EXPERIMENT 4

. EXPERIMENT 4(a)
BASIC BUILDING CONCEPTS
Body of all organisms consists of cell. If we observe a stained cell under a microscope three
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus are clearly
cell which separates the content of the cell from visible. Plasma membrane is the outermost
its external environment. In plant cells, outside
membrane an additional covering called cell wall is also present.
zones-plasma
covering
the
of the
Inside the plasma membrane jelly-like content of the cell is present. This is plasma
cytoplasm different cell organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, called cytoplasm. In
present. In plants, cytoplasm contains specialised cell organelles called plastids. golgi apparatus etc, the are
plastid which is the site of photosynthesis. Plastids are not found in
animal cells. Chloroplast
Cytoplasm also contains some storage sacs. These sacs are called vacuoles. In plant cells vacuoles
is one of the
sized but animal cells have small sized vacuoles. are large
In the cell, cytoplasm surrounds a darkly stained
dot-like structure. This is nucleus. It carries the genetic materal
AIM

Preparation of stained
draw their labelled temporary mount of onion peel cells and to record
diagrams. observations and
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Onion, plain slides, coverslip, watch glass,
and compound microscope. needles, forceps, brush, blade, safranin, blotting paper,
glycerine
THEORY
Onion is a multicellular plant. Like other plant cells,
cytoplasm, a large vacuole and a nucleus. The nucleus the cell of onion peel consists of a cell
wall,
lies at the periphery of cytoplasm cell membrane,
located in the centre. Presence of large and vacuole is
vacuoles and cell wall confirms that cells of onion peel are
PROCEDURE plant cells.
1. Take a piece of onion
and bend it to remove the
transparent
epidermal peel. With help of forcep remove
2. Place the peel in water in a the peel from its membranous
inner side.
structure called onion
3. Add afew drops of stain watch glass.
safranin, to the watch glass containing the peel for
4. Now, wash the leaf peel with
5. Remove extra water from water and transfer it on to a clean staining.
slide with the help of brush.
the slide surrounding the peel
6. To this slide, add a drop of with the
glycerine over the peel and place thehelp of blotting paper.
entry of air bubbles. coverslip in a manner to avoid
7. Soak away the extra glycerine with
8. Examine slide under the blotting paper.
microscope.

A
B
Fig. 4.1 (a): Method of
taking out peel from onion
38 7ogether utk Science Lab Manual9
 Dropper
Plane slide Needle
Cover slip
Glycenne
P

Fig. 4.1 (b): Stages to show the mounting procedure of a

slide

OBSERVATIONS
,)Alarge number of rectangular cells with distinct cell wall can be observed.
(i Cvtoplasm is seen as thin layer of deep coloured substance on inner surface of cell wall.
(ii) A big central vacuole is present in the cell.
in) Adeeply stained round body called nucleus is seen in each cell.
Cell wall

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Vacuole

Fig. 4.2. Structure of an onion peel

RESULT
shaped cells. Each cell comprises of a nucleus, a
The epidermal peel of onion comprises of rectangular
central vacuole, thin layer of cytoplasm and cell wall. observation are
present in each cell, the cells placed under
As cell walls and large prominent vacuole are
plant cells.

PRECAUTIONS
its edges to avoid making the slide dirty.
1. Always take a clean slide and hold it by
be properly stain. Avoid under-staining or excessive staining of the peel.
reel should
O. Always transfer the peel with the help of brush.
slide.
*. Mounting of the peel should be done in centre of
5. Avoid folding of the leaf peel.
paper.
Remove extra glycerine with the help of blotting
I. Avoid entry of air bubbles while placing the coversl1p.
EXPERIMENT 4(6) "

BASIC BUILDING CONCEPTS cheek cells consist nucleus, ribosomes,

Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. Animal cell, e.g. smaller in size. Ribosomes help in
Golgi basic and plastids are absent. Vacuoles are stores it.
proteinapparatus,
etc but cell wall and
in the form of ATP
synthesis. Mitochondria produce energy Experiments 39
 AIM

Preparation
draw
of stained temporary mount of human cheek cells and to record
their labelled
MATERIALS REQUIRED
diagrams.
Slide, coverslip, needle, blotting paper, tooth pick, methylene blue, watch
glass,
observations and
compound
THEORY
Animal cells lack cell wall and microscope
surrounds the cytoplasm. In prominent vacuole. In these cells asemi-permeable membrane called
comparison
Space. Vacuoles are absent or very smallto plant cell, in animal cell
in size. In animal cells, the cytoplasm
cell
Cheek cells are part of squamous position of
is dense
and membrane
nucleus is occupies larger
epithelium.
pavement tiles, i.e., arranged end to end forming a They are thin and flat cells. They usually
found centrallike
PROCEDURE
delicate lining. arranged
1. Rinse your mouth to
2. With the help of the remove any food particles.
toothpick scrap the inner
3. Place the
4. Spread the
scrappings in a drop of water over a side of the
clean slide.
cheek to get some epithelial cells
scrappings
5. Add a drop of with the help of needle.
6. Wait for 2 methylene blue over the slide.
minutes and then remove the extra stain
7. Add a drop of
glycerine on the with blotting paper.
8. With the help of needle, gently slide.
9. Observe the slide under the place the coverslip over the slide to avoid entry of air
microscope. bubbles.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Large number of
2. The cells have thinflat polygonal cells with irregular
with nucleus. membrane called cell memnbrane boundaries
which enclosesattached edge to edge are
jelly like substance called seen.
cytoplasm
Cell membrane

-Nucleus

Cytoplasm
Fig. 4.3. Human cheek cells
RESULT
Cells under observation do not have
slide are animal cells. cell wall and
large prominent
PRECAUTIONS vacuole. So, cells of specimen on the

1. Scrap the cheek cells

2. Always rinse the gently with help of clean
40 Together uth
mouth before toothpick
scrapping the tissue to avoid
so as to injury.
Science Lab Manual-9 remove any food particles from mouth.
 coverslip gently to avoid entry of air bubbles.
Place
3. Remove extra glycerine with blotting paper.
4. scrappings so that cells are properly
Spreadthe distributed.
5.
INTERACTIVE SESSION
- Name the basic structural and functional unit of life.
Examiner
Examinee Cell is the basic unit of life.
Examiner
State the difference between plant cell and animal cellwith respect to outer membranes.
Plant cell possesses a cell wall along with a cell membrane. Cell wall provides shape, protects
Examinee
and supports the plant cell. In contrast to this, animal cells lack cell wall. Cell membrane
is the outermost covering in animal cells.
What is the cell wall in plants made up of?
Examiner
is made up of cellulose.
Examinee - Cell wall
Examiner - Do both plant
and animal cells possess cell membrane?
Examinee - Yes.
Examiner - What is the significance of having a cell membrane around a living cell? protoplasm. Cell
membrane and encloses the
Examinee Cell membrane around a cellacts as a boundary of materials in and out of cell.
membrane is selectively permeable and helps in transport
different from animal cells?
Examiner - How are plant cells
Animal cells
Plant cells
Examinee plastids and
1. Do not possess cell wall,
1. Possess cell wall, plastids and large larger vacuoles.
vacuoles. present in animal cel.
cell. 2. Centrosome is
2. Centrosome is absent in plant
animal cell.
Name any four cell organelles found both in plant cell and
Examiner - mitochondria.
include nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes and
Examinee - These DNA.
which apart from nucleus contain
Examiner Name the two cell organelles
Mitochondria and chloroplast. experiment.
Examinee
used for staining the human cheek cell during the
Examiner Name the stain
Methylene blue. like mitochondria
Examinee
slide with methylene blue, certain cell organelles
Examiner Even after staining of
microscope. Why? under
are not visible in the with methylene blue, so they cannot be seen
not get stained
Examinee All the cell organelles do
cheek cell?
the microscope.
used for mounting of the onion cell or human
Examiner Why is glycerine
nature and hence, does not allow the cells to dry up.
hygroscopic in
xaminee - Glycerine is case of cheek cell slide?
spreading the cells important in
Examiner Why is teasing or cells.
important as it helps in proper dispersion of entry of air bubbles?
Examinee Teasing is
to place the coverslip gently
to avoid
the structure to
Aaminer - Why is it essential slide should be avoided as these would mask
the
Examinee Entry of air bubbles on
be observed.
staining of onion peel.
Examiner Name the stain used for
Examinee - Safranin. cheek cells.
peel cells with human cheek
of onion distinct cell walls whereas human
Examiner - Compare the shapes rectangular in shape, having
Examinee - Onion peel cells are with irregular
polygonal cells
boundaries.
cells are flat Experiments 41
 EXPERIMENT 5

EXPERIMENT 5(a)
BASIICBUILDING CONCEPTS

Tissue can
be described as a group of cells having a common origin and generally having common function.
are classified into
Plant tissues
tissue and
in) Meristematic
(6) Permanent tissue.

MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
tissue ccurs at the tips of roots
me are the tissues present in the growth regions of the plant. This
meristem.
nd shoots forming the primary tissue called apical
PERMANENT TISSUE
divided further. When the permanent
The cells of permanent tissue, as the name indicates do not generally parenchyma, collenchyma
as
tissue is made of only one type of cells, it is called simple permanent tissue, such
and sclerenchyma.
type of cells which work together as a team.
The complex permanent tissues are made of more than one
Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissue in plants.
In animals, the tissues are broadly classified into four types:

(a) Epithelial
outside environment or a body fluid. These
These tissues have a free surface which either faces the
can be made of single layer or more than one layer.
(6) Connective
Their prime function is to
Connective tissues are widely distributed in the body of complex animals.
link and give support to various organs.
(c) Muscular
arranged in parallel fashion. Muscle fibres contract
These are made of many fibres that are long and
state in arhythm. This is important for our body
1n response to stimulus and return to the relaxed
movements. Muscles are of three types:
(i) skeletal muscle tissue
() smooth muscle tissue
(iii) cardiac muscle tissue
(d) Neural
are excitable cells which exert control over
Neural tissues are made of Neurons or nerve cells. These
Our response to external environment.
AIM
sclerenchyma tissues in plants, from prepared
Identificationof parenchyma, collenchyma and
Shdes, Drawing of their labelled diagrams.
MATERIALS REQUIRED compound microscope.
Prepared slides of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma,
Experimnents 45
 THEORY
A group of cells that are similar in structure and work together to achieve a particular function forms

tissue. The main types of plant tissues include

Plant tissues

Permanent tissues
Meristematic tissues (have lost capacity
(Possess capacity todivide)
todivide throughout)

Simple Complex

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Xylem Phloem

(Components) (Components)

Tracheids Vessels Xylem Xylem Sieve Phloemn Phloem Companion

fibres parenchyma tube parenchyma fibres cell

PROCEDURE
1. Observe the prepared slides of all the plant tissues one by one.
2. First focus the slide at low power and then observe it at high power.
3. Study the characters and draw the diagrams in your notebook.
OBSERVATIONS

IDENTIFYING FEATURES
I. Parenchyma
(i) Cells of Parenchyma tissue are isodiametric.
(ii) Intercellular spaces are present in between Vacuole
the cells.
Intercellular
(iii) Parenchymatous cells possess large central spaces
vacuole and peripheral cytoplasm with a
nucleus. -Nucleus
(iv) These are generally present in the soft parts (A)
(B)
of plants like leaves, roots, flowers, etc. Longitudinal
Parenchyma: (A) Transverse section and (B)
(u) The important functions of parenchymatous section
cells are storage, photosynthesis, etc. Fig. 5.1.

46 7ogetker wik Science Lab Manual 9

IL Collenchyma
Collenchymatous cells are somewhat oval to elongated.
) possesses large central vacuole and peripheral cytoplasm with prominent nucleus.
Each cell
i) Thickenings are present at corners of cells. Thickening comprise of cellulose and pectin.
absent.
Intercellular spaces are
(0) Collenchymatous cells are commonly present below the epidermis in petiole, leaves and stems.

main function is to provide mechanical strength.

(vi) Its

End wall
Primary cell wall
(thickened at corners)
Chloroplast
Thickening
at the corners Nucleus
Vacuole
-Vacuole
Cytoplasm

Intercellular space
-Nucleus

(A) (B)
Collenchyma: (A) Transverse section and (B) Longitudinal section
Fig. 5.2.

II. Sclerenchyma
() Cells of sclerenchyma tissue are dead with highly thickened walls.
(ü) Thickenings consist of lignin.
(iüi) There are two types of sclerenchyma cells:
(a) fibres which are elongated cells with tapering ends and
narrow cavities.
(6) sclereids (also called stone cells), which are roughly isodiametric cells with
(iv) Sclerenchymatous cells have pits which act as connections with adjacent cells.
plant.
(v) The main function of sclerenchyma is to provide support and mechanical strength to the

Lumen - Lumen

Pit canal

Pit
Thickened
cell wall

(A) (B) (C)

and (C) Sclereids (Stone cells)
Sclerenchyma: (A) Transverse section, (B) Longitudinal section
Fig. 5.3.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Handle the
microscope carefully.
2. Always focus the slide first at low power (10x) and then at high power (40x).

Experiments 47
 " EXPERIMENT 5(6)

BASIC BUILDING CONCEPTS

Muscular Tissue
This tissue constitutes the muscles, made up of cells, which are contractile in
considerably and return to relaxed state. Three types of muscular tissue are -nature, i.e., cells
1. Striated or Voluntary 2. Non-striated 3. Cardiac can shorter
Characteristics Striped or Striated Non-striated
Structure Long, cylindrical, ubranched. Spindle-shaped cells.
Cells areCardiac
and terminaltoly branch
Nucleus Several nuclei arranged in Single elongated nucleus Several
connected discs.
by intercalated each other
periphery. placed in centre. placed. nuclei, centrally
Striations Present. Absent.
Activity Rapid contractions, therefore Show slow and
Present.
rhythmic
gets tired quickly. contraction and relaxation. Continuousandand rhythmic o
traction
Location Attached to the skeleton of not get relaxation, does
tired easily.
Present in walls of organs
the body. like intestine, stomach, Present
heart.
only in walls of
Also called voluntary
respiratory tract, etc.
muscles.
Also called involun Also called involuntary
tary muscles.
Nerve Cell cardiac muscles.
Millions of nerve cells or
neurons make up the nervous
conduction of nerve impulses. Brain, spinal cord system. Nerve cells are highly
Neuron consists of and nerves are all specialised cells or
(a) Cell body: composed of neurons.
(6) Dendrites: Which contains a nucleus and cytoplasm.
(c) Axon: Cytoplasmic processes which conduct impulses
Processes conducting impulses away from the cell towards
These may be several body
the cell body.
metres are
dendrites from another neuron. The The axon of one neuron remains intermed axons
long. or nerve
with the branches
AIM region of contact is called contact
synapse.
Identification
prepared
of
striped, smooth, and cardiac
slides. Drawing of their muscle fibres
labelled diagrams. and nerve cells in animals, from
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Prepared slides of
non-striated, striated and cardiac muscle fibres
THEORY and nerve cells, compound microscope.
A tissue is a
group of cells that are
similar in structure, origin and
function.
Animal tissues
Epithelial
tissue Connective
tissue Muscular Nervous
48 tissue tissue
7ogether uttk Science Lab
Manual9
PROCEDURE
the microscope andadjust the light in microscope.
Clean
1. prepared slide of tissue on the stage of microscope and focus first at low power and then
Placethe
at high power.
structure of tissues and draw the diagram of tissues as seen under microscope.
Observethe
3.
OBSERVATIONS
Skeletal Muscles
Striated Muscles or Striped or
muscle cells are cylindrical, elongated and enclosed in a membrane called sarcolemma.
) Striated
muscle cells are multinucleated.
(ü) These
Striated muscles show presence of light and dark bands which gives it striped appearance.
i) present attached to the skeleton of the body.
ie) These muscles are
are voluntary muscles (i.e., work according to our will).
(w) They
Sarcolemma
Striations
-Dark band

-Light band

+Nucleus

(A) (B)
Muscle fibres under low power Muscle fibres under high power

Fig. 5.4. Striated muscles

I Non-striated Muscles or Unstriped or Smooth Muscles

)The cells are spindle-shaped.
(ü) Nucleus is centrally located.
dark bands).
) These muscles do not show striations (i.e., no light and
liv) Non-striated muscles are involuntary in nature.
lw) They are commonly found in alimentary canals and blood vessels.

,Muscle fibres

-Myofibrils

Nucleus

Sacroplasm

muscles
Fig. 5.5. Non-striated

Experiments 49
 III. Cardiac Muscles
uninucleate.
(2) Cardiac muscle cells are long, branched and
(i) These show the presence of intercalated discs.
(iü) They show alternate light and dark bands.
(v) These are involuntary muscles and responsible for rhythmic contraction and relaxation of k
(U) Cardiac muscles are present onlv in walls of heart.

Intercalated disc

Striations

Oblique bridge
Nucleus

Fig. 5.6. Cardiac muscles

NERVE CELL

() Nerve cell comprises of a cell body or cyton with a single nucleus and cytoplasm.
(iü) further
Many small eytoplasmic projections arise from cyton which are called dendrons. The dendrons divide
to form dendrites.
(iiü) A long cytoplasmic projection arising from cell body is called axon.
(iv) A myelin sheath is present over the axon in some nerve fibres, these are called myelinated nerve
fibre and when myelin sheath is absent these are called non-myelinated nerve
fibres.
(u) Myelin sheath is not continuous. There are gaps along the entire length. Each gap is
of Ranvier.
called nodes
(vi) Nerve cells help in conduction of nerve impulse.

Cell body (Cyton)

-Nerve ending
Cytoplasm. Nucleus

Node of Ranvier

Dendrite Myelin sheath Axon

Fig. 5.7. Nerve cell

PRECAUTIONS

1, Handle the microscope carefully.

9 Alwavs focus the slide
irst at low power and then at high
power.
50 Tagether witk Science Lab Manual-9