COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING Modulation- Modulation is a process by which AM HOOULATB> WAVE

•
some characteristics parameters of a carrier wave is
Amplitude

varied in accordance with the modulating wave.

~ _ .- ,.: __~ _::;::.~:.-.""~- ~ = - ~ - . • Demodulation-The process of recovering the
Com · ·on- The pro~ess--,.._ ••
or ~tr snuttmg space in the form of electromagnetic waves With·,,,1 message signal from the modulated wave is known
• . mumcati 8
1
mformahon from source to destination o om speed oflight (3x IO mis) as demodulation (reverse process of modulation ).
transmitter to receiver. Electromagnetic wave can travel8 through vacullt • Types of modulation
also with the speed oflight (3x 10 ml~) .
Amplifiers "'-- Single, tone If message signal contains single
/\-. ~ "------ . Receiving tr~nsduce'. converts electncal signal in~ modulation · · frequency component ii is
physical equivalent sign~!. . single tone ■ Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSB-FC)
-'C.__ \i
Charmel bandwidth ~ signal bandwidth
correspond to
Channel Receiver modulation. ;... Message signal rn(t) = Amcos(2mmt)
.__ t 11':msducer • Some channel Bandwidth ► Carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos(27t(,t)
Multi-tone If message signal contains multiple
1,Co-axial cable ➔
Medium . 0-600 MHz (Without any att~ modulation ;... js.,~(t)= A,[I+k , m(t)]co s2m, t/·
frequency components then it ise
ParaUel wire ➔ 0-200 kHz
Transmitler .
► Frequency range of voice signal- 300Jz~r;rkHz correspond to multi-ton .
► iQp_!i_cal fibre cable· ➔ IO's ofGHz · Where, k. = Amplitude sensitivity
frequency range of audio signal- 20Hz-iOkHz

t:i~~:~:;~g~~~~~~es~i~i~:;;i:;~-~-~zme • ~~~::: :: p~~pcr;i[; (~o::;:;::r::D •

modulation.
Need of Modulation- SA,.. ( t) = A, (1 + µcosro mt)cosro,1
Where, µ= modulation index

iLL il l
; ► Modulation reduces the height of Antenna.
► Sourc_e transducer converts physical signal into ► Modulation avoids mixing of signals.
Aµ
x(t)cos2rrf0 t ~ -1[X(f-f0 )+X(f +f,)] SA." ( t) = A, cos27tf, t+~cos 2rr(f, + fm)t
► Channel
electrical s_ignal. (Ex-microphone)
1s the medium through which signal 2 ► Modulation increases the range of communi
cation.
and
► Modulation allows adjustments in the bandwidth
propagates from_ one place to !U!Other place. ½ ½ multiplexing of signals.
► ~rred commumcal!on system is preferred for short 7t 7t
► Modulation improves quality ofrecepti
on.
► distance co'?ffiunication only. .. Carricrsignal
F?r long dis~ance _communication wireless system f, f (High flF'JUCncy)
■ Frequency Spectrum of AM signal
-ro, ro, ro -f,
will be used m which signal propagate through free
s.." (r) = : , [ o(f-fJ+ o(r + fJ]+
:\lodulation Process
L At [ o{f -(f, -fm)) +o (f +(f, -fm))] +

. J~ --- --- -~ --- --- ~±

Contmuous Wave
~~~~
:i as s1gn1 has significant
component near zero or low frequency component
from zero ~µ [ 0{f -( f, + fm)} + 0 (f + ( f, + fm)} ]
~~~~ frequency. away

~ frequency or low S.._it)

* 1 ~~~~~~~ & ~~~~,~~g~i ~I fre uency.
Minimum frequency= 0 Hz Minimum frequency

.i::oo tr;t~~r
Am#litudc

M~-~~~=1., .~
;tOHz

d~;~•Too ~ P11lsePosi1 iou

Note:
►

►
Base-band communication doesn 'I use modulation
technique.
Band-pass communication use modulation
US B LSB
,+L..f.)_ _....
-(-[- (--{'"'t:~
LSB USB
. ):--:(:---;(;:-t;+:-;f.J
- [::c
-f..'.:".)~0-(;;:(,.. 7 f
Suppn,ssed Carrier technique .
Vcstjge Sidcban~ Narrowband Wideband ~ ..j, · Modulation

Suppressed Carrier Freque~cy Frcquen~y N•;~;~•nd W~t~~nd □ Amplitude modulation (AM)- ► Band,vidth of AM = USB-LSB =2fm
Modulation Modulation The AM is process by which peak amplitude of the ► Carrier frequency component exists of t;,.
Independent Modulauon Modulation carriers signal is varied with respect to message ► Upper side band frequency components e,ust above
i;---------J.., (,.((,to f,+f,nl
~~!::~tcd Carrier Ba*band Band pass ► Lower side band frequency componen
ts ex.ist below
~~•~= ~ampl itu:~v ::::~·
i i l, (,. ((, lo f,-fm)
Pulse Code Differential Detra Adaptive ,. • Modulation Index of AM
Modulation Pulse Code Moduialion Delta µ - A~, - Am.. = Am ·: Ac= A- , +A~,

§
Modulation Modula1ion llme
- A~ , +Amm A, 2

f~mmwiil~w~li~ii~
► Modulation index gives the depth to which
the carrier
M-arrny signal is modulated.
BEinnry
:mphtude Shift Keying (ASK) Ampl11ude Shift Keyrng ,.. Range of modulation index is, /o S µ S I/
~:quency Shift Keying (FSK) Frequency Shift Keying n index
► For mulri-tone message signal total modulatio
asc Sluft Keying (PSK) M1mmum Sh,n Keying

~~~
(µ,)is
Quadrature Amplitude µ,= Jrµ-:--~-+--,µ;;-+-µ""';_+_.._
Moduial!on
Electronic Engineering Capsule :
Phase Shift Kcyrng
50 51 VCT
Electrical Engineering Capsule
¥CT
► Critical Modulation (µ = ) ➔0 • Transmission efficiency -
► I) ➔~
1
C"I]

r
Under Modulation(µ< Sinusoidal wave
► Over M~ulation (µ > 1) ➔~ ~
• Base Modulation

► In over modulation reconstruction of message signal is I 1..------ -- - -t-;===:=, --------- I

complcx Square wave Q Rf Com«
► For proper modulation of AM signal condition for

► In over modulation, the signal gels distorted and this is ~ carrier frequency.
f, -fm> 2fm
also known as non-linear distortion or envelope
distortion. Triangular wave ~
2 1 f, > 3fm 1
► Used a band pass filter (L--C tuned circuit)
► Efficiency (lJ) P,n = _i__
• Order of bandwidth in AM system:- ► Semiconductor diode or transistor is used as non
PT 2+µ'
BW,,M•o.so-sc > BWvsu > BWssn-sc linear device.
• Power of AM_signal
~ ► The shape of envelope is same as the shape or ► ► Output voltage ex: (input signal)'
Carrier power ► Message signal is applied in series with transistor
~ baseband signal. base supply voltage. So base bias voltage ■ Demodulation of AM wave
• Square Law Detector
\lT~otaltalppow;;eerr;------f~=~~==-__j ► More power dissipation.
V88 cx: signal voltage
Ii ( ,JI ► Easy modulation and de-modulation. ► RF signal is applied also to the base means all main m(t)
l(PT) = P, 1 +T JI ► Transmission bandwidth pl.W.)r = 2fJ Hz
► Known as A3E.
processor will be done at the transistor base terminal.
► Modulated si al is am Ii b class-B am lifier.
• Needs of low power as compared to ► To generate appropriate message signal.
advantage
:;;i;;:i-----.;:=::;:;:=+.l;P,~=;P~,;+::P:::"':::"=+=P='-'!!:!"l'.__J II Advantage oi ► Demodulation become simple. collector modulation [ lk,m( t) j« Z [
11Total
current
trans,nitted ~
IT =I, l+-2
AM
H'
Total~eb,;;;;i-;;;;;;;;:----f~~~~~~- -l l Disacfvaiitage ► Power wastage takes place.
► AM is used for long distance
communication.
Drawback • Less output power as compared to
collector modulation.
• Less collector efficiency with
►Low modulation index
► Known as non-linear or small signal detector.

rTotal sideb_and power I

,Pso=PLSu+Pusul.
of AM ► AM need large bandwidth
► AM wave gets affected due to
respect to collector modulation.
• Less linear as to collector
• Envelope detector

modulation.
P, o = A4;Rµ' = P,2µ' I.
I.
noise. Application • TV transmission R Yo(t)
► Quadrature null effect is present
• SSB gen..ce:r..::ac::.
tio:.:.n:___ _ _ _ __
Applre'aflon ► AM preferred in broad casting due
Single sideband power • Switching modulator-
;Rµ' I
Jru, u = Pu;o = ~S - to AM receiver simple & cheaper. D ► Known as linear detector
· . ■ Generation of AM wave ► One diode and one RC filter are used.
► Condition for minimum distortion-
I= P,4µ' I • Linear ~ethod - i. Collector modulation ii. Base
Modulation iii. Switching modulation i. R C « _!_ ii. _!_ « RLC « _I_
'i►-;-~p,;::.~3113:".3113.;o/oc:o:,f:i;P~,;::►-;P;-,~--::6:-;;6.-::6-;:6'¾:-:-o..'::o:::fP=,=[=w'....hen_ µ_=_lj] • Collector modulation
' f, f, fm
► High power handling capacity and low distortion.
• % Power saving Power saved 1 ► There are two types of distortion in envelope
Total power x OO% detector-
For DSB-SC:- • Diagonal clipping
.,,._,
2
% Power saving = --xl00%
2+µ;
p
=--'- x l00% ► For proper generation of AM signal in case of

For SSB-SC:-
P,
switching modulation is f, > 2fmI I
► It is similar to the square low modulator. The only
% Power saving difference is that in square law modulation, the diude Negative peak clipping
4+µ' p +P is operated in a non-linear mode whereas in the •
= 4+2µ' x l00%=~xl00% switch modulator the diode has to operate as an ideal NAsignalattheoulpUl ofthe _,.,,.
Advantage / , High collector"'efficiency (due to
• Order of power saving in AM
switch.
class C amplifier). • Square law modulation (Non linear method)-
(SSB-SC) > (VSB-SC) > (DSB-SC) > (DSB-FC) •
, Power output
. ' .
. per transistor is high
cnrricr signnl

• Order of power transmitter -

PAM > Posu > Pvs11 > Psso
. Drawback
, Application ,
,
1
M:~:r;:~,ty
8

AM u anty power is needed

c(I)

s,..(1)
...J----+-- 1--- - - - -- -
Negall-.e peak dipping
Tune

= ~- ...:..:.::...i_~n"._.'::~b,nroadcasting • Synchronous detector

Electrical Engineering Capsule ►
52
YCT
Iv, (t)=a,v ;(t)+a v~(t) I2
One multiplier with L.0. and LPF.

53 YCT
Electrical Engineering Capsule
 Balance modulation
■ Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier • ■ Demodulation ofDSB -SC
(DSB-SC) • The same carrier signal (which is used for
Coherent
detection or generating DSB-SC signal) is used to detect
► S (t) A,A [ the message signal.
DSo.sc = ~ cos2n(f, -f,,.)t+c os2n((+ ~ )t] 0 synchronous
detection. • DSB-SC wave- s(t)= A,cos(2nf,t)m(I)
► DSB-SC is a power convolution scheme not
a
• Output of the local oscillator
bandwidth conversation scheme. c(t)= A,cos(2nt;t+~)
• Output of product modulator
SAM(f) 1
A' A
v( t) =-tcos~ m( t) +-tcos ( 4rc(t + qi)m( t)

----- ..
-.- ------
AJ1

------------------
►
►
It consists oflwo identical AM modulators
Output of upper AM modulator
s, (t) = A,.[1 + k, m(t )]cos(2rc(.1)
• Output oflow-pass filter
A'
v0 (t)=-tco sqim(t)
USB LSB LSB USB
► Output of lower AM modulators • When, ~ = o• then demodulated signal
--{f, +f. ) --{f,-t;,,) 0 (f.- f. ) ((+f. ) f s, ( t) = A, [1-k, m( t )]cos(2n f)) amplitude will be maximum.
► The output of summer block • When ~ = ±90° , the demodulated signal
► Transmis sion bandwidth @w)T =2f~Hz
/s( t) = 2A,k, m( t)cos(2n f, t)I
amplitude will be zero.
• This effect is called as quadrature null effect.
► Total transmitted power [E = p = p 1
p /
• Ring modulation QNE)
~ so usu+1.5u
D, • It is a phase locked loop based circuit.
Costas
• In coherent detection at receiving end a
receiver
carrier is . required that should be phase
coherent with the transmitter carrier
• It can be possible, if we transmit a carrier
► Transmitted power saving (P, ) = _2_, component with the modulated signal.
2+µ·
• But DSB-SC signal has no such comF · 111.
► Power saving = 66.6 6%.
• Costas· loop has the capability to generate a
' Modulation efficiency coherent carrier at the receiver and therefore
used for the demodulation ofDSB-SC signal.

·--
o/c P,a p
•11=pxl 00%:--f il!.xJOO % = 100% • Used for carrier frequenc y recovery from
' Psu •N suppressed carrier modulation signal and
► I 00% of transmitted power to is used by sideband ► F.our diodes are connected in lhc ring structure hase modulation si als.
► The envelope shape ofDSB- SC.is d'ffi ·
► It _is also known as doubler balanced modulator • It is used to recover carrier and data from
signal. i er to the shape Squaring modulated signal.
of base band
► Diodes arc controlled by square-wave carrier c(tJ of loop detector
• Square of modulated signal (done by square
Advantage frequency t;.
• No wastage of power law device) given to a band-pass filter.
• Total power of transmitter is ► Two center lapped transformers are used. Sin(2•~1+4>) ~2
useful in the form of sideband . ► For +vc half cycle of carrier signal diode
Disadvantage • Demodulation is complex. D, &D, ➔ ON D, &D, ➔ OFF
■ Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier ► Transmission bandwidth, /(BW)T = q Hz.
' It needs high channel bandwidth The message signal is multiplied by + I
(SSB-SC)
requirement. ► For - vc half cycle of carrier signal.
► Only one sideband is transmitted and carrier and one Position i::,!of carrier Or Position:!::°" cUam·er
Diode D2 & D4 ➔ ON sideband is suppressed at the transmitter.
' Affected by the QNE (Quadrature
:.~-~-~:
D, &Di ➔ OFF No information is lost as well as more power is
LSB YI~ D
58
Null Effect) ►
D : :
• AM DSB-SC are highly noisy. The ~essage signal is multiplied by-I ( I80" hase saved.
(f.-f. ) (~+f.) (HJ (f.+(j
sh ift in resulting DSBSC) . p
Application • It is used for long distance ► Sssa-sc ( t) = m( t)cosw, t ± m( t ).sinc,v ► SSB-SC is known as JJE.
► Noise figure of merit in SSB = I.
communication. 4 < Q Where, m( t) = Hilbert transform of modulating ► SSB is known as HJE.
c(1)= -I,: 2n-/
• It is used for quadrature carrier ,rn • I ► Bandwidth figure of signal to noise ratio for SSB =
xcos[2rr~1(2n -t)] signal
multiplexing. )kHz.
A A ]
■ Generation of DSB-SC- Product modulation Ssso-sc (t) =~cos [2rc(f, +fm)t (USB) • Total power SSB
4 • .t.!.['.
are two types- s(1J~-r 2n-/ ]
AA IP, =Pu,a =Pesa/ .
Sssa-sc (t)= ~cos[ 2rc(f, -fm) t (LSB)
1. Balance modulation 2. Ring modulation. " ··• xcos[2•f, 1(2n-1J]m(i)
Electrical Engineering Capsule 54 55 YCT
Electrical Engineering Capsule
¥CT
 SSB Demodulation
p( I)= A, cos(2nf,t)m( t) □ Angle Modulation
• n in which the angle of carrier wav
A ► Angle modulatio
► Transmission efficiency %11 = P,o x I00% P(f)=-t [ m(f-fJ+ m(f +fJ] (DSB-SC) vary according to modulating signal.
► T ~ ► Output of the filter ► Angle modulatio
n is non-linear modulation whil
ransmitter power saving in SSB compared to DSB S(t) = P(f).H(f) AM is linear modulation.
n has constant power
A ► Angle modulatio
AM=E = 4+µ~ s(f)=-t [ m(f-fJ+ m(f +fJ]H{f ) (VSB-SC) ;,.. An important features of angle modulation is that it
' 4+2µ 2 d
can provide better discrimination against noise an
► Power savin = 83.))%. for = 1) • i. Analog multiplier ii. Envelope detector
interference than AM.
Advantage • Transmitter power will be saved ■ Demodulation ofVSB-SC ► Angle modulatio
n has two types-
Low v,(t)
• Channel bandwidth will be saved s(t) Product v(t)
Pass i. Frequency modulation
Modulator
• High power signal can be transmitted VSBSCwav e Alter Demodulated ii. Phase modulation
output
Signal fading is less likely to occurs ■ Frequency Modula
tion (FM)
• Less amount of noise is present ► Synchronous detector
c(t)=Accos(2 ,r/rl) The frequency of the carrier wave is varied in a
No QNE (Quadrature Null Effect) ■ Vestigial sideband (VSB) .accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
Drawback • Generation and demodulation is ► VSB known as C3F. modulating signal.
One sideband is transmitted completely while only a
Local
►
complex and costly
Limited for voice transmission
Application • SSB is prefierred fior vo,·ce
transmission
vestige of the other sideband is transmitted.
► Transmission bandwidth, j( BW )r =w+ f, jHz.
. .
.
►
Oscillator

Synchronous detector or coherent detector

Demodulation of VSB-SC wave is similar to the
Message signal-m( t) = Amcos( wmt +cj,m)
Carrier signal- c( t) = A, cos( w, t+cj,,)
f
+ 2rrk, m( t)dt]
• Telephony communication. ► Total channel bandwidth using vestigial lower demodulation ofDSB-SC ► SFM(t) =Ac cos(2;rf,t
sideband = 6 MHz. ► The message signal can be extracted from VSB-SC
• Point-to-point communication. wave by multiplyin g it ,vith a carrier (having same
• Military communication ► By using VSB video signal can be comfortably phase and frequency as like used in VSB-SC ►
S.,, =A, cos[ 2;rf, t +tsinwmt]
• Radar communication transferred and it provides almost same band,vidth as modulation)
SSB modulation . Frequency deviation
• Radio communic ation
► The resulting signal is passed through a low pass filter. Modulation index (µ ,) =
■ Generation of SSB-SC Advantage • Highly efficient. ► The output of this filter is the desired message signal. ► modulating frequency
• Filter method · • Reduction in bandwidth when ► The output of the product modulator
m(t) compared to AM and DSB-SC v(t)= A, cos(2rrf,t) s(t) ,µ, =~= k~:m I
waves.
• Filter design is easy, since high v(f)=~[ S(f-f,) + S(f +f, )] Maximum Frequency de>iation
-SC
It represents maximum deviation of the
cosco~t accuracy is not needed.
The third method or weaver's method ► The output of the filter. ►
• • Low frequency components instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the
1..,1.110' • .,JJ
fuJ•ro·!""r/J
transmission is possible. v,(f)= f M(f)[H( f-f, )+H(f +f, )] carrier frequency(!;,)

Drawback
• Goaj phase characteristics.
• More bandwidth compared to SSB-
. Different AM Svstem at u. = 1: 15,~, = k, .Am
modulating signal frequency.
SC technique. System P, P, (Sa.ved % BW SNR
► o.,, is independent of
power) power Narrow band FM Wide band FM
AF
• Demodulation is complex. savinm
(NBFM) (WBFM)
Modula1iog Application • Used in TV, Video transmission 2wm max
AM- •µ ,> I
signal Radio navigation and milita; DSB/FC Pc(1+f)
•µ , :5 1
communication.
S,. 11" 1 (t) =A, cos2m,t-
■ Generation of VSB _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J
AM-
DSB/SC p~
Pc 67% 2wm low
A1, cos2n(f, -f.) t S~"" ' = A, J"
~-•
I
C 2

Product Side Band high + A ,µ; cos2n(f, +f.) t (µ , )cos2n(f. +nfm)t

Shaping AM- 16% Wm
Modulator p~ 2
,.., ...,, fa,!•-., /:~:~::::~',
Fitter SSB/FC Pc (1+f) C 4
• BWNBFM = 2fm • B\VweFM= oo
• Phase shift or phase cancellation method 83% Olm min • Carrier power

~
AM-
p~ Pc(1+f)
c(t} =A,cos(Z,rf ,t) SSB/SC C 4 • Carrier power p = A;J; (µ , )_,
Commercial names of different modulation • Total power ' 2R
techniques

~
AM(DSB-FC) ➔ A3E
p = A; [1+~]1 • Total power
SSB-FC ➔ IDE ' 2R 2
J3E
► In this method first w SSB-SC ➔
the help ofth od e generate DSBSC wave with SSB with reduced carrier ➔ R3E • Single tone expression • WBFM contains
e pr uct modulator. frequency
of AM and NBFM ,viii carrier
► Then applyh this DSBSC wave· as an input of ISB ➔ B8E
be same, except 180° componen t and
s,d b d C3F
wa:/n s aping filter 10 produce the VSB-SC VSB ➔

57 YCT
► The output of the product modu lator Electronic Engineermg Capsule
56
YCT
 · . is present then equiva1,.,.
► If message s1gna 1 .,,1
phase shift at LSB infinite number of l Advantage • Low cast 0u1put
capacitance C,q = CJ+ Co voltage
frequency component. USB and LSB • Simplicity of the modulators.
• Bandwidth, transmitted frequency component.
the , For WBFM most of
► Instantaneous frequency (f;) - )Lo(Co+ Cd) disadvantage • Not easy to get high order of
power and stability in carrier signal.
magnitude spectrum of the strength will be I • Used LC oscillator for carrier
AM and NBFM will be retained by lower
~=
generation which is controlled by 1
almost same.
• AM preferred over
order sideband
frequency component
L, ( C0 +k[V0 +x(t)T:) message signal due to this region 0
NBFM. direct method is not used for l 1
and are said to be
► The instantaneous frequency (f;) of FM signal broadcast application. : f, 1 , f, +6f
si ificant sideband.
depend Vo which in turns depends upon the value of • The non.linearity of the varactor lw, 1

Note:~ =µ +]
message signal, x(t). diode produces a frequency ! frequency
Where, n = number of sideband variation. deviation
• Reactance Mo\lulator
g = Modulation index Va~able reactance • Due to harmonics of the message ).- Output voltage of tank circuit. depends on the
► Carrier swing= 2M= f;<maxJ- f;<minJ _ __ ~devic e signal FM signal is distorted. frequency deviation of input FM signal
► Transmission Bandwidth- ModulaUng Identical to the AM diode detector
(BW)r,,,_,, =2(M + f. ) = (µrt-l)2fm :a~__{
signal
• Armstrong Modulator
bl
► Major advantage of Armstrong method is, it capa e
,...
•,. Drawback
11
is an inefficient system
Linear only over a limited frequency range. . .
= 2M( I +t) {Carson's bandwidth rule} 0sclllator1ankcln:ult
► A transistor of FET operated as a variable reactance
of producing WBFM signals.
Phase
IOOdutaloi'
,.
► Difficult to set the primary and secondary wmdIDg
of transformer at slightly different frequency.
► Total power is same as carrier signal power before (Inductive or capacitive) device. ► To overcome all the limitation of simple slope
modulation. ► Voltage across resistance R, detector is use
► For multitone modulation, deviation ratio is • Balance slope detector
inversely proportional to message signal frequency. V =V = x(t)R /Si,podelec!or l
• Frequency multiplier ' R R-JXC

"~]t, ~
'
Input Output
x(t) gmx(t)R
Frequency y(t) ► ForJFETI 0 =gmxV,= R-JX,
t; multiplier (m) ( ~ mf, 'f I ! f=
► Input impedance between terminal I and I' - , l I IV,J
I~
p I ~ t; l V':JJ.
P*=mP
o;" =mo,., Z=....!.._(1- JX,) amplifier
) · ~- M + i I

-
gm R
f. r:
=f,. lfX.,>>R Modualitgs~nal
~transltxmef '
L - - - - -
- - - - -

Slcpe aelado<2

B.W. BW*=mB.W ► FM wave obtained through phase modulation.

Then, Z = -JX, ( capacitive nature) ► A crystal oscillator can be used.
■ Generatiop of FM wave- gmR
► Armstrong system can be divided into two parts Part
i. Varactordio demodulato r}
1 I and Part II
ii. Reactancemodulator directme!hod X =Z=~ =---
"' gmR 2irfg. RC ► Part {. generate a narrow band FM wave using a
iii. Armstrong modulator• indirect method C"' = gmRC phase modulator
t
►
The value ofC,q and V, change accordance to gm, ► Part II· use the frequency multipliers and mixer to
• Varactor diode modula or
i ►
Reactance modulator circuit is used at the place of
obtain the required values of frequency deviation,

ff
R C •·················, carrier and modulation index
Message Ii / capacitor C in LC oscillator. ► Narrowband FM wave ~-Af)<1<fc '"'le fc<l<(\,+,11)

► So, C,q change with the value of modulating' signal lnp.AIOD,llleealt-..n

"""'"°'
lnp.A:toO1 and0,
.,..,..,
lnpt.c:IOO,ll~lt lan
...,, . c,
signal
Yu '
, L, 'C,
:
.l . . .™...
1. wave ►
:i:~~ oscillator frequency change also (it is the fm
■
s, (t) = A" cos(2m,t)-2rrk,A" sin(2rrf1t)t x( t)dt

Demodulation of FM wave
v.,,..l...,v.,
v.•~
l
v., ,_l.,,..,.,v.,
l
v, .. o
v,. ■ !-.,v.,
I
v.1apcllliw
Carrier frequency drift because the instability of
········;y;·········,. frequency. • Frequency discriminator ► It consists two slope detector circuits.
Carrier oscillator circuit ► AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) is used to • Slope detector ► The input voltages to the two slope detectors are

~rt',f t,~~~
► Capac1tance
· .
ofvaractor diode k
C, = r,;- cons tant the carrier frequency. 180° out of phase.
► It consists three number of tank circuit (tuned
'I/ VD ►The DC voltage (generated by discriminator) stop circuit) .
► Voltage across varactor diode VD= V, + x( t) the frequency variation of LC oscillator.
► The characteristics of balanced slope detector 1s

► Frequency carrier of oscillator f I =-- ► yModulation ind ex µ, « I in Armstrong modulator.

(If ► called as the 'S' shape characteristics
' M aractor diode modulator used in automatic • Advantage
► More efficient than simple slope detector.
message signal is absent) frequen_cy control, remote tuning and FM and PM IRCflhrl
generation. ► Better linearity the simple slope detector.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 58 59 YCT
Electronic Engineering Capsule
YCT
 ► 0 crates on the princip!e that t1_1e instantaneous
• Drawbacks p f FM signal 1s approximately given as
frequency o
► E~en though linearity is good it is not good enough. Phase modulation peak frequency deviation depends
►
► Difficult to tuned, since the three tuned circuits are .
Note:
on Am and fm,
work at different frequency ~=2~ ► Lock range > Capture range
► tit is the time different between ad1acent zero cross ■ Equivalence Between FM and PM

rr► ~~ ~~L: ~"""·

► Amplitud e limiting is not provided
.
over point of the FM wave. .
■ Phase discriminator ► The time (T) is selected such that 1s satisfied lhc
• Foster seeley discriminator following two conditions-
fo = Free rwmmg frequency
.LJ
(1) □
·R1 = External resistance
Frequency of voltage conversion factor (K)
►
W = Bandwidth of message signa l K= M 0 = sr.
{•~i:•~-®-t---:II!o,~Ri+.--~·~ llV, V"
2 .
lJ
y.., @
R, c, --EE
(11 ) T > -
f, ► Deviation of the lock-in range (/l fL) PM

~ Dz b' ♦ f, = carrier frequency of AM wave

M =±7.8£.,
2V"
Linear relation between input frequency (f;) and
L

message signal x(t) • Advantage-

• Advantage
► No need of tuned circuit
I l - - - --=-+'FM=-=-"''=,.......,=c-::-:~-+::AM~:-
:-:-~--'-'-"1
► More easi ly to tuned than the balanced slope If. =f, +k,x(t)I ► Simple circuit that can be implemented in integrated Frequency 88 MHz-108MHz 550 kHz-
detector as there are only two tuned circuit are used • PLL detector (Indirect method) circuit. t 650 kHz
and tuned at the same frequency. ran e
■ ~base modulation (PM) _ _--i
_ kHz
=
, 1-=B:::an:.:d=.WI::.:·=dth'--+2="0'-':0-:'kHz:c=c-::-.,. ....--:--tl-O
► Better linearity as compared to baIanced slope ► The phase of the carrier wave is varied in accordanc e 75 kHz (for broad
detector. with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation. Maximum
is frequency costing of FM)
• Drawback ► For single tone modulation, deviation ratio
deviation 25 kHz (for TV
► Docs not provide ampl itude limiting. independent of message signal frequency.
broadcos tin )
►. In _th e presence of noise or any other amplitude ► SrM(t)=A,cos[2m,t+/l~cos(21tfmt)] Intermediate I0. 7 MHz 455 kHz
var1a11on, the demodulator produces errors. ► Modulatio n index, µr = 6~ = kp.Am frequency
Note: It is used in satellite station. ► Maximum frequency deviation M = kr (IF)
• Ratio detector ► The output frequency of VCO is equal to the
freq uency of unmodulated carrier. ► Phase deviation

~~
► 'f!1e phase detector generates voltage proportional to l(M)"", = max[ Ht)]= max[krm (t)]= kr.Am I
difference between FM signal & VCO output. Single T.one PM
.P.M. F.M.
► The ?utput of phase detector passes through LPF & Parameters
Am cos 2irfmt Am cos 21tfmt
amplifier. MllS,S~e m(t) m(t)
f; = (,- kpAmfm sin f; = (, + k,Am cos 21tfmt
► Hence ~e~uency connection is not required at Jnstantaneous k d f; = (, + k, m(t)
VCO, as 1t 1s done at transmitter. f, =f, +~dtm (t) 21tfmt
frequency
► 0, " ",•",
► PLL system is close loop system design to locked 27lf;,t + kr
In the circuit diagram the direction of the diode D2 is output frequency and phase to the frequency & Instantaneous phase ~;(I)= 9;(1) + k,m(t) ~;(I) = 9;(1) + kr
Jm (t)dt ~;(t)= 27lf;,t + krAm
reverse. cos21tfmt ( kA )
phase of input signal. 2m,t+ ~sin21tfmt
► A la~ge _value of capacitor has been included, at last PLL have three stage-
m this ClfCUII. i. Free-running
Modulation Index µr = kp max[m(t)] k,max[m(t)]
► The output is taken somewhere else. ► If Ve = 0, _YCO is free-running mode i.e.fr volta ge µ,.
Bandwidth
► No need of amplitude limiter control oscillator (VCO)' oscillate WI.th equency
(fo).
M=k,m( t) llf= krAa.fmsin
output of foster ii. Capture F11equency deviation M = ~~ m ( t)
2irfmt
► Output of ratio detector = seeley discrimination 27tdt
2 ► If, V:, * O i.~. apply some voltage ofVCO, the VCO
• Zero cross detector frequency with changes from fo to f.
f=f0 +k, .V, . Comparison between FM & PM Noise immunity better Noise immunity better

nnnon Ptt, ~MAA!

thanAM &PM than AM but worst than
Where, kr = voltage sensitivity Frequency modulation Phase mddulatlon FM
► VCO frequency (t) change m .
such a way to reduce
the diffi . A, cos( ro,t +P, sinromt) A, cos[ ro.t +Pr sinro,,t]
erence between £ & f,0· Th.is action is called SNR is better than PM SNR is worst than FM
capturing & VCO • . ;
.. . 1s smd to be captur od
Ill. Locking or Tracking e m e. IM=k ,.Vm l IM=krv mq, PM is used some mobile
FM is widely used in
► If f; = fo the VCO · · good quality music system
VCO is s:iid to locked1~s::. to be locked/tracking & &IP=k,V ml
& IP= krVm l
Electronic Engineering Capsule fm system
60
YCT
61 YCT
Electronic Engineering Capsule
 It is linear am lificr. It have ood lineari
• Comparison between AM and FM • Selectivity-Ability to reject unwanted signals.
It is used in initial stage of It is us~~ in final sta~e • SHRR Performs in the following stages
Amplitude modulation Frequency • Fidelity- Ability to reproduce all the frequency
am lification. ofam h cation. I. RF se~tlo11 & characteristics
modulation components, which are present in original signal.
It modulation circuitry It modulation circuitry ► It is a class-C tuned voltage amplifier.
Transmitter power is Transmitter power 3nd handle • Automatic gain control- The automatic gain
simple & handle low power complex ► It is reject the image signal.
depends on modulation remains constant & control (AGC) within a superheat radio enables the
index r;:.;;-:::::2-: ► RF amplifier has larger gain therefore better
independent of II ~-----, ---::--- ----;--~ -t,h;-'i'::h:""::o-::w:i"'c gain of the receiver to be controlled to level the
only for It is used in practical sensitivity and improved SNR.
'cm]~~ ;;:;;:;;:; :,:::::-;~ -J-~m~o~du~la~tr~·o~n~in~d~ex~__ j ll It is used AM terns ► RF amplifier improve image frequency rejection
of audio output.
1
Carrier & one side band are All
useless transmitted II 1-~ la~bo~r~at~oL.t'.!::urx.o~s::::e· _-;:--~~ =s'.:::_ --::·::-:;u"":- -
adjacent un-wanted signal therefore better □ Pulse modulation.
'AM~ ~~-;;; :;--;;;:; -;:+~co~m~p~on~e~n~ta~r:.,e~us'.:el~es~s~ Square II low diode Collector modulator
are the selectivity . Sampling theorem- The sampling theorem specifies
1 receiver are noise modulator & switching method •
AM receiver
noise
are.
not to FM . ► It provide better coupling of receiver to the antenna. the minimum-sampling rate at which a continuous-
lllllllune JI the example example of high level
r M!b~~~i--;:;:;;;::;;:::-;-gm~unun~e..:c
AM bandwidt rnd nd
h is constant FM
~ap~ab~i ~Iity~~I
bandwidth
on
modulato r with
of low level modulation
the • T.V. Transn1iss1'on
modulation. 2. Mixer
► It is non-linear device and provides sum
& time signal needs to be uniformly sampled so that
the original signal can be completely recovered or
and epe from depends
ent' index. difference frequency.
modulatron z reconstructed by these sample alone.
index ► Picture signal-5.75MHz, sound signal -0.25MH IF= Intermediate frequency= fw - f,
~
modulation
BW=2fm
'AMii im~~~ :;;;-;;- :,-hB;-:;W ;
2
=.,...
-- :
f_:m~(µ::'.'~ +_:_I:. ._} _j I ► Maximum (f,.,) ~ 5kHz Where, fto = Local oscillator frequency
f, ~ 2fm , f,... = 2fm

I AM have two side band FM have infinite ■ Radio Receiver f,= Incoming signal frequency T ~_!_
sideband t. 3. Local oscillator ' 2fm
Bandwidth is much smaller Bandwidth is large ► fto is generated by local oscillator • Sampling period (T,)- Time between two samples.
than FM than AM ► Local oscillator is LC- oscillator 1
1
Net possible to operate more I . ► In SHRR, tuning achieved by local oscillator
. Sampling rate -
charmel on same frequency . ~~~:~~! b:n~ ::;i~~ Tuning ► fta>f,
•
sampling period T,
• Type of sampling te_chnique or ideal sampling
AM= 550 kHz- 1650 kHz
~!~: m ground
the Iar::cz: ::;~n
wave
so
& sky
cover
one frequency.
Used
propagati
in
on
space
so, are
wave
of
coil
'f speaker
► If fto>f, then.fta = 1005 kHz-2105 kHz
► lff,>fLO
i. Instantaneous sampling
ii. Flat-top sampling
_JI ► Crystal receiver circuit is simple. iii. Natural sample sampling

~iiiP~r~e~-
~p;;e:ra

e~m~£h~a~
~t1~on~

siLi~ss_;;~~
.

~~:~i
Lo~p~e~ra~ti~o
• Comparison of?re-empbasis amllDe-em basis ► Poor
:C~~~~ 7

-iD~e~-~e~m~~
n~•~·s~Ii~m~it:

~
h!ia~siliisC- P!!.
_
.....

~~~...:~1 ►
selectivity and sensitivity.
Low output at receiver due to absence of amplifier
.
[S lnstantam ·ons
samplill:!
I l,1t-to11
,amplin;:
,atur:1I
,:11111,k
s:1111pliai,
It is just ceverse action 2. Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver- 4. IF amplifier
I ~hf;:-e1·smupsheadst1s technique is also known It is also It is also
o mcrease of pre empha . 1the Antenna ► IF-amplifier uses standard tuned amplifier & It
the signal power at high d' . - . sis a
provides most of the receiver gain. as impulse train known as known as
audio fre uen iscrimmator output sampling practical
I . c back the ori inal si al ► Very high IF has poor selectivity & very good image sam lin
t is used before frequency It is used after FM . frequency rejection. -,-,
► The IF-amplifier is SHRR is two stage
of single, >--- ----- -+-~ ----, ----, this
modulator or at transmitter. demodulator and before In this method, the In this method,
tuned amplifier.
base band filter. sampling signal is the sampling method, the
It behave as a HPF (high It is behave as a LPF Ganged Note :
► D·ouble spotting in SHRR caused by poor front
end periodic impulse signal is a sampling
pass filter) or differentiator (low pass filter) or ► It is used on! pulse train signal is pulse
at I.F.f,1 kHz to 15 kHz). mtegrator rejection. train.
~d\'lnt e channel 1---- ---+- ----+ -tr"- a'-in_ ___,
► Double spotting is also called adjacent I

V,(t) ~. R, V (t) ti)t ITc

R t
V1(t)
TRF receiver
sim le.
Sensitivity -high
Bandwidth variation
•
selectivity.
Image frequency rejection
If,, = f, + 2f, I
In this method, the The top of each In
area of ends pulse in the method, the
impulse in the sampled signal top of each
this

-t _ :j, If,, = fw + f, I lf,0 = f, + f, I sampled signal is remain constant pulse in the

lll'jE~i-- iiii2i;;;,;; ;;----;;--/ -;:o~vc; r~th~e_!!ti!!lm !_!:in~ran~e~, _J the & equal to the sampled
asy alignmen t at I ffi · equal to
• (Jlransmltter·- - - - ' - - - - - - - - _ J J 11 1
1

nsu icicnt adjacent FLO ➔ Local oscillator frequency signal retains

transmission range ➔ instantane ous instantaneous
► Tran ·n kHz). (535 frequency rejection. F, ➔ Signal frequency , F,i Image frequency
sm1 er not only performs the modulation kHz-J 640 input value of the the shape of
• Rejection- a.= ✓I+ Q' P' , p
ler~ftiii ckT,;;Tt .-;--i:',:- ,----0,-- --_J = 1, _~ value of the
process but . also raises thedesired power level of a /f!N~prcib tracking & At 1ug .h input signal at the input
mdodulated signal to the for effiec11·ve ? problem
alignment .
of frequency, f, f,; signal.
ra 1atwn. performance of TRF is frequencie s are converted into the st~r of the signal during
► They incoming signal
~ Transmitt er are two types- ----+..: .sa"'m ~al_,
se'--'i_nt_erv
__..__le_s~.--+-"-"u-'1-'- .
r oor. a fixed frequency called the intermediate frequency i 1-----,- used in A flat-top In this
I Low level modulator ii Hi h level modulato
Bl hJevel modulato r 3. Super Heterodyne Radio Recefver-(SHRij~ .► (IF) by the mixture.
It is not
due to sample pulse is method SNR
Low level modldato The IF of 455kHz is used in commercial radio practical
It / also called base It is also called receivers. zero ,vidth & not generated by ratio is not
mo ulalor. collector modulator message practically passing the constant.
► The IF is demodulated to recover the
[~w low level modulation, It is used clas·s-C signal. possible to ' instantaneous
er pow_er iev~I modulate power amplifier wh ' h sampled signal
~d then signal is amplified amplifies only l~e ► The modulated message signal is passed
through the generate.
a~ 1 t~:~ class-B power carrier frequency . audio amplifier are power amplifier to achieved the
desired signal.
through
monostable
M.V.
• . Sensitivity- Ability to amplify weak signals.
Electronlc Engineering Capsule 62 63 YCT
Electron ic Engineer ing Capsule
YCT
 ■ Pu~A mpli tude modulation (PAM)-
. Comparison of PAM, PPM and PWM
PDM orPWM PPI',{
► S_ign al_to noise ratio in dB (SNR)d, =
smuso1dal signal )
I.S+6n(for It is also use for PCM
telephone system is united
A-law companding is
also used for PCM
telephone system in
PAM _ + n(for
► The amplitude of pulses varies
with the
Width of the The rela_tive ► Signa! to noise ratio in dB (SNR)d, = 4 8 6 stale (USA) .
Amplitude of the non-smusmdal signal) India.
mstant aneous sam PIe val ues of a messaoe signal pulse is pos1t1on of of
Th " · pulse is Typical value
ere are t:wo types of pAM- proportional to the pulse is ► Bit period = Sampling Period Typical value ofµ= 255
Double polarity p AM proportional to . No. of bit A=87.6.
amplitude of proportional
amplitude of )
ii. Smgle polarity PAM. modulating to the ■ DPCM (Differential Pulse Code Modulation
• Generation
modulating signal.
signal. amplitude of ► Sampl ing period (T,) = ~ ► In DPCM the difference amplitude bet.wee
n sample
2fm
Modulatino m(t) modulating
r of bit and previous sample is to be transmitted.
Signal b signal. ► For n-channel & synchronization 'a' numbe The peak amplitude oftraasmined value
in reduce
►
Pulse Bandwidth of are transmitted at the end then
Train The bandwidth of Bandwidth of •
using DPCM.
transmission transmission jR. =( N.n +a )f, j for given SNR._ we can transmit at reduce
the transmission ►
• Demodulation channel channe l
PAM channel depends ► Transmi ssion bandwidth Br= 1.544 MHz bandwidth_
Signal Diode r-- ---
Original on width of the depends on rise depend s on
rising time of ► Ruggedness to channel noise and other interfer
ence. ► DPCM is used for speech signal transmission.
Low signal time of the along the
pulse.
► Efficient generation of the coded signal ► In DPCM, predictor filter is used.
detector pass filter pulse. the pulse.
transmission path is possible. ■ Delta Modulation
The instantaneous The The
► Ampli tude of pulse of p AM . ► Security of information. ► I-bit DPCM is called modulation
(but in PPM and PWM . wa~e, is not constant power of the instantaneous instantaneous
► Complex encodin g and decodin
g. ple is used
amplitude is constant) transmitter varies. power of the power of the ► In delta modulation number of bit/sam
► More noise effect ► Long transmission bandwidtli
transmitter transmitter one.
► Used in instrumentation system AID converter and varies • Non-uniform quantization In delta modulation the number of
levels is used
varies itted digitally for ►
generation of PCM. '
+ N~o~is=e~ -_J ► An audio signal is to be transm
! Pulse width Modulation {!!WM)
t th is high and system
se
nc-e+ N;-;o~i::
: in::te:::rfi'Zer=e-:-
l~N~o;;;is:e::
interfer
:_ _
ence
_
is interference is
good fidelity we used PCM system
uniform quantization.
\vith non- two.
► In delta modulation, bit rate is equal
to the sampling
The sample of message signal are used ·~
.im;um~.-- J~llliDl~·m~um~ .__J practically achieved rate.
o vary e I ~is:;;c;:;;o~m~p;:;le~x._ _ + m~.'.'.'in"..' ► Non-uniform quantization is achieved by
duration of individual pulses. Simila r to Simple to Simple to
called companding. ► Demodulation of delta modulation
11 through a process
• Generation- PWM ca b implement implement integrator.
555 timer in amplitude Companding = compressing + expanding
monostable multivibra~r :~~:~rated by similar lo similar to ation
-
modulation. Uationnifo rm
Expand er ~ ► Two types of error in delta modul

■11;:.:::::::;:--=-1..:m~fre70~ ~ ~:~ Y~on~.

Demodulation Compre ss quantiz ii. Granular noise
i. Slope over distortion
-~~~~~as~i~ · _J
la:!.l_tio~n:!:_ a Granular noise
I
p0 Is e code modulatiol! (Pel\!). ► In companding method , the
weak signals are Slope owrdistunia __:___n_oi--se_oc_c_ur~
p ~lntegrator}:rigi nl: I ■ ~r-loa_d_ - is--1--G
di_51-0-rt1-.on _ ar
.::..r_an ul
signa attenua ted before '
I f-S-lo"p-e-ov-e
.
amplifi ed and strong signal are when the modulating
transmJ·tt ► P_ul_se code modulation d analog signal
(PCM) is a- ~ ethod use ation this proces s is delta modula tion when the
-
► No needs of synchronization between digitally represent sample
d lo apply them lo uniform quantizinclude d at the PCM constant
and receivers.
er called compression and it is rate of change of analog signal remain
► Mam .process of . PCM transmitt~r-samplin step size is too
► Pulse widths are different quan~mg and encodmg and receiver - re
ene · g, transm itter.
► At receiver exactly opposite is followe
d which is signal too large (or large
(or
■ Pulse Positio M dulation(PP~ (cleanmg and reshaping), decoding and filtger1·o •
gration dynamic range of input large)
► .._n - o
pulse relative t~ the position of Annlog mc.ss,gc
called expand er.
_.,.
_,,ti_zer
_ an lea - d""s-to_in,_ cr_eas 11
-..q signal) by-1
The pos11ton of
with the Signal LPF Note: The use ofnon-uniform_qu ~ 1r.I.-, - can
---,be - -r-ed:-u-ced --,----,b-)"",f-cI,--t-c-an- ~be _ r_ed_u-ced--
unmodulated pulse is varied in accordance in sifilial to noise ratio for. si£!!al level. make the step size
message signal. increasing the step size
Generation Type of companding small.
•
noise power
Modulating - ► It is two types To avoid slope over Granular
signllJ
PPM Signal
R(.'C~~;:;;n m(t) Original i. µ- law companding distortion ={. W
ii. A- law companding
~ample the analog signal then . si~ aJ
11_ to convert A-law companding l1 ldm( 1)I 3
,:' ~ d i =
train u-law conmandinl'
mto levels and encode it and 1h quanttze_
11
=<._di-ng_
:::p=an _
th -
---1-l
c n- A- -la.:.w:= c
coc:.mcp an
:..:" d
'"-in- g~
11 m the form µ-:.;la:.:w.:::.cc=om
i-..Ir:.n.=:.
• Demodulation ► of digital codes. en send
compression 11f-=-- ~ - - - - - -over
+ - - -- - - - - . . J
PPM Flip PWM compression characteristic s the
If there is n bit quantizer and .
charac teristics is linear. To take place
Original Signal is f, then
Flop Wave bit rate will be R _ f b' samphng rate is continuous.
~</elm( )I 1
n • Us/ sec imately distortion
de • - It is approximately linear It is also approx signal dt _,
Constant tran_smitter power and pulsenamplitu nel, Rb = N.nf for small T,
Synchrnmzatton is needed betwee
For n-chan path for smaller value of linear
receiver and ► (B W) - R, nf
' mic for
transmitter. input signal level & level & logarith ■ ADM (Adaption Delta Modu
lation)
· · m'" - 2 = --j" = nfm logaritl1mic for high signal high signal
level.
► PPM System is a noise free system ► In ADM has variabl e step size.
For n-channel, BW = N.nf.m level. (constant signal) ADM
B·W power effi1ciency Complexity nding is ► For small variation of signal
The µ-law companding is A-low compa is used small step size so that granular noise.
I~P ,:; esfs+ ~~~
'~AM~&~L~ ~R
t (~S_N
Lowes~~ ~)=== L ~c==j ► Q
=t~~ u .size(ti
Step
antiza
► V""'' -V
. )= ---=-- mm (L=2" )
=.L used for speech and mu sic also used for
telephone system in ► For large
PCM
variation of signal ADM is used large step
rPWM High M
owest
~ ii;;od~e;.r~at:e:._ _ _+ M~od~e~ra~te: __J
I hon noise power for
uniform quantization
signal.
Europe. size so that slope over load di stortion rc-duce
s.

rm~ n~
PPM High Highes t
N:
ti'
:-Ji~
q)= 2- - 6S
YCT
~~~ering;;i~
==~ s
·g~he~
gHi~ t~; g__:C Electronic Engineering Capsu le
Electr~~~
~;; onic Engine Capsule
64
YCT
 Spectral efficiency (e) = 0.S
■ Comparison between PCM, DPCM, DM an dADM ADM - ► A ' 0' is represented by negative pulse of half
•
DPCM DM symbol 1vidth. bps/Hz .
Parameters PCM n I ASK modulation scheme is
n 1
No. of bits (n) Either 4, 8 or 16 n is greater than I ----- Binary-
provide maximum
and less than no. of sequcncy
bits/sample probability of error.
*8 bits/sample is most bits in PCM system.
BNRZ ➔
Frequency shift • Frequency of carrier is v~ied
common keying (FSK) in accordance with digital
Yes Yes -----
Feedback No Yes data (!or 0)
requirement
Step size (s)t, Fix Fix Fix Variable
Simple circuit
-- BRZ ➔
NRZ signaling is used.
Used in modem
Complexity Most complex circuit Moderate complex Simple circuit Multiplexing is difficult
circuit Transmission Band1vidth B,- =
Type of error Quantization error
s. Manchester code (Split-Phase code)
Mainly quantization Quantization error Both slope overland 2Ri, + (f1-f2) = 4R b
► A 'I' represented by a positive half-symbol 1vidth
error and granular noise and granular noise
pulse followed by a negative half-symbol ,vidth • In case of FSK P, is less and
effect error
pulse. SNRishigh
Bandwidth (BW) High B.W. Moderate B.W. Least B.W. Least B.W.
► A '0' represented by a negative half-symbol 1vidth • Spectral efficiency
pulse followed by a positive half-symbol width (e) = 0.25 bps/Hz
■ FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) ► It has least circuit complexity. pulse. • FSK s demodulated by PPL
► FDM 1s_used for multiplexing continuous signal ► In TOM, synchronization is very much essential. ► This code has a zero DC component.
► The entire frequency interval is divided into smaller ► It is immune to non-linearity in the channel as a • FSK used in telegraphy
frequency slots. source of crosstalk. Binary o Phase shift • Phase of high frequenc y
►
►
Separat_e transmitter and receiver are required.
More Circwt complexity.
► JDM is use when the data to be transmitted is fast
changing and wideband width.
scquc: ·-· 1--,-4-,-1-~-1-! -,-'-,-ll keying (PSK) carrier varied is accordance
with digital data ( I or 0)
► Synchronization is not a problem. ► In order to separate signal in a TOM system, it is • NRZ signaling is used.
► channel.
All signals are passed simultaneously through the
,
necessary to used AND-gate. Manchester~ ··· ·· ·· ·· ····· ..\-- ·-··· ·· i • Transmission Band1vidth B,- =
► Crosstalk is more because different ;essage signals ► TOM is digital multiplexing technique and required 2Ri,
are smmltaneously applied.
'- Here band-pass filters are used.
transmission of data sample.
► In TOM system fu ll channel available bandwidth
-A/2·+· I ' • Probability of error is less.
SNRishicli.
► Th can be used by each signal.
e modu! ated signal spectrum may be separated by 6. BRZ-AMI (Binary Return to Zero- Alternative • Best arno~g all shift keying
small guard band to avoid interference. • Line codes Mask inversion) Code schemes
► The total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency ► Line coding is the process of converting digital data ► A ' I ' is represented alternately by positive & Spectral efficiency
bands that do not overlap. to digital signals. negative pulse ofhalf,vidth. E=0.5 bps/ Hz
► The fr~quency bands are separated from one another • Types of line code ► A '0' is represented by no pulse.
M-ary signaling

•:~ -m~
str

► Th
by ips of unused frequencies called the guard
bands to prevent overlapping of signals.
d I
I.
►
UNRZ (Unipolar Non-Return to Zero) codes
A 'l' ·
IS represented by positive pulse
Binary 4 I I0 \ I \ 0 J
► ForM-aryPSK B.W=~
e mo u ated signals are combined together using ► A '0' . log,M
a multiplexer in the sending end. l. IS represented by no pulse. ·
► The combi~ed signal is transmitted over the ► URZ_(Unip_olar_I!.eturn to·Zero) codes ► Boud rate = Bit rate
commumcal!on channel. A ' l' is _represented by a positive pulse of half log, M
► At the receiving end, the individual signals are symbol width ■ Binary amplitude shift keying (BASK)
extracted from the combined signal by the
demulti □lexmg orocess.
► A '0' is represented by no pulse.
s· r : : ! ; ; : ii ={A, cos2rr(t; forl(High signal)

Advan!Jige • No dynamic coo,dination needed I

, 1, ·j 0 · j ·/ 0 -
Seq1uucanrycy ~ 'L J D Digital Modulation system ► S(t)
0; ; for0(Low level)
Works also for analog sil!11als :: i 1 1 1 1 °Amplitude shi~t • Amplitude of a high Bandwidth ofBASK
Disadvantage • ~as~e of bandwidth (if traffic UNRZ - I :A : i i i : keying (ASK) frequency carrier is varied in ~ (for NRZ pulse)
d1str1buted unevenly) accordance ,vith digital data
Inflexible (0or !). IBr=R,(l+a)j (forraisedcosine)
'-- • Guard space
• 1➔ presence of carrier
■ Time Division Multip_lexing (TD~ - J®ill"
' ' '
1 1
• 0➔ Absence of carrier Energy per b i t , ~
► In TOM, the signals are separated in lime t;, . d lJRZ • On-OFF signaling is used.
► m frequency. "' m1xe
• Less SNR, probability error ■ Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
~n adTDM system each signal allotted in a frame and 3. BNRz (Bl ' ' : :
xe time slot. ► A , 1, . polar Non- Return to Zero) codes (P,) is high. A, cos2rrf,t ;for I (High signal)
► s(t)=
► In a TOM system non-essential fr ► •'rn represented by positive pulse •
•
Lowest noise immunity
Transmission band1vidth
{ -A, cos211f, t ;for0(Low signal)
component of the modulatin si I equency A O is represented by negative puls~
low pass filter (pre-aliasing tiTterr a are remove by 4►. BRZ (Bipolar Return Zero' C d .
A ' l' · 1 o es
Br =I.=2Rb
Tb
Boud rate R•mI
IR, = log,
Electronic Engineering Capsule ISrepresented by positive pulse of half symbol
66
YCT
Electronic Engineering Capsule 67 YCT
 Comparison ofvarious digital modulation 5Yste...
• •
th ProbJJbility -~
■ M-ary phase shift keying Modulation type •Band Wld
error • Noise Figure • Information theory·
Bandwidth ....distance at output
M-ary
Coherent ASK ► It is a ratio ofSNR at input to SNR l=log 2 ( ¾}its, l=lo gro( ¾)
decitorditorHartly
BPSK 2Ri, 2,%: FN= SNR (,) = PJ P;. = P;.P,,,,
4-aryPSK SNR !•l P0 / P0 , P•. P;, l=in.!..nat
p
Non-coherent 2Rb l A
8-ary PSK 0.6Ri, 1.32,/E. ASK
-exp - -..t..
2 8N
~(G=t) ; The unit of information s bits,
1-dec it = I Hartley= 3.32 bits=
deceit and Nat
2.5 Nat
16-aryPSK Ri,/2 0.78,/E. Coherent FSK 2Rb+(f1-f2) ► I-Nat= 1.44 it = 0.4 decit
Noise Temperature • EntrOl!Y
rates noise power in
(-R, ) ► It is a temperature , which gene ► It is measure ofUn-certainity.
► Special efficiency p = Bit rate sys!em ► It is also defined as avera
ge information per
Bandwidth (Br) Non-coherent >2Rb cmpcrature
message.
g (BFSK)
FSK
A given source \viii have
maximum entropy if the .
• Binary frequency shift keyin Output ►
uced are equiprobable.
2Rb message prod
► s,(t) =A, cos(2nf11 t) bit= ! Coherent PSK
► Noise power by ampl
ifier.
► s, (t)= A,co s(2mt t) bit= 0 IPNA= (FN- l)kT, Bi
- H= f P; log, _!_ bits I symbol
P•I pl

!r - fr7L Non-cohe rent Where FN= Noise figure • Rate ofinformation .(R)
Bandwidth e = 2R, +t" '..!:..I (for NRZ pulse) PSK To= Environment temperature ► If a message source generate
message at the rate of
ol/seo. then
l ' r' mess age per second or symb
B = Band\vidth of message signa re.
Energy per bit ( E, = A?•) , ■ Noise effect on various ana
log
► Noise power in terms
of noise temperatu ~b it/s ec

g-fL-2
-°13
• ~
J
E~tcm:il
cric noise
• Solar noise
• Tndustrial noist.·
•
modulation system

i
lnf('rno(
• Shot noise
• Rcsis1or/Johnsonf fhcnnal noise
• Flickcrn oise
T"' =(FN-l)T,
► Equivalent noise temp

~
erature and noise figure in
cascaded communication syste
m.

(F,,G,,T.,,)
•
►
►
Where, H= entropy
Source coding
It is reduce the size of data
Source coding in order to enha
rate
Code le_ngth
nce the information

• For non-coherent BFSK • Transit lime noise al (F,,G, ,T.,,) (F,,G,,T.,,) •

per source symbol is
. . I Average code word length
II
► John son therm .
. nmsc IS a so known as noise, Equivalent noise figur e ►
code length.
clcctncal noise or resistor noise ·d sented by
2~~
repre
For coherent BFSK ~ = ► Shot noise- due to the ran om movement of F=F, + (F,- 1) + (F, -1)
electrons and holes. . G, G,G , Code length (L)= IP(x ,).n
c
_
► Tran sit time noise (high fr equency noise) occur 7 i• I

{&-f, =nRJ durin g transition.

no·
fil/ote: F1,F, &F3 wouldnot lieli
i tci'iiisorcll'.r
re Where, n = length of code for
each message
■ Probability Error ► In electronic devices shot
ise occurs due to • Equivalent noise temperatu
discr ete nature of current ► Code efficiency ( ri) = Lm;,
John son noise is due i'
d . L
► . om motion of free +T"' ' + ~
G, G,G , be efficient when the
charged p_articles in a resi~ta~a;e
th
T"' =T.,, ► Source encoder is said to
► Wb ite noise is random . ri) aches unity.
density. noise at has a flat spectral • SNR ofDSB-SC System coding efficiency ( appro

. ► Redundancy = I - ri
► Flicker noise also known as I . or pmk (SNR)o(DSD -SC) =(SNR), = :~
► . . is f noise noise.
.
0 • Source coding theorem
Flicker nmse is a form Of• electronic noise that Output SNR ofDSB-SC is same
as base band ► L 2: H(x)
dominates at low fre ►
or low frequency system SNR.
offsets from oscillators.quenc1es Lmi, = H(x) entropy
For BFSK system ► t . .
The natural source of noise ti la ~1ve ns~ to _noise are • SNR of SSB AM system
► electronic storm s, solar flares rad1atmn m space.
The noise originating from thea;un and outer space is (sNR)O(ss•i =(SNR)O(osa-sq =(SN
R), = :•8 lri=~=¥1
■
on
~i:::
0
Imperfect phas~ Synchronizati known as extraterrestrial . • Channel capacity Theorem
(solar cosmic noise). SNR ofDSB-SC
► The sun radiates lots of . ► Output SNR ofSSB is same as Case I : Chan nel capacity
per symb ol (Cs)
~=Q~ ► Cosmic noise comes. fr om stars system and baseband system.
► It is uniform! d'
.
entire sky. • Noise effect on AM system
jc, =Maxl(x , y)I bit/symbol
Effect of noi:e ~!tr1buted over system per second (C)
n ► Signal to · . a baseband A' 'p Case II : Chan nel capa city
Imperfect bit SYoclJronizalio noise ratm of a baseband syste
m M)= 11(SNR), I
• (SNR)O(AM )= ~ i(SNR)ll(A IC = c,x, 1 bit/sec.
P,=Q[J+J:(1-~)) (SNR), =2' i_
.B
N0....,
Wl iere, PR = Receiv·· -'d--,.-.c.... ~
• Capacity of an additive
channel
white Gamslon Noise

ey law
~ ► It is also called Shannon Hartl
er
~ ".:=BNoise spec iat~ :: /iow = Carrier amplitude
Where A, ( I +~ ) bits I sc-c
►
signal
High SNR andw1dth of message transmitter µ, = Modulation index
l power
► Channel capacity- C = Blog,
ule is good for receiver and P, = Normalized mess age signa
Electronic Engineering Caps 68
YCT
69
ule
YCT Electronic Engineering Caps
 channel is • Variance
► Channel capacity for a binary symmetric
C, =I+ P log, p +( I-P)lo g, (1-P)bits
/ syrnbol cr; = E[(x -mJ] = JJx -mJ P, (x)dx
► Channel capac ity is maxim ~n rate of inform ation
• Properties of upectation operator
transmission .
► Channel coding theorem 1. E[C] =C
§ID 2. E[CX] = CE[X]
□ Data Communication ■ Ring topology - with adjacent
Each computer is strongly connected
Where, C= channel capacity (bit/sec)
R = Rate ofinfonnation (bit/sc-c)
3. E[ ~X,] =pfx,) ■ Transmission Mode -
devices.
►
computer. . .
► Transferring data between two the data w,th
Eacb and every computer can share
► If §ID tben probability of error decreases. 4. E[ x, + x, +x, )= E[ x,)+
E[ x,]+ E[ x,]
■ Simplex mode -
►
another computer, connected throug
h a nng
► If ~ th en probability of error increase.
► Unidirectional communication.
that seoder cannot
topology.
Entropy coding J ► Sender can send the data but Can not send private message.
► It is two types Commutative distribution function IF,(n) ►
distribution fimction is found by receive the data. ► It bas low reliability.
► The comm ulative by IEEE 802.5
(i) . Shanon- Fano coding (ii) Huffin
an-coding
integrating Ute probability density functio
n. .
► It provides less performance
full duplex .
than half duplex and ► Token ring network are defined
Shanon-Fano coding Huffman-coding standard.
I) is a fast
, .
f, ► Example - Keyboard, Monit
or. Fiber Distnl>uted Data Interface (FDD
Ltst the given proba bilities in List th
/f, (n)= [ (n)ctx/ ►
fiber optical network based on ring topolo
gy.

~
the decreasing order. probabilitie: in gt';;;~
_J I ► The probab ility density function is obtained by P.C.
~·n.¥_g~or~d~er::_.
1P.ir tii~:-thih~;: ;;;:;;: -;-::=::-J-~d~ec~r_:!eas~1 differe ntiate commulative distribution function.
Partition e set into 2 pans Combbilities of 2
ine the given ■ Half - duplex mode -
that are_close to equiprobable proba ► Half duplex mode is a
two-way directional
as possible and assign to'O 'theto symbols having the f, (n)= ~f, (n) time.
dx communication but one direction at a
the upper set and •J' 1owest probability and In half duplex mode, sender can send
the data and
lower set. the resulta nt Prope rties of commulad1•e distribution function ►
one direction at a time.
reorder of random can receive the data but
probabilities. ► Commulative distribution fimction duplex .
bility that a ► Less performance than full
Continue this process until Start encoding ivith variable 'X' may be defined as the proba ► Example - Walkie - Talkie
s.
than equal
Partition is not possible. the last reduction and random variable 'X' takes a value less
lox.
which consists of
exactly 2 probabilities CDF= f, (n)=p (x Sn) ■ Star topology - l device called
and assign 'O' to the Half duplex All the node are connected \\i tb centta
►
I" digit in the code /osf, (n)s/ HUB.
■ Full-duplex mode - possible through HUB.
word for all the ing ► Full duplex mode is
a two-way directional ► Sharing the data is only
source symbo ls ► Comm ulative distributive function is non-decreas ► Easy to connect new P.C. without affecti
ng rest of
function . communication simultaneously.
associated 1vith J" can send the data and netwo rk.
► In full duplex mode, sender
probability and assign /osf, (n)s1 / f,(oo)=O, f,(oo)=I
to the 2°• receive the data simultaneously.
'I ' perfonnance than . simple x and half duplex
► Better
proba.bilities. Mean value of random variables mode.
Continue the process ► Mean value of random variables E(n) ► Example - Telephone.
until I" colurno is
reached. E(n) = [n.f, (n).dx
E.1txJllalion

(~rob ability Densi ty or Probability n P.C.

P~F.
Distribution Function) Where, f'.(n) = Probability density functio
N= The value of random variables .
d
P,(x )=~ F, (x) X= Random variable □ Network topology - ■ Mesh Topology - connected IVlth
. ► Each and every computer is directly
Mean square value ofrandom variab
les (E(x)'J ■ Bus topology - as ~ smgle each other.
I. P, (x)~O ► In bus topology, one long cable act ► Mesh topology is point to point link.
deV1ces are
2 is always I /E(x') = [x'~( n)ctx / communication channel and all the It bas highest reliability.
►
• [P, ( x)dx = I Area under PDF connected to this cable. P.C.
3. F. (x) = [P, (x)dx
► value
Variance = mean square value - square
of mea
► Required only one cable.
gy.
► Easy to add/remove P.C. in this topolo
P{x, sxsx,}=f,"P,(x)dx ► Standard deviation fcm] ► Less expensive
4. ► It is a multipoint topology.
Means or First M~ment: cr, = ✓variance =jE(x' )-E(x)' P.C. P.C. Bus cable
m, =E[x]= [xp,( x)dx Note : In a communication system, a process for which
statistical average and Ii Termination
M.S. V. (Mean Square Value): ergodic process. me average are equal is called
■ Hybrid topology -
E[x'] = f~ x'p,(x)dx ► Combination of different topology -
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Electronic Engineering Capsule 70 Electronic Engineering Capsule
71
YCT