ECE 4224 — Lecture 1

Introduction
& Steady-State Converter Analysis (Chapter 2)
Announcements
▪ Lecture 1 slides on Canvas (Files → Lectures)

▪ Homework #1 assigned later this week

▪ I will be in China from Thursday 8/24 to Thursday 8/31 and will have
limited access to email
▪ I will upload a pre-recorded video for the 8/28 lecture and am planning to have a
sub give an in-person lecture in Blacksburg for the 8/30 lecture
▪ The TA (Ji Wu Hong) will have office hours and be available over email

2
Instructor: Christina DiMarino
Christina DiMarino, PhD
Assistant Professor
Center for Power Electronics Systems (CPES)
Electrical and Computer Engineering

3
On Canvas Now:
▪Syllabus (Home and Syllabus pages)

▪ECE 3304 lectures (Files → ECE 3304)

▪PLECS installation, license, and tutorial information (Files →

PLECS)

4
Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd Edition

▪Authors: Robert W. Erickson, and

Dragan Maksimovic

▪Publisher: Springer; 2nd edition

(January 31, 2001)

5
Topics Covered in ECE 3304 (Prerequisite)
▪Switching and average modeling
▪Magnetics theory
▪Inductor and transformer design
▪Inverters and rectifiers (single- and three-phase)

➢ The (power electronics) lecture slides from 3304 have been

uploaded to Canvas (Files → ECE 3304)

6
Topics (Chapters) Covered in ECE 4224 (This Course)

Topics Textbook Chapter

Steady-State Converter Analysis 2
Steady-State Converter Modeling 3
Average and small-signal models of PWM converters 7.1, 7.2, 7.4, Notes, 7.6
Converter transfer functions 8
Output feedback control design 9
Basic magnetics theory 13
Inductor and transformer design and isolated converters 14, 15, 6.3
Semiconductor Power Switches 4

7
 Transportation

Information
Technology

Electric Grid

Industrial
Automation
New and Expanding Areas of Power Electronics

8
Power Processing Overview

▪DC-DC conversion: Change and control voltage magnitude (3304 & 4224)
▪AC-DC rectification: Possibly control dc voltage, ac current (3304)
▪DC-AC inversion: Produce sinusoid of controllable frequency and magnitude
(3304)
▪AC-AC cyclo-conversion: Change and control voltage magnitude and
frequency
9
Power Processing Overview

▪DC-DC conversion: Change and control voltage magnitude (3304 & 4224)
▪AC-DC rectification: Possibly control dc voltage, ac current (3304)
▪DC-AC inversion: Produce sinusoid of controllable frequency and magnitude
(3304)
▪AC-AC cyclo-conversion: Change and control voltage magnitude and
frequency
➢How do we realize a switching power converter?
10
DC-DC Switching Power Converter

11
DC-DC Switching Power Converter

▪Use of Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT) Ideal Switch

▪A low-pass L-C filter helps remove switching harmonics
▪This voltage step-down converter is known as buck converter
▪Vg > V
12
Switching Power Converter Components
An “ideal” switching power converter consists of:
▪Linear components:
▪ Capacitors
▪ Inductors
▪ Transformers
▪ Resistors (“a little”)
▪ Voltage sources
▪ Current sources

▪Nonlinear components:
▪ Ideal Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT) Switch
13
Constituent Equations of Components
𝑑𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑁1 𝑁2
▪Kirchoff’s Current Law
(KCL) Equations for Nodes:
i = 0
▪Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL) Equations for Loops:
v = 0 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑅𝑖𝑅 𝑣=𝑓 𝑡 𝑖=𝑓 𝑡

14
 Example:
Steady-State Analysis of Buck Converter

15
Design Procedure for DC-DC Converter
▪Find relationship between input voltage Vg and output voltage Vo
▪Calculate the required duty cycle D to obtain the desired Vo for a
given Vg
▪Choose L value to meet inductor current ripple ΔiL specification
▪Choose C value to meet capacitor voltage ripple Δvc
specification
▪Choose transistor and diode based on the maximum voltage
across the switch and the current through the switch

16
Design Procedure for DC-DC Converter
▪Find relationship between input voltage Vg and output voltage Vo
▪Calculate the required duty cycle D to obtain the desired Vo for a
given Vg
▪Choose L value to meet inductor current ripple ΔiL specification
▪Choose C value to meet capacitor voltage ripple Δvc
specification
▪Choose transistor and diode based on the maximum voltage
across the switch and the current through the switch

17
Buck Converter Electrical States
State 1

Switch in terminal 1

18
Buck Converter Electrical States
State 1

Switch in terminal 1

State 2

Switch in terminal 2

19
Buck Converter Electrical States
State 1

Switch in terminal 1

State 2

Switch in terminal 2

20
Inductor Voltage and Current in State 1

Inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑣 𝑡

lowercase = changing with time

uppercase = constant value
21
Small Ripple Approximation

Buck converter with low-pass filter Non-ideal output voltage waveform

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉 + 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡

▪In a properly designed converter, the voltage ripple is small, typically less
than 1 %

𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡 ≪𝑉 𝑣 𝑡 ≈𝑉
22
Inductor Voltage and Current in State 1

Inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑣 𝑡

Small-ripple approximation 𝑣𝐿 ≈ 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉

▪ Using the inductor voltage, the change in current may be found from:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
▪ Solving for the current slope:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉
= ≈ The inductor current changes with a (nearly)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 constant slope

23
Inductor Voltage and Current in State 2

Inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = −𝑣 𝑡

Small-ripple approximation 𝑣𝐿 ≈ −𝑉

▪ Using the inductor voltage, the change in current may be found from:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
▪ Solving for the current slope:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑉
= ≈− The inductor current changes with a (nearly)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 constant slope

24
Inductor Voltage Waveform
Inductor Voltage
State 1: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽
= ≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

State 2: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽

= ≈−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

25
Inductor Voltage Waveform
Inductor Voltage
State 1: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽
= ≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

State 2: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽

= ≈−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

26
Inductor Voltage Waveform
Inductor Voltage
State 1: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽
= ≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

State 2: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽

= ≈−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

27
Inductor Volt-Second Balance Principle
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 1
▪Inductor voltage across its terminals: 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
1 𝑇𝑠
▪Integrating over a switching period: 𝑖𝐿 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑖𝐿 0 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 0
𝑇𝑠
▪In steady-state, the net-change of the inductor current is zero: 0 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

➢ The volt-seconds (total area) under the inductor voltage waveform is zero
when the converter operates in steady-state

▪Alternatively, the average inductor voltage is zero in steady-state:

1 𝑇𝑠
𝑣𝐿 = 0 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑠 0
28
Buck Converter Volt-Second Balance
Inductor Voltage Waveform

▪ Integral of the voltage waveform is the area under 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 :

𝑇𝑠
𝜆 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉 𝐷𝑇𝑠 + −𝑉 𝐷′ 𝑇𝑠 Where 𝐷 ′ = 1 − 𝐷
0
▪ Average voltage is given by: Equating to zero Ideal conversion
𝜆 ratio for buck.
𝑣𝐿 =
𝑻𝒔
= 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉 𝐷 + −𝑉 𝐷′ 𝑽 = 𝑫𝑽𝒈 Use to find 𝐷 for
given 𝑉𝑔 and 𝑉.
29
Design Procedure for DC-DC Converter
▪Find relationship between input voltage Vg and output voltage Vo
▪Calculate the required duty cycle D to obtain the desired Vo for a
given Vg
▪Choose L value to meet inductor current ripple ΔiL specification
▪Choose C value to meet capacitor voltage ripple Δvc
specification
▪Choose transistor and diode based on the maximum voltage
across the switch and the current through the switch

30
Inductor Current Waveform
Inductor Voltage
State 1: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽
= ≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

State 2: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽

= ≈−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

Inductor Current

31
Inductor Current Waveform
Inductor Voltage
State 1: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽
= ≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

State 2: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽

= ≈−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

Inductor Current

32
Inductor Current Waveform
Inductor Voltage
State 1: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽
= ≈
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

State 2: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑽

= ≈−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑳

Inductor Current

33
Inductor Current Ripple ∆𝑖𝐿

𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉
𝐿
2∆𝑖𝐿
𝐷𝑇𝑠

𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 2∆𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐷𝑇𝑠
𝟐∆𝒊𝑳 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽 Use to find 𝐿 value
𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽 = 𝑳 𝑳= ∙ 𝑫𝑻𝒔 for a given Δ𝑖
𝑫𝑻𝒔 𝟐∆𝒊𝑳 𝐿
34
Design Procedure for DC-DC Converter
▪Find relationship between input voltage Vg and output voltage Vo
▪Calculate the required duty cycle D to obtain the desired Vo for a
given Vg
▪Choose L value to meet inductor current ripple ΔiL specification
▪Choose C value to meet capacitor voltage ripple Δvc
specification
▪Choose transistor and diode based on the maximum voltage
across the switch and the current through the switch

35
Capacitor Charge Balance Principle
𝑑𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)
▪Capacitor current through terminals: 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑇𝑠
▪Integrating over a switching period: 𝑣𝑐 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑣𝑐 0 = න 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
𝑇𝑠
▪In steady-state, the net-change of capacitor voltage is zero: 0 = න 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

➢ The charge under the capacitor current waveform is zero when the converter
operates in steady-state

▪Alternatively, the average capacitor current is zero in steady-state:

1 𝑇𝑠
𝑖𝑐 = 0 = න 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑠 0
36
Ripple Estimation in Converters with Two-Pole Low-Pass Filters

Buck Converter Inductor Current Waveform

➢ What is the current through

the output capacitor?

37
Buck Converter Capacitor Current and Voltage

0
If the capacitor voltage ripple ∆𝑣 is
small as assumed, then essentially all
the of the inductor current ripple ∆𝑖𝐿
will go through the capacitor, and the
dc component 𝐼𝐿 will go to the load.
➢ The inductor current ripple ∆𝑖𝐿 is not
negligible!

38
Capacitor Voltage Ripple Estimation

Total charge accumulated while 𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) is positive:

𝑞 = 𝐶 ∙ 2∆𝑣
0
➢ Changes capacitor voltage by +2∆𝑣

The total charge can also be extracted from the

𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) waveform (blue area):
1 𝑇𝑠
𝑞 = ∆𝑖𝐿
2 2
➢ Capacitor voltage ripple is then given by:
∆𝑖𝐿 𝑇𝑠 𝟏 ∆𝒊𝑳
∆𝑣 = 𝑪= 𝑻𝒔
8𝐶 𝟖 ∆𝒗
Use to find 𝐶 value for a given Δ𝑣 39
Design Procedure for DC-DC Converter
▪Find relationship between input voltage Vg and output voltage Vo
▪Calculate the required duty cycle D to obtain the desired Vo for a
given Vg
▪Choose L value to meet inductor current ripple ΔiL specification
▪Choose C value to meet capacitor voltage ripple Δvc
specification
▪Choose transistor and diode based on the maximum voltage
across the switch and the current through the switch

40
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo
+ iT(t)
iD
0

vT(t)
0
ig i T + vT – L iL io
1s – vL iD(t)
0 vD iCo
Vg + Co vo R Vo 0

iD 0
vD(t)

41
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs
T 1
vL 0
– iCo
Vg vD Co vo R Vo
+ iT(t)
iD
0

vT(t)
0
ig i T + vT – L iL io
1s – vL iD(t)
0 vD iCo
Vg + Co vo R Vo 0

iD 0
vD(t)

42
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs
T 1
vL 0
– iCo
Vg vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
iD
0

vT(t)
0
ig i T + vT – L iL io
1s – vL iD(t)
0 vD iCo
Vg + Co vo R Vo 0

iD 0
vD(t)
-Vg
43
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
– iCo
Vg vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
iD
0

vT(t)
0
ig i T + vT – L iL io
1s – vL iD(t)
0 vD iCo
Vg + Co vo R Vo 0

iD 0
vD(t)
-Vg
44
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
– iCo
Vg vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
iD
0

Vg
vT(t)
0
ig i T + vT – L iL io
1s – vL iD(t)
IL
0 vD iCo
Vg + Co vo R Vo 0

iD 0
vD(t)
-Vg
45
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
vT(t)
0
ig i T + vT – L iL io
1s – vL iD(t)
IL
0 vD iCo ID
Vg + Co vo R Vo 0

iD 0
vD(t)
-Vg
46
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
▪What is the maximum voltage across vT(t)
the transistor and diode? 0
▪ Transistor: 𝑉𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑔
IL
iD(t)
ID
▪ Diode: 𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑔 0

▪Choose switches with breakdown vD(t)

0

voltage ≥ 2·Vg
-Vg
47
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
▪How do we choose the required switch vT(t)
current rating?
0
▪Chosen based on the average conduction
loss over time Pcond iD(t)
IL
▪IGBTs, BJTs, and diodes behave like a ID
0
voltage source; they have a constant voltage
0
drop: vD(t)
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑉𝑓 -Vg
48
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
▪What is the average value of iD(t)? vT(t)

𝐼𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝐿 𝐷′ 0

IL
iD(t)
ID
0

0
vD(t)
-Vg
49
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
▪MOSFETs do not behave like a voltage vT(t)
source
0
▪MOSFETs act like a resistor; as the current
increases, the voltage also increases iD(t)
IL
▪Use Ohm’s Law to substitute the voltage: ID
0

0
vD(t)
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = න 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅 න 𝑖 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 2
𝑅𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
-Vg
50
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
▪What is the RMS value of iT(t)? vT(t)
▪Appendix A.1 of textbook gives RMS values 0
of common waveforms
IL
▪For a pulsating waveform with linear ripple: D
i (t)
ID
2 0
1 ∆𝑖
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =𝐼 𝐷 1+ 0
3 𝐼 vD(t)
-Vg
▪If Δi << I : 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ≈ 𝐼 𝐷 51
Buck Converter: Transistor and Diode Voltage and Current
ig iT + v – L iL io s(t) DTs D'Ts DTs D'Ts
T 1
vL 0
T – iCo
Vg D vD Co vo R Vo IL
+ iT(t)
IT
iD
0

Vg
▪MOSFET vT(t)
𝑉
▪ RMS Current: 𝐼𝑇𝑟𝑚𝑠 ≈ 𝐼𝐿 𝐷 ≈ 𝐷 0
𝑅
▪ Maximum Voltage: 𝑉𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑔 iD(t)
IL
ID
▪Diode 0

▪ Average Current: 𝐼𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝐿 𝐷′ vD(t)

0

▪ Maximum Voltage: 𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑔 -Vg

52
Buck Converter Design Summary
▪Given Vg and V, calculate D: 𝑉 = 𝑫𝑉𝑔
𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉
▪Given ΔiL, calculate minimum L: 𝑳 = ∙ 𝐷𝑇𝑠
2∆𝑖𝐿
1 ∆𝑖𝐿
▪Given Δv, calculate minimum C: 𝑪 = 𝑇𝑠
8 ∆𝑣

▪Calculate transistor and diode Vmax, Iavg, and Irms:

▪ Transistor and diode maximum voltage: 𝑽𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑉𝑔
▪ Transistor (MOSFET) rms current: 𝑰𝑻𝒓𝒎𝒔 ≈ 𝐼𝐿 𝐷 ≈ 𝑉/𝑅 𝐷
▪ Diode average current: 𝑰𝑫𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝐼𝐿 𝐷′
53
Chapter 2 Summary
▪The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its
average value
▪ This is the main approach to analyze dc-dc converters
▪Small ripple approximation simplifies analysis and can be
applied as this is the design target in most applications
▪The inductor volt-second balance can help determine the dc
voltage components
▪ In steady-state, the average voltage across an inductor is zero
▪The capacitor charge balance can help determine the dc
current components
▪ In steady-state, the average current through a capacitor is zero
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Chapter 2 Summary (Continued)
▪The inductor current and capacitor voltage slopes during
the different electrical states can be used to calculate their
respective ripple
▪ This can be used to calculate the required inductance and
capacitance values
▪For converters with multi-pole filters (e.g., buck), capacitor
charge balance and inductor volt-seconds can be used to
calculate their respective ripple
▪To select appropriate switches, the maximum voltage and
average or rms current must be found
▪ For bipolar transistors (e.g., IGBT, BJT) and diodes: Pcond = IavgVf
▪ For MOSFETs: Pcond = RIrms2 55
Next Class

▪Review of Chapter 3: Steady-state equivalent circuit modeling

▪Start Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

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 Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT) Switch Modeling
Where we are now Where we are going

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Switching Power Converter Modeling
▪Why do we need a model?
▪ To understand the converter behavior

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Switching Power Converter Modeling

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Switch Model → Average Model → Small-Signal Model
▪Switch model → average model
▪ It is faster to simulate just the average behavior than the detailed
switching
▪ Cannot linearize the switching model, but we can linearize the
average model

▪Average model → small-signal model

▪ Transfer functions are defined only for linear systems
▪ Need the transfer functions to model the system

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Announcements
▪ Lecture 1 slides on Canvas (Files → Lectures)

▪ Homework #1 assigned later this week

▪ I will be in China from Thursday 8/24 to Thursday 8/31 and will have
limited access to email
▪ I will upload a pre-recorded video for the 8/28 lecture and am planning to have a
sub give an in-person lecture in Blacksburg for the 8/30 lecture
▪ The TA (Ji Wu Hong) will have office hours and be available over email

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