice and beverages from the house of others. Now, this system
has totally changed and relinquished. We can find different hair
cutting sailoons from neighboring India. There used to be a
watchman/messenger, named as 'chowkidar', who conveyed
different massages from one to another made aware of something

69
among communities and took rice, grain and vegetables etc. from
others in reward. Now we can hardly find such person.

5.3.3 Religious Change

Most of the Tharu people believe in animism and worship

spirits. Some however don't have any concept of religion and a few
are gradually adopting the dominant Hindu system. The religions
world of Tharus is heavily influenced Hinduism. Distinctive
religion and spiritual elements do occur, how every even if Tharus
call themselves Hindu-Kinwani and call upon the services of
Brahmins.

Tharu's traditional worshiping method to deities and spirits are

gradually in the processes of modification due to many factors such
as dependency on other groups, mass illiteracy, poverty and close
context with Hindu. Adoption of Hindu religion by some rich
Tharus are found openhearted to adopt the Hindu culture and
religion. In fact, the Tharu religion is dynamic in his character as
well as in its form. The changing pattern of religion faith is believed
to safeguard them from constant attack of wild animals, epidemics
and agencies of evil spirits.

Tharus have adopted the Hindu ideal as an unattainable goal.

They can be seen to abandon things they regard as impure such hog
breeding or to introduce typical Hindu Pujas (Satyanaryan Puja). I
found some of the Tharus special cultures like pitri Aunsi, Godana
and Satsara distinct from others.

70
5.3.4 Festivals

Tharu indigenous are entertained with many festivals

throughout the year. Festivals are major aspects of people’s life.
Among several festivals, which the Tharus observe, are Fagu,
Soharai, Khichara, Dashain Pitri Aunsi and Jitia were the most often
mentioned festivals, except for some difference in the ways the
Tharus celebrate these festivals. All expect one have a Hindu
festival equivalent pitri seemed to be specifically Tharu festival,
which has a strong religious connotation. They think that their
ancestral deities are the most important deities and should be
worshipped in every feast and festivals.

Maghi

The Maghi festival is celebrated on the first day of Magha. In

the last day of Paush the Tharu man and women go fishing early in
the morning. They eat fish, meat and raksi, at the last day of Push
they cook chichar, which is cooked in that day and eat in the next
day. All the member of the family is bathed before eating the
chichar. They do not work in that day. They eat shakharkhanda,
banana, sugarcane, chiura etc in that day. Sisters and daughters are
invited and enjoyed with feast.

Fagu

Fagu is the most important festivals of the study area. During

the falgun (Feb/Mar) on the day before the full moon (purnima),

71
they celebrate it greatly. The festival is famous for entertainment.
They worship the God Krishna. The main massage of this festival is
communal harmony and national unity. People forget long
nourished grudges and embrace each other with love and respect.

They do not sacrifice any domestic animals. On this day, they

gather in one place and entertained themselves by throwing abir and
other colour on each other and sing a holi song and dance in a group
with the help of musical instruments. The day before the Holi
festival most of the man and women go for fishing. Young man and
women gather in one place and start to dance and song, this activity
is started from someday before the holiday.

Jitia

Jitia is another important festival of Tharu women. It is

celebrated in Asthami of Bhadra Krishan Pacchya. In this festival
they worship Jitia goddess for the better health of their husband and
children.

Pitri Auusi

In Oct/Nov between the full and the new moon (Purnima to

Aunsi), one’s deceased ancestors are remembered and every day
given water. On the day before of Aunsi all the member of the
family whom are able to do so goes for fishing. On that day they
celebrate by eating fish, meat, raksi etc. They dance and songs in a
group and to all the house of the village and eat different varieties

72
of food. The relatives are invited in that festival and welcome by
giving feast.

Here are lists of some such festivals and processes of

celebrations which were not prevalent among the Tharu people in
the past but are common in Hindu system.

Dashain

Actually, it is the most important festival of Hindu but it is

also popular among the Tharu people. The method of celebration
Dashain is somehow different after the migrants of hilly people into
this area. The following points show such change in celebrating this
festival.

The tradition of celebrating Dashain was very different before

the migration of hill people, Dashain celebration was restricted only
the house of Ghar Gatia (The main person of tharu people of the
village where few people used to go to take Tika). But now most of
the Tharu people celebrate Dashain, and taking Tika in these days
has started in each house by family chief. Similarly on Asthami and
Nawami, these people have started worshipping goddess of power
named, Mahakali Bhagavati.

Tihar

73
 This is another second important festival of Hindu, which is
also common among the Tharu people. The method of celebrating
this festival is somehow different from that of other Hindu castes.
Conventionally, these people did not use to celebrate Bhai Tika. In
this festival, they celebrated only cow and worshipping of different
things such as jungle, family deity, cow, dhiki, janto, rice store,
plough and bayal gada. But now a day, some people started to
celebrate Bhai Tika also. This is also an animated example of
adopting cross cultural. The other new festivals adopted by Tharu
are Thulo Ekadashami and Krishnastami. Thulo Ekadashi falls on
Kartik and Krishnastami falls on Bhadra. Baisakha Purnima, which
is full moon festival is another festival adopted.

5.4 Development of Ethnic Feeling

Migration of hilly people in this village has created both

positive and negative impacts on the life of the Tharu people.
Introduction modern techniques and ideas about farming and
occupation, increase of social activities, development of education
atmosphere etc are the example of positive impacts. However, the
loss of their native culture and philosophy of life as guided by their
tradition, economic exploitation etc are negative impacts, the
migration of hill people into this area has also increased the ethnic
feeling among the Tharu people.

In this section an attempt has been made to describe the

changes on ethnic feeling among these people by the migration.

74
 Tharu ethnic identity is defined in contrast to that of the hill
people, primarily migrants of the dominant Brahmin, Chhetri caste
who have settled widely in the Terai since 1950's. Similarly the
development of ethnic feeling among the Tharu started when hill
people began to migrate in this area. The Tharu see themselves as
the indigenous people of this area in contrast to the recently arrived
groups.

5.5 Material Culture

The Tharu house consists exclusively of natural building

material and almost all household things are made from natural
products. Organic raw materials like wood and bark. Canes and
grasses and large leaves or downy fruits capsules are put to use and
further processed within the traditional technology of Tharus. The
most valuable hardwood from which tools, simple furniture and the
like are produced and which is used for the supporting element in
house, sheet and machan construction are sal and sissoo. The godam
(rice starting equipment) for store the rice also made by this type of
timbre wood. Modern technologies and products are only slowly
gaining entry into the Tharu villages. The supply of wares in the
bazaars is temptingly large but few people can afford them.

The tharu maternal culture, subdivided into domains the

household, agriculture, fishing, construction and hunting, along
with means of transport and musical instruments. They made most

75
of the necessary materials i.e. oxcart, querns, rice huskers, bamboo
trays and basket, weirs and fishing nets. But now the situation is
change, they can not get raw materials for making their material
culture because establishment of Royal Chitwan National Park. The
cheap market goods and material such as polythene bag and pot
challenge them.

5.6 Factors of Change

Sharwan (1985) writes in his book "When a society comes in to contact

with the external factor, the sign of change are observed in it.
Development is possible only through changes. A change is not the
matter to occur over night. It is also not easy to bring about changes in
human concepts, belief and mentality. For this years and year of efforts
may be included some change may occur automatically. But so far the
concept is concerned, there is the need of change in different aspects by
different factor"

Transportation

The road construction of east- west Highway (Mahendra

Highway) has started on 2018 and other sub way to join highway
were also repaired now this area is accessible from any cornier of
Nepal. This has changed a lot in the traditional life style of
tharu towards easy and fart peace of modernization, however,

76
they are not able to change a lot, and it has brought new way,
value and expectation among them.

Economic

There are various means of change of Tharu community in

the study area. Religion, culture, life cycle, earning status,
festivals, economic standard, agriculture pattern etc. At first we
can give the example of economic standard, the poor economic
condition has been one of features for change in Tharu festivals
because the poor people are not able to afford much for the
celebration, naturally they have to cut down the expenditure and
so on .and at the same time the duration of festival has also been
shorted. Except some important festival like Dashain they do not
observe other festival for many days, but for only are one day
because of economic and time factors.

Migration

Migration is one of the major factor for change. With the

Contact of hill people there has been changes in their activities
such as way of living, dress pattern, food habit and festival
celebrations. Previously Tharu people of the study area were
isolated. Hence, they could preserve their unique way of life but
after the eradication of malaria and start of rehabilitation
program in 2021 BS, hill people migrated to this area and created
change in the life of Tharu people. So we can say that migration
is one of the major factor of socio- cultural change.

77
Technology

Moreover the development of technology, the traditional

culture of Tharu of study area has been affected. At the same
time, the musical instruments of Tharu people, which were used
during the time of festival, have also gone some change.
Previously they used to use musical instrument Dholak in their
different ceremonies but now it has not been seen rather they
started to use modern musical instruments in their marriage
ceremony. From the last two decades, they started to use modern
technology in their field such as tractor for ploughing, pesticides,
insecticides and improved variety of seeds for farming. It has
resulted into increase in their income.

Education

Education is an essential factor for development of society.

It also helps to achieve upward mobility. Education creates
awareness and plays a vital role in developing knowledge and
skill of people. Education has been one of the factor for socio-
cultural change.

Social Organization

Different types of organization are present in that

community such as, political, social, government and user
groups. VDC is responsible for changing their traditional judging
system. Health post has changed their traditional treatment

78
practice. Agriculture centre changed their traditional agriculture
farming system by providing improved seed and fertilizer by
giving knowledge of cash crop, fruit and vegetable farming to
Gunjauagar people. Different organizations like NGOs, CBOs
generate awareness on sanitation, drainage, impact of
environmental degradation. Saving credit groups and user groups
provided them loan for hand pump installation, toilet
construction etc.

Modernization

Many people of that area go to the other place even aboard

for seeking job and labour in the factories, hotel and company.
Some Tharu people of the study area are involved in small
businesses, such as hotel, kirana pasal and cycle maintenance
garage. They change their food habit They have started eating
two times meal a day where as in the past they took four times
meal a day. It is due to the impact of modernization which is
another factor for change.

Sanskritization

They left some tribal feast and festivals and started to

observe some Hindu festival. For example Dashain was not their
main festival but now they celebrate Dashain as much as other
hill people. On the other hand their festivals are also changing.
Wherever they are in contact with hill people they gradually

79
adopt the Hindu culture and change the mode of celebration of
their festivals.

Westernization

Westernization is another major factor of socio-cultual

change of the study area. Most of them changed their traditional
dress and now they started to wear modern dress like rain coats,
shirts, pants, shoes by male and saries, pants, lungi, cholo by
woman and girls wear kurtha, pant and frocks which are not their
traditional dress. For this, chitwan National park is a responsible
factor, which is the major tourist centre of the nation. The tourist
come to their village to know Tharu culture. By the contact with
tourist, the villager adopted their new clothing pattern.

Deforestation

Now, they are facing the greater problem of the

construction materials required for house. Due to the shortage of
such material, their traditional type of house are going to
disappear. They can not collect timber for house, sheds
construction, bamboo for dhadia (an equipment for fishing),
edible plant vegetables, medicinal plant for medicine, firewood
for cooking, fodder for domestic animal. The people of that area
can not go to river and stream for fishing, forest for hunting and
animal grazing. It is the result of deforestation and establishment
of RCNP in Chitwan.

80
 CHAPTER-VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Summary

The Main objective of the present study is to analyze the

socio-cultural change of Tharu community in Gunjanagar VDC.
With an emphasis on marriage, family, life cycle, ceremony,
religion, festival, dress and food habit and to find out the factors
and forces responsible for the change .

The present study area is inhabited by Tharu people. The

migration of hill people in the village started only after 1970 (after
the resettlement program). Before this period only the Tharus were
the only inhabitants of this village. According to census 2001 Tharu
population of this village is 773 which constitutes around 7% of
total population.

81
 After the migration of hill people, Tharu people are in
touching and interacting with different ethic group. In such
interaction they are accepting and imitating numerous techniques
and ideas from them, which causes various changes on their
economic life style. According to field survey, it was found that the
number of Tharu people having no land has been increasing rapidly.
Before Migration of the hill people in this area Most of the Tharu
people had bighas of land but now almost 10% of Tharu people are
land less. On the one hand their land size has been decreasing and
on the other hand the open land for pasturage and dense forest in
the vicinity area have been encroached by increased population
due to which they have to face with new problems for subsistence.
Meanwhile, they adopted new method in farming system such as use
of new and improved seeds, plantation of cash crops. So they have
been able to produce more grains from the same areas of land than
before. However, due to increase in family member on the one hand
and one the other hand they also came in to contact with the people
of different occupation, they have not been able to meet their food
requirements and daily expenses. Therefore to solve food problems
they have been changing their traditional occupation. Thus after the
migration of hill people the economic life of the Tharu has
undergone changes.

As the migration if hill people started to flow, then the event

of intercaste marriage between Tharu and other tribes has became
not a strange deal and there took a great interaction between Tharu

82
and non- Tharu as a consequences Tharu people have adopted new
kinds of social and cultural practice, which were not prevalent in the
past. The most important positive impact on Tharu after migration
of hill people is that of attraction towards education. According to
the field survey it was found that the enrollment of Tharu children
of this area reached 95% among son and 73% among daughter. So it
can be taken as their positive attitude towards education.

Now, most of the Tharu people of this area are aware about
the health and sanitation. They clean their hands and utensils
before and after cooking and having meals, they clean their house
and surrounding regularly. They are aware about clean drinking
water and using toilets. Now more than 85% of total sampled
household reported that they consulted Health post and private
clinic rather than Gurau in the case of illness therefore it can be
said that they have changed their traditional attitude to wards
consulting Gurau

In the past, tharu people did not go to the court or police office
to settle disputes. Every dispute was settled in their own village.
They were afraid of police or juries body outside their society,
because of the fact that they did not know the legal system and
procedure. Now most of the legal case in the village reaches to
VDC office, court and police post.

The Tharu of this area have adopted Hindu religion such as

adoption of Brahmin priest in different rituals rather than their

83
Gurau. They started to observe Hindu festivals such as Dashain and
Tihar with giving more priority rather than their own festivals such
as Jitia, Faguwa, etc. they have adopted same Hindu rituals in life
cycle ceremonies too, such as polluted assuming system in birth of
child for period of 11 day, naming Brahmin priest with Hindu
system, reduction in mish-matched and early marriage, performance
of mourning ritual just after the death are such newly adopted
culture practice which were not prevalent in the past time. Similarly
Tharus of this village have adopted new type of dresses and
ornaments. They started to participate in social activities more than
before on the one hand and on the other, due to the fear of the hill
people the ethnic feelings among them have also developed. Thus
such types of economic, social and culture change on the life style
of the Tharu people of Gunjanagar village was caused by the
migration of hill people.

6.2 Conclusions

The Tharu of this village are indigenous in Chitwan district,

now they have been subjected to changing situation created mostly
by migration event by accepting and adopting new traditions, ideas
and practices. Moreover after the migration of hill people into this
area, both positive and negative impacts can be seen among Tharu
people. They have adopted new techniques and ideas about farming
system. They are attracted towards new kinds of occupation and
educational atmosphere is also developing among them. They are
becoming more civilized, healthier and more educated than before.

84
 On the other hand frequently migration trend of hill people in
this village has challenged Tharus in many ways. Due to
exploitation of natural resources, which was their niche, they have
been facing with new problems for subsistence. They are losing
their native culture and philosophy of life style as guided by their
traditional religion. Their socio- cultural life is being dominated by
other cast. They are losing self confidence about their own tradition,
values, norms and beliefs. However now a day they have started to
preserve their ethnic identity among themselves.

6.3 Recommendations

On the basis of study some recommendations are made in

different areas, which are considered to be useful for the betterment
of related sectors and further research. They are as follows:

As the Tharus are mainly agricultural people, emphasis should

be given to improve their agriculture farming system. Even though
the land of this is fertile. Due to the lack of proper facilities of
irrigation they have not been able to harvest paddy in time so
government should provide irrigation facilities. In order to raise
their economic condition, special program packages to improve cash
crop and green vegetable cultivation by involving local people can
be implemented.

The government should provide different programs for these

indigenous Tharu people in order to raise self confidence and not
only the government but also other social organization, higher cast
people, migrated people should provide equal treatment to all caste

85
people making harmony to develop self confidence and mutual trust
among different ethnic groups in order to develop relationship
among them. For the landless households, government or local
development organizations should support in installing community
toilets and hand pumps, proper drainage system should be
constructed to avoid possible disease.

They should aware themselves to preserve their own culture

and tradition from the attack of other migrants. They have to
continue positive tradition and culture and have to leave
unproductive/bad tradition and culture.

REFERENCES

Acharya, B.R. (2000). Perspective on Social-Cultural Change and

Development. New Hira Books Enterprises, Kirtipur,
Kathmandu.

Baral, I (2009 B.S.). Tharu Jati Ra Tinko Sanskriti. Nepal

Sanskritik Parishad, Journal Vol.1, Sanskritik, Parishad,
Thamel, Kathmandu.

Bhusan, B. (1989), Dictionary of Sociology. New Delhi, Anmol

Distribution.

Bikas, C.J. (1980). Evolution in Nepal, CINAS, Kirtipur,

Kathmandu.

Bista, D.B. (1967). The People of Nepal. Ratna Pustak Bhandar (1 st

Edition), Kathmandu, Nepal.

86
Bista, D.B. (1980). The People of Nepal. Ratna Pustak Bhandar (4 th
Edition), Kathmandu, Nepal.

Boker, U.M. (1999). The Chitwan Tharu in Southern Nepal: An

Ethnological Approach, Nepal Research Centre Publications,
No. 21.

Chaudhari, N.K. (2055 B.S.). An Introduction of Chitwan Tharu.

Narayani Publication, Narayangarh, Chitwan.

Chhetri, S.N.B. (1996). Marriage System Among Tharus of Surkhet

District. Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for the Degree of Ph.D. of Anthropology T.U.

Dahal, D.R. (1987). Rural Poverty in Nepal. Issues Problem and

Prospect. WINROCK Project, Kathmandu.

Gautam, Rj Thapa, A.K. (1994). Tribal Ethnography of Nepal

Delhi, Book Faith, India.

Guneratee, A. (1994). The Tharus of Chitwan: Ethnicity, Class and

the State in Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis University of Chicago.

Krauskopff, G. Pamela, D. (2000). The Kings of Nepal and the

Tharus of Terai, CNASS of Roska Press, America.

Kumar, N. (1997). Principles of Sociology. Agra Books Enterprises,

3 rd Edition, India.

87
Majundar, D. N. (1942). The Tharu and Their Blood Group, Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bangel.

Mayer, K.W. (1995). The Origin of Tharu. Himal, Volume 8, No.4

July/August.

Neupane, P. (1997). Extent of Poverty in Small Farmers: A Case

Study of Chitwan. Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements of Arts for the Master Degree of Economics.
T.U.

Pandit, P. (2000). Socio-Cultural Change of Tharu Community.

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of
Arts for the Master Degree of Sociology/Anthropology T.U.

Parajuli, D.B. (1995). Socio-Cultural Change in Biswokarmas: An

Anthological Case Study of Mulpani VDC of Baglung District.
Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requierement
for the Degree of Master of Sociology/Anthropology T.U.

Prasai, Y.R. (1998). Socio-Cultural Change Among Satar of Jhapa

District, Eastern Nepal. Thesis Submitted in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirement of Arts for the Master Degree
of Sociology, T.U.

Pyakurel, K.N. (1982). The Sociological Condition of Tharu

Villages in Chitwan District, Kathmandu, Nepal.

88
Rajaure, D.P. (1977). Anthropological Study of Tharu of Dang
Deukhuri. A Dissertation Submitted to the Research Centre for
Nepal and Asian Studies. T.U.

Regmi, R.K.R. (1991). The Dhimals: Miraculus Migrants of Himal:

Delhi Nirula Publication.

Regmi, R.K.R. (1999). Dimensions of Nepali Society and Culture,

SANN Research Institute, Gairidhar, Kathmandu.

Sharma, S.K. (1985). An Anthropological Study of Tharu of Dang.

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement of
Arts of the Degree of Master of Anthropology T.U.

Upadhyay, P. (1999). Nepalese Culture and Society: A

Sociological/Anthropological Perspective. Bidhyarthi Pustak
Pasal, Bagar, Pokhara.

89
Questionnaire

A. General Information
a. Name of the household head ……………………….
Age………………. Cast……………. Religion………….
Language…………… Village………… Ward No…………

b. Family Structure
S.N. Name Relation with Age Sex Education Occupation
the household
head

2. Where is your origin place?

3. When from the Pahadis started to come to your village?

…………………………………………………………………………….

90
4. What effect do you face from other migrants?

…………………………………………………………………………….

5. What is the effect of modernization upon your culture?

…………………………………………………………………………….

6. What is the type of your family?

a. Joint ( ) b. Nuclear ( )

7. Do you have polygamy system in marriage?

a. Yes ( ) b. No. ( )

8. How do you spend your daily life?

…………………………………………………………………………….

9. What are your main festivals?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

10. How do you celebrate life cycle ceremonies and festivals?

…………………………………………………………………………….

11. What type of change do you feel in your life cycle ceremonies and
festivals?

…………………………………………………………………………….

12. What type of relation do you set up with other caste?

…………………………………………………………………………….

91
13. How is the wage rate for male and female for the similar type of
work?

a. Same ( ) b. Different ( )

14. Who does the decision in household matter?

a. Only by male ( )

b. By both male and female ( )

c. Only by female ( )

15. What type of domestic animals are your rearing and in how many
numbers?

Type of animal Number

a. Cows/Oxen …………..

b. Buffaloes …………..

c. Goats ………….

d. Chickens ………….

e. Others ………….

16. How much land do you own? (In Bigha and Kattha)

a. Khet…………. b. Bari……………

c. landless……….

17. Food sufficiency from own land

a. Less than one month b. 1-3 months

c. 3-6 months d. 6-9 months

e. 9-12 months f. Surplus to sell

92
18. What are the major crops you cultivate in your land?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

19. What is the type of your house?

a. Two storey brick house

b. One storey brick house

c. Mud with zinc roof

d. Mud with tayal roof

e. Mud house with grass roof

f. Made of Khar/khadai

20. What are the sources of your income?

a. Agriculture…………. b. Others ……………..

21. Is there toilet in your house?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

22.a. If yes, what is the type of your toilet?

a. Best ( ) b. Medium ( )

c) Low ( )

23. Is there hand pump/tap in your house?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

24. Do you have information about family planning?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

24. a. Have you done permanent family planning?

93
a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

24. b. If yes, who did?

a. Male ( ) b. Female ( )

25. Where do you take if any family member get sick of any disease?

a. Health post ( )

b. Private Clinic ( )

c. Guruwa ( )

26. What fuel do you use to cook in your home?

a. Fuel wood ( ) b. Bhuse Chulo ( )

b. Bio gas ( ) c. Kerosene ( )

d. Others ( )

27. Is there any system of Daijo (Dauri) in your community?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

28. If yes, what and how much?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

29. Is there any member of your family representative in the village

development committee (VDC) or District development committee
(DDC)?

a. Yes ( ) b. No ( )

30. If yes, who represented

a. Male ( ) b. Female ( )

94