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Basic Electronics L1

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Basic Electronics L1

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furahamateso17
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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BASIC ELECTRONICS

Introduction

Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of electrons
(electricity) and the study of their behaviour and effects in vacuums, gases, and semiconductors
with devices using such electrons.

Or

The word electronics is derived from electron mechanics, which means to study the behaviour of an
electron under different conditions of applied electric field.

Electronics can also be defined as the branch of engineering in which the electronic devices and
their utilization are studied.

The motion of electrons through a conductor gives us electric current. This electric current can be
produced with the help of batteries and generators. The device which controls the flow of electrons
is called electronic device. These devices are the main building blocks of electronic circuits.

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such


as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by
conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. To be referred to as electronic,
rather than electrical, generally at least one active component must be present. The combination of
components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to be performed: signals can
be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be moved from one place to another.

Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire, but
today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic techniques on a
laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the components to these
interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or IC, the components and
interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such as silicon or (less
commonly) gallium arsenide.

1
Figure 1.1 A circuit built on a printed circuit board (PCB).

An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, a digital circuit, or a mixed-
signal circuit (a combination of analog circuits and digital circuits)

Analog electronic circuits are those in which current or voltage may vary continuously with time
to correspond to the information being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from two
fundamental building blocks: series and parallel circuits

Fig. 1.2 An analog circuit, in this case a simple amplifier

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, to represent logical and
numeric values. These values represent the information that is being processed. In the vast majority
of cases, binary encoding is used: one voltage (typically the more positive value) represents a binary
'1' and another voltage (usually a value near the ground potential, 0 V) represents a binary '0'.
Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to create logic gates that provide
the functions of Boolean logic: AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR and all possible combinations
thereof.

2
Branches of electronics

Electronics has various branches including, analog electronics, digital electronics,


microelectronics, Nano electronics, optoelectronics,

Advantages of electronics

Electronic devices are playing a major role in everyday life. The various electronic devices we use
in everyday life include

➢ Computers

Today, computers are used everywhere. At home, computers are used for playing games, watching
movies, doing research, paying bills and reservation of tickets for railways and airlines. At school,
students use computers to complete their assignments.

➢ Mobile phones

Mobile phones are used for variety of purposes such as for sending text messages, making voice
calls, surfing internet, playing games, and listening songs.

➢ ATM

ATM is an electronic telecommunication device particularly used for withdrawing money at


anytime from anywhere. ATM stands for automated teller machine. The customer can withdraw
money up to a certain limit during anytime of the day or night.

➢ Pen drive

Pen drive is particularly used for storing large amount of data and also used for transferring data
from one device to another. For example, the data stored in the computer can be transferred to the
pen drive. The data stored in this pen drive can be retrieved at any time.

➢ Television

Television is an electronic device primarily used for entertainment and knowledge. It is used for
watching movies for entertainment, news for knowledge, cartoons for children’s.

➢ Digital camera

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Digital camera is a camera used for taking pictures and videos. This images and videos are stored
for later reproduction.

Electronic components are the basic building blocks of an electronic circuit or electronic system or
electronic device. They control the flow of electrons in an electronic system or electronic circuit.

Electronic components are very small. Hence, it is easy to carry them from one place to another
place. The cost of electronic components is also low. Electronic components consist of two or more
terminals.

When a group of electronic components is connected together in an electronic board such as printed
circuit board (PCB), a useful electronic circuit is formed. Each electronic component in a circuit
performs a particular task.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

The electronic components are generally classified into two types:

1. Passive components
2. Active components

PASSIVE COMPONENT

The electronic component, which consumes energy in the form of voltage from the source, but does
not produce or supply energy is called passive electronic component. Or Those devices or
components which do not required external source to their operation are called Passive
Components.

Some properties of passive components

1. Passive components cannot control the flow of electrons or electric current through a circuit,
but they limit the flow of electrons or electric current.
2. Passive components cannot amplify or increase the power of an electrical signal.
3. Passive components temporarily store the electrical energy in the form of static electric field
or magnetic field.
4. Passive components do not depend on the external source of energy or voltage to perform a
specific operation.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF PASSIVE COMPONENTS

The different types of passive components include resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

RESISTORS :-

Resistor is an electrical element (or an electrical component or an electrical parameter) which is


made of resistive material which oppose the flow of current, i.e. the component having the property
of resistance is called ‘Resistor’.

Classification of different types of Resistors :

Fundamentally, there are three types of resistors These are

(i) Fixed or Linear Resistors,


(ii) Variable (Potentiometer type.) resistor and
(iii) Special type resistor .

FIXED RESISTOR:-

Again fixed resistor can be divided in to eight different types.

These are:- (i)Carbon Resistance.(ii) Wire Wound resistance (iii) Film type resistance (iv)Integrated
resistor (v) Printed resistor (vi) Semiconductor resistor(vii) Chip resistor and (viii) Filament
resistor.

1. Variable Resistor:

Again variable resistor can be divided into two (2) types.

These are : i. Linear type variable resistors and ii. Non-linear type (Logarithmic variation )

i. The Linear type variable resistors again sub divided into two forms. Such

as a. Wire wound variable type linear type variable resistors. b. Carbon film linear
type variable resistor.

ii The non-linear type variable resistor is made by carbon film non-linear variable resistor.

Purpose of the resistor


5
Resistors can play any of numerous different roles in electrical and electronic equipment. Here are a
few of the more common ways resistors are used.

Voltage division

The resistors dissipate some power in doing this job, but the resulting voltages are needed for the
proper biasing of electronic transistors or vacuum tubes. This ensures that an amplifier or oscillator
will do its job in the most efficient, reliable possible way.

Biasing

In order to work efficiently, transistors or tubes need the right bias. This means that the control
electrode the base, gate, or grid must have a certain voltage or current. Networks of resistors
accomplish this. Different bias levels are needed for different types of circuits. A radio transmitting
amplifier would usually be biased differently than an oscillator or a low-level receiving amplifier.
Sometimes voltage division is required for biasing. Other times it isn’t necessary. Figure 1.3 shows
a transistor whose base is biased using a pair of resistors in a voltage-dividing configuration.

Fig.1. 3 Voltage divider circuit

Current limiting

Resistors interfere with the flow of electrons in a circuit. Sometimes this is essential to prevent
damage to a component or circuit. A good example is in a receiving amplifier. A resistor can keep
the transistor from using up a lot of power just getting hot. Without resistors to limit or control the
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current, the transistor might be overstressed carrying direct current that doesn’t contribute to the
signal. An improperly designed amplifier might need to have its transistor replaced often, because a
resistor wasn’t included I the design where it was needed, or because the resistor isn’t the right size.
Figure 1.4 shows a current-limiting resistor connected in series with a transistor. Usually it is in the
emitter circuit as shown in this diagram, but it can also be in the collector circuit.

Fig.1.4 Current-limiting resistor for a transistor.

POWER DISSIPATION

The process in which an electric or electronic device produces heat (or other waste energy) as an
unwanted by product of its primary action. ''Central processing unit power dissipation is a central
Power dissipation is the maximum power that the MOSFET can dissipate continuously under the
specified thermal conditions. For MOSFETs housed in a surface-mount package, power dissipation
is specified in the case of mounting on a board. The board size is specified in individual technical
data sheets.
The allowable power dissipation varies with the conditions under which the MOSFET is used (such
as ambient temperature and heat dissipation conditions). In practice, power dissipation should be
calculated from channel-to-ambient thermal resistance in the end-use application environment.

But as far as the transmitter “knows,” it’s hooked up to a real antenna. Another case in which power
dissipation is useful is at the input of a power amplifier. Sometimes the circuit driving the amplifier
(supplying its input signal) has too much power for the amplifier input. A resistor, or network of
resistors, can dissipate this excess so that the power amplifier doesn’t get too much drive.

RESISTOR VALUES

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In theory, a resistor can have any value from the lowest possible (such as a shaft of solid silver) to
the highest (open air). In practice, it is unusual to find resistors with values less than about 0.1 Ω, or
more than about 100 MΩ. Resistors are manufactured in standard values that might at first seem
rather odd to you. The standard numbers are 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, and
8.2.

Units are commonly made with values derived from these values, multiplied by some power of 10.
Thus, you will see units of 47 Ω, 180 Ω, 6.8 kΩ, or 18 MΩ, but not 380 Ω or 650 kΩ. In addition to
the above values, there are others that are used for resistors made with greater precision, or tighter
tolerance. These are power-of-10x multiples of 1.1, 1.3, 1. 6, 2.0, 2.4, 3.0, 3.6, 4.3, 5.1, 6.2, 7.5,
and 9.1.

You don’t have to memorize these numbers. They’ll become familiar enough over time, as you
work with electrical and electronic circuits.

TOLERANCE

The first set of numbers above represents standard resistance values available in tolerances of plus
or minus 10 percent. This means that the resistance might be as

much as 10 percent more or 10 percent less than the indicated amount. In the case

of a 470-Ohm resistor, for example, the value can be off by as much as 47 Ohms and

still be within tolerance. That’s a range of 423 to 517 Ohms. The tolerance is calculated according
to the specified value of the resistor, not the actual value. You might measure the value of a 470-
ohm resistor and find it to be 427 Ohms, and it would be within 10 percent of the specified value; if
it measures 420 Ohms, it’s outside the10-percent range and is a “reject.”

The second set, along with the first set, of numbers represents standard resistance values available
in tolerances of plus or minus 5 percent. A 470-Ohm, 5-percent resistor will have an actual value of
470 Ohms plus or minus 24 ohms, or a range of 446 to 494Ohms.

Some resistors are available in tolerances tighter than 5 percent. These precision units are employed
in circuits where a little error can make a big difference. In most audio and radio-frequency
oscillators and amplifiers, 10-percent or 5-percent tolerance is good enough. In many cases, even a
20-percent error is all right.

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POWER RATING

All resistors are given a specification that determines how much power they can safely dissipate.
1 1 1
Typical values are Watt, Watt, and 1Watt. Units also exist with ratings of Watt or 2Watts.
4 2 8
These dissipation ratings are for continuous duty.

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

All resistors change value somewhat when the temperature changes dramatically. And because
resistors dissipate power, they can get hot just because of the current they carry. Often, this current
is so tiny that it doesn’t appreciably heat the resistor. But in some cases it does, and the resistance
might change. Then the circuit will behave differently than it did when the resistor was still cool.

There are various ways to approach problems of resistors changing value when they get hot.

➢ One method is to use specially manufactured resistors that do not appreciably change value
when they get hot. Such units are called temperature compensated. But one of these can cost
several times as much as an ordinary resistor.
➢ Another approach is to use a power rating that is much higher than the actual dissipated
power in the resistor. This will keep the resistor from getting very hot. Usually, it’s a
needless expense to do this, but if the small change in value cannot be tolerated, it’s
sometimes the most cost effective.

MEASUREMENT OF A RESISTOR VALUE

There several ways of determining the resistance of a resistor.

I. Using an Ohmmeter

Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter has its own voltage source so that it is
always used without any external power applied to the resistance being measured. Separate the
resistance from its circuit by disconnecting one lead of the resistor. Then connect the ohmmeter
leads across the resistance to be measured. An open resistor reads infinitely high ohms. For some
reason, infinite ohms are often confused with zero ohms. Remember, though, that infinite ohms
mean an open circuit. The current is zero, but the resistance is infinitely high. Furthermore, it is
practically impossible for a resistor to become short-circuited in itself. The resistor may be short-

9
circuited by some other part of the circuit. However, the construction of resistors is such that the
trouble they develop is an open circuit with infinitely high ohms.

The ohmmeter must have an ohms scale capable of reading the resistance value, or the resistor
cannot be checked. In checking a 10MΩ resistor, for instance, if the highest R the ohmmeter can
read is 1MΩ, it will indicate infinite resistance, even if the resistor has its normal value of 10 MΩ.
An ohms scale of 100 MΩ or more should be used for checking such high resistances.

To check resistors of less than 10Ω, a low-ohms scale of about 100Ω or less is necessary. Center
selector switch must be set on a position which is right to measure the value or less. Otherwise, the
ohmmeter will read a normally low resistance value as zero ohms. When checking resistance in a
circuit, it is important to be sure there are no parallel resistance paths. Otherwise, the measured
resistance can be much lower than the actual resistor value, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5. Multimeter

II. Using Colour Codes;

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Resistor Color Coding Because carbon resistors are small, they are color coded to mark their R
value in ohms. The basis of this system is the use of colors for numerical values, as listed in Table
1. In memorizing the colors, note that the darkest colors, black and brown, are for the lowest
numbers, zero and one, whereas white is for nine. The color coding is standardized by the
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA).

RESISTANCE COLOR STRIPES

The use of colored bands or stripes is the most common system for color-coding resistors, as shown
in Figure 1.6. The colored bands or stripes completely encircle the body of the resistor and are
usually crowded toward one end. Reading from left to right, the first band closest to the edge gives
the first digit in the numerical value of R The next band indicates the second digit. The third band is
the decimal multiplier, which tells us how many zeros to add after the first two digits.

11
In Figure1.6 (a) , the first stripe is red for 2 and the next stripe is green for 5. The red multiplier in
the third stripe means add two zeros to 25, or “this multiplier is 10 2 ”.

The result can be illustrated as follows:

Therefore, this R value is 2500 ohm

The example in Figure. 1.6(a) Illustrates that black for the third stripe just means “do not add any
zeros to the first two digits.” Since this resistor has red, green, and black stripes, the Resistor value
is 25Ω .

Resistors under 10 Ohms

For these values, the third stripe is either gold or silver, indicating a fractional decimal multiplier.
When the third stripe is gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1. In

Figure. 1.6 (b), the Resistor value is 25 x 0.1 = 2.5Ω .

Silver means a multiplier of 0.01. If the third band in Fig. 1.6 c were silver, the R value would be
25 x 0.01 = 0.25Ω .

It is important to realize that the gold and silver colours represent fractional decimal multipliers
only when they appear in the third stripe. Gold and silver are used most often however as a fourth
stripe to indicate how accurate the Resistor value is. The colours gold and silver will never appear
in the first two colour stripes.

12
Figure 1.6(b) and (c)

Resistor Tolerance

The amount by which the actual Resistor can differ from the color-coded value is the tolerance,
usually given in perscnt. For instance, a 2000Ω resistor with 10% tolerance can have resistance
10% above or below the coded value. This Resistpr , therefore, is between 1800Ω and 2200Ω . The
calculations are as follows:

For +10%, the value is 2000 + 200 = 2200Ω .

For -10%, the value is 2000 - 200 = 1800 Ω .

As illustrated in Figure 1.5( c), silver in the fourth band indicates a tolerance of 10%, gold indicates
5%. If there is no colour band for tolerance, it is 20%. The inexact value of carbon-composition
resistors is a disadvantage of their economical construction. They usually cost only a few cents
each, or less in larger quantities. In most circuits, though, a small difference in resistance can be
tolerated.

FIVE-BAND COLOR CODE

Precision resistors (typically metal-film resistors) often use a i ve-band color code rather than the
four-band code. The purpose is to obtain more precise R values. With the five-band code, the first
three color stripes indicate the first three digits, followed by the decimal multiplier in the fourth
stripe and the in the fifth stripe. In the fifth stripe, the colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet
represent the following tolerances as shown Figure 1.7:

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Figure 1.7.Resistance Tolerance

Question:-

What is the resistance indicated by the five-band color code in Figure below? Also, what ohmic
range is permissible for the specified tolerance?

CHIP RESISTOR CODING SYSTEM

The resistance value of a chip resistor is determined from the three-digit number printed on the
i lm or body side of the component. The three digits provide the same information as the first
three colour stripes on a four-band resistor. This is shown in Figure 1.8.

Fig.1.8 chip resistor

The first two digits indicate the first two numbers in the numerical value of the resistance; the
third digit indicates the multiplier. If a four-digit number is used, the first three digits indicate
the first three numbers in the numerical value of the resistance, and the fourth digit indicates
the multiplier. The letter Resistor is used to signify a decimal point for values between 1 and
10 ohms as in 2R7 = 2.7Ω. Chip resistors are typically available in tolerances of 1% and 5%. It

14
is important to note, however, that the tolerance of a chip resistor is not indicated by the three
or four digit code as shown figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9. Examples of chip resistor.

OPENS AND SHORTS IN SERIES CIRCUITS

In many cases, electronic technicians are required to repair a piece of equipment that is no longer
operating properly. The technician is expected to troubleshoot the equipment and restore it to its
original operating condition. To troubleshoot means “to diagnose or analyse.” For example, a
technician may diagnose a failed electronic circuit by using a digital multimeter (DMM) to make
voltage, current, and resistance measurements. Once the defective component has been located, it is
removed and replaced with a good one. But here is one very important point that needs to be made
about troubleshooting: To troubleshoot a defective circuit, you must under-stand how the circuit is
supposed to work in the first place. Without this knowledge, your troubleshooting efforts could be
nothing more than guesswork as shown Figure 1.10 (a) and (b).

15
Figure 1.10 Effect of an open in a series circuit. ( a ) Normal circuit with 1-A series current. ( b )
Open path between points P1 and P2 results in zero current in all parts of the circuit.

THE EFFECT OF AN OPEN IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

An open circuit is a break in the current path. The resistance of an open circuit is extremely high
because the air between the open points is a very good insulator. Air can have billions of ohms of
resistance. For a series circuit, a break in the current path means zero current in all components.
Figure1.9(a) shows a series circuit that is operating normally. With 40 V of applied voltage and
40Ωof total resistance, the series current is 40V/40Ω = 1 A. This produces the following IR
voltage drops across R1 , R2 , and R3 : V1 = 1 A x 25Ω = 25 V, V2 = 1 A x 10 Ω = 10 V, and
V 3 = 1 A x 5 Ω = 5 V. Now consider the effect of an open circuit between points P1 and P2 in
Fig.1.9b . Because there is practically infinite resistance between the open points, the current in the
entire series circuit is zero. With zero current throughout the series circuit, each resistor’s IR
voltage will be 0 V even though the applied voltage is still 40 V. To calculate V1 , V2 , and V3 in
Figure1.9(b) , simply use 0 A for I . Then, V1 = 0A x 25 Ω= 0 V, V2 = 0 A x 10 Ω = 0 V, and
V3 = 0 A x 5 Ω = 0 V. But how much voltage is across points P1 and P2 ? The answer is 40 V. This
might surprise you, but here’s the proof: Let’s assume that the resistance between P1 and P2 is 40 x
109 Ω, which is 40 GΩ (40 gigaohms). Since the total resistance of a series circuit equals the sum of
the series resistances, RT is the sum of 25 Ω, 15 Ω, 10 Ω, and 40 GΩ. Since the 40GΩ of resistance
between P1 and P2 is so much larger than the other resistances, it is essentially the total resistance of
the series circuit. Then the series current I is calculated as 40 V/40 GΩ = 1 x 109 A = 1nA. For all
practical purposes, the current I is zero. This is the value of current in the entire series circuit. This
small current produces about 0 V across R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 , but across the open points P1 and P2
, where the resistance is high, the voltage is calculated as V-open = 1 x 10-9 A x 40 x 109 Ω = 40
V.

In summary, here is the effect of an open in a series circuit:

1. The current I is zero in all components.

2. The voltage drop across each good component is 0 V.

3. The voltage across the open points equals the applied voltage.

THE EFFECT OF A SHORT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

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A short circuit is an extremely low resistance path for current flow. The resistance of a short is
assumed to be 0 Ω. This is in contrast to an open, which is assumed to have a resistance of infinite
ohms. Let’s reconsider the circuit in Figure. 1.9 with R2 shorted. The circuit is redrawn for your
convenience in Fig. 1.10. Recall from Figure. 1.9(a) that the normal values of V1, V2 , and V3
are 25 V, 10 V, and 5 V, respectively. With the 10Ω R2 shorted, the total resistance RT will
decrease from 40Ωto 30Ω. This will cause the series current to increase from 1A to 1.33 A. This is
calculated as 40 V/ 30Ω = 1.33 A. The increase in current will cause the voltage drop across
resistors R1 and R3 to increase from their normal values. The new volt-age drops across R1 and
R3 with R2 shorted are calculated as follows:

V1 = 1 xR1 = 1.33 A x 25Ω, V3 = 1 x R3 = 1.33A x 5Ω

V1 = 33.3 V, V3 = 6.67 V

The voltage drop across the shorted R2 is 0 V because the short across R2 effectively makes its
resistance value 0Ω. Then,V2 = 1 x R2 = 1.33 A x 0 Ω, V2 = 0 V

Figure 1.11 Series circuit of Fig. 1.10 with R 2 shorted.

In summary, here is the effect of a short in a series circuit:

1. The current I increases above its normal value.

2. The voltage drop across each good component increases.

3. The voltage drop across the shorted component drops to 0 V.

The Effect of an Open in a Parallel Circuit

An open in any circuit is an infinite resistance that results in no current. However, in parallel
circuits there is a difference between an open circuit in the main line and an open circuit in a

17
parallel branch. These two cases are illustrated in Figure. 1.11. In Figure. 1.11(a) the open circuit in
the main line prevents any electron flow in the line to all the branches. The current is zero in every
branch, therefore, and none of the bulbs can light. However, in Figure 1.11(b) the open is in the
branch circuit for bulb 1. The open branch circuit has no current, then, and this bulb cannot light.
The current in all the other parallel branches is normal, though, because each is connected to the
voltage source. Therefore, the other bulbs light. These circuits show the advantage of wiring
components in parallel. An open in one component opens only one branch, whereas the other
parallel branches have their normal voltage and current.

Figure 1.11 Effect of an open in a parallel circuit. (a) Open path in the main line no current and no
light for all bulbs. (b) Open path in any branch bulb for that branch does not light, but the other two
bulbs operate normally.

The Effect of a Short in a Parallel Circuit

A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its effect, therefore, is to allow excessive current in
the shorted circuit. Consider the example in Figure.1.12. In Figure 1.12(a) the circuit is normal,
with 1A in each branch and 2A for the total line current. However, suppose that the conducting wire
at point G accidentally makes contact with the wire at point H, as shown in Figure. 1.12(b). Since
the wire is an excellent conductor, the short circuit results in practically zero resistance between
points G and H. These two points are connected directly across the voltage source. Since the short
circuit provides practically no opposition to current, the applied voltage could produce an infinitely
high value of current through this current path.

18
Figure 1.12 Effect of a short circuit across parallel branches. (a) Normal circuit. (b) Short circuit
across points G and H shorts out all branches.

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