SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Govt. of Karnataka, NAAC-‘A’ Grade)
Rajanukunte, Bengaluru-560064
Tel: 080-2846 8196, Fax: 2846 8193 / 98, Web: www.saividya.ac.in

MOTTO

“Learn to lead”

VISION MISSION
 To provide quality education and skilled training to
produce dedicated engineers and managers.
 To promote research, innovation and ethical practices by
Contribute dedicated, skilled, intelligent creating supportive environment.
engineers and business administrators to  To undertake collaborative projects with academia and
architect strong India and the world industry that transform young minds into socially
responsible citizen and globally competent professionals.
world.  To enhance personality traits which leads to
entrepreneurship qualities among the students.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
(BCS502)
(As per Visvesvaraya Technological University Syllabus)

Compiled By:

Dr. Tejashwini N Prof. Sowmya H N

Associate Professor Assistant Professor
Dept of CSE Dept of CSE

Name:

USN :

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

2024-25
Disclaimer
The information contained in this document is the proprietary and exclusive property of Sai Vidya Institute of
Technology except as otherwise indicated. No part of this document, in whole or in part, may be reproduced,
stored, transmitted, or used for course material development purposes without the prior written permission
of Sai Vidya Institute of Technology. The information contained in this document is subject to change without
notice. The information in this document is provided for informational purposes only.

Trademark

Edition: 2024 - 25

Document owner
The primary contacts for questions regarding this document are:

1. Dr. Tejashwini N
Author(s): 2. Prof. Sowmya H N
Department: Computer Science & Engineering

Contact email ids :

[email protected]

[email protected]
Dept. of CSE, SVIT Page: 1
 Program Outcomes
PO1 : Engineering Knowledge - Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, Engineering
fundamentals and computing skills to solve IT related engineering problems.
PO2: Problem Analysis - Identify, formulate, research literature and analyze complex computer
science engineering problems.
PO3: Design/Development of Solutions - Design software / hardware solutions for complex IT
problems to uplift the societal status of common man.
PO4 : Conduct Investigation of complex problems - Use research-based knowledge and methods
including design of software and or hardware experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 : Modern Tool Usage - Create/select an appropriate IT tool to model, implement and automate
the complex computational system.
PO6 : The engineer and Society - Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal issues, cultural issues, and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the IT practice
PO7: Environment and sustainability - Understand the impact of IT solutions in environmental
context and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8 : Ethics - Apply ethical principles in responsible way to follow the IT norms and cyber ethics.
PO9 : Individual and team work - Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader
in diverse teams / multidisciplinary teams.
PO10 : Communication - Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and the society for the effective presentation and / or report generation.
PO11 : Project management & Finance - Demonstrate the knowledge of computing / managerial
principles to solve and manage IT projects.
PO12 : Life Long Learning - Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes

PSO1 : Demonstrate the knowledge and understanding of working principles, design, implement, test
and evaluate the hardware and software components of a computer system.

PSO2 : Apply standard Software Engineering practices and strategies in software project development

PSO3 : Demonstrate the knowledge of Discrete Mathematics, Data management and Data engineering.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Sub Code : BCS502 IA Marks : 50
Hrs / Week : 04I + 02P Exam Hours : 03
Total Hrs : 40 Exam Marks : 50

PART A - Simulation Exercises

For the experiments below modify the topology and parameters set for the experiment and
take multiple rounds of reading and analyze the results available in log files. Plot necessary
graphs and conclude. Use NS2/NS3.
1. Implement three nodes point – to – point network with duplex links between them. Set the
queue size, vary the bandwidth, and find the number of packets dropped.
2. Implement transmission of ping messages/trace route over a network topology consisting of
6 nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion.
3. Implement an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plot congestion
window for different source / destination.
4. Develop a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16- bits).
5. Develop a program to implement a sliding window protocol in the data link layer.
6. Develop a program to find the shortest path between vertices using the Bellman-Ford and
path vector routing algorithm.
7. Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client – server program to make the client send the file name
and to make the server send back the contents of the requested file if present.
8. Develop a program on a datagram socket for client/server to display the messages on client
side, typed at the server side.
9. Develop a program for a simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data.
10. Develop a program for congestion control using a leaky bucket algorithm.

The student has to secure 40% of 25 marks to qualify in the CIE of the theory component of IPCC.
CIE for the practical component of the IPCC
 15 marks for the conduction of the experiment and preparation of laboratory record, and 10
marks for the test to be conducted after the completion of all the laboratory sessions.
 On completion of every experiment/program in the laboratory, the students shall be evaluated
including viva-voce and marks shall be awarded on the same day.
 The CIE marks awarded in the case of the Practical component shall be based on the
continuous evaluation of the laboratory report. Each experiment report can be evaluated for 10
marks. Marks of all experiments’ write-ups are added and scaled down to 15 marks.
 The laboratory test (duration 02 hours) after completion of all the experiments shall be
conducted for 50 marks and scaled down to 10 marks.
 Scaled-down marks of write-up evaluations and tests added will be CIE marks for the
laboratory component of IPCC for 25 marks.
 The student has to secure 40% of 25 marks to qualify in the CIE of the practical component of
the IPCC.

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Conduction of Practical Examination:
1. All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination.
2. Students are allowed to pick one experiment from a lot.
3. Strictly follow the instructions as printed on the cover page of answer script
4. Marks distribution: Procedure + Conduction + Viva: 50m
Continuous evaluation in every lab: Record, Observation, Data Sheet, Execution etc.:15m
Test: Procedure + Conduction + Viva =10m( scaled down from 50m)
5. Change of experiment is allowed only once and marks allotted to the procedure part to be made
zero.

Course Outcome
At the end of the course students will be able to
CO 1: Explain the fundamentals of computer networks.
CO2: Apply the concepts of computer networks to demonstrate the working of various layers and
protocols in communication network.
CO3: Analyze the principles of protocol layering in modern communication systems.
CO4: Demonstrate various Routing protocols and their services using tools such as Cisco packet
tracer.
Simulation

Introduction to NS-2:
 Widely known as NS2, is simply an event driven simulation tool.
 Useful in studying the dynamic nature of communication networks.
 Simulation of wired as well as wireless network functions and protocols (e.g., routing
algorithms, TCP, UDP) can be done using NS2.
 In general, NS2 provides users with a way of specifying such network protocols and simulating
their corresponding behaviors.

Basic Architecture of NS2

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Tcl scripting
• Tcl is a general purpose scripting language. [Interpreter]
• Tcl runs on most of the platforms such as Unix, Windows, and Mac.
• The strength of Tcl is its simplicity.
• It is not necessary to declare a data type for variable prior to the usage.
Basics of TCL
Syntax: command arg1 arg2 arg3
 Hello World!
puts stdout{Hello, World!}
Hello, World!

 Variables Command Substitution

set a 5 set len [string length foobar]
set b $a set len [expr [string length foobar] + 9]
 Simple Arithmetic
expr 7.2 / 4
 Procedures
proc Diag {a b} {
set c [expr sqrt($a * $a + $b * $b)]
return $c }
puts “Diagonal of a 3, 4 right triangle is [Diag 3 4]”
Output: Diagonal of a 3, 4 right triangle is 5.0
 Loops
while{$i < $n} { for {set i 0} {$i < $n} {incr i} {
... ...
} }
Wired TCL Script Components
Create the event scheduler
Open new files & turn on the tracing
Create the nodes
Setup the links
Configure the traffic type (e.g., TCP, UDP, etc)
Set the time of traffic generation (e.g., CBR, FTP)

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Terminate the simulation

NS Simulator Preliminaries.
1. Initialization and termination aspects of the ns simulator.
2. Definition of network nodes, links, queues and topology.
3. Definition of agents and of applications.
4. The nam visualization tool.
5. Tracing and random variables.

Initialization and Termination of TCL Script in NS-2

An ns simulation starts with the command

set ns [new Simulator]

Which is thus the first line in the tcl script? This line declares a new variable as using the set
command, you can call this variable as you wish, In general people declares it as ns because it is
an instance of the Simulator class, so an object the code[new Simulator] is indeed the installation
of the class Simulator using the reserved word new.

In order to have output files with data on the simulation (trace files) or files used for visualization
(nam files), we need to create the files using “open” command:

#Open the Trace file

set tracefile1 [open out.tr w]

$ns trace-all $tracefile1

#Open the NAM trace file

set namfile [open out.nam w]

$ns namtrace-all $namfile

The above creates a dta trace file called “out.tr” and a nam visualization trace file called
“out.nam”.Within the tcl script,these files are not called explicitly by their names,but instead by
pointers that are declared above and called “tracefile1” and “namfile” respectively.Remark that
they begins with a # symbol.The second line open the file “out.tr” to be used for writing,declared
with the letter “w”.The third line uses a simulator method called trace-all that have as parameter

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the name of the file where the traces will go.
The last line tells the simulator to record all simulation traces in NAM input format.It also
gives the file name that the trace will be written to later by the command $ns flush-trace.In our
case,this will be the file pointed at by the pointer “$namfile”,i.e the file “out.tr”.
The termination of the program is done using a “finish” procedure.

#Define a ‘finish’ procedure

Proc finish { } {

global ns tracefile1 namfile

$ns flush-trace

Close $tracefile1

Close $namfile

Exec nam out.nam &

Exit 0

The word proc declares a procedure in this case called finish and without arguments. The
word global is used to tell that we are using variables declared outside the procedure. The simulator
method “flush-trace” will dump the traces on the respective files. The tcl command “close” closes
the trace files defined before and exec executes the nam program for visualization. The command
exit will ends the application and return the number 0 as status to the system. Zero is the default
for a clean exit. Other values can be used to say that is a exit because something fails.
At the end of ns program we should call the procedure “finish” and specify at what time
the termination should occur. For example,
$ns at 125.0 “finish”

will be used to call “finish” at time 125sec.Indeed,the at method of the simulator allows us to
schedule events explicitly.
The simulation can then begin using the command

$ns run

Definition of a network of links and nodes

The way to define a node is

set n0 [$ns node]

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The node is created which is printed by the variable n0. When we shall refer to that node in the
script we shall thus write $n0.

Once we define several nodes, we can define the links that connect them. An example of a
definition of a link is:
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 10Mb 10ms DropTail

Which means that $n0 and $n2 are connected using a bi-directional link that has 10ms of
propagation delay and a capacity of 10Mb per sec for each direction.
To define a directional link instead of a bi-directional one, we should replace “duplex-link”
by “simplex-link”.
In NS, an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of each link whose input is that
node. The definition of the link then includes the way to handle overflow at that queue. In our case,
if the buffer capacity of the output queue is exceeded then the last packet to arrive is dropped.
Many alternative options exist, such as the RED (Random Early Discard) mechanism, the FQ (Fair
Queuing), the DRR (Deficit Round Robin), the stochastic Fair Queuing (SFQ) and the CBQ (which
including a priority and a round-robin scheduler).
In ns, an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of each link whose input is that
node. We should also define the buffer capacity of the queue related to each link. An example
would be: #set Queue Size of link (n0-n2) to 20

$ns queue-limit $n0 $n2 20

Agents and Applications

We need to define routing (sources, destinations) the agents (protocols) the application that
use them.
FTP over TCP
TCP is a dynamic reliable congestion control protocol. It uses Acknowledgements created
by the destination to know whether packets are well received.
There are number variants of the TCP protocol, such as Tahoe, Reno, NewReno, Vegas.

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The type of agent appears in the first line:

set tcp [new Agent/TCP]

The command $ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp defines the source node of the tcp connection.
The command set sink [new Agent /TCPSink]

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Defines the behavior of the destination node of TCP and assigns to it a pointer called sink.

#Setup a UDP connection

set udp [new Agent/UDP]

$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp

set null [new Agent/Null]

$ns attach-agent $n5 $null

$ns connect $udp $null

$udp set fid_2

#setup a CBR over UDP connection

The below shows the definition of a CBR application using a UDP agent
The command $ns attach-agent $n4 $sink defines the destination node. The command
$ns connect $tcp $sink finally makes the TCP connection between the source and destination
nodes.

set cbr [new

Application/Traffic/CBR]

$cbr attach-agent $udp

$cbr set packetsize_ 100

$cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb

$cbr set random_ false

TCP has many parameters with initial fixed defaults values that can be changed if
mentioned explicitly. For example, the default TCP packet size has a size of 1000bytes.This can
be changed to another value, say 552bytes, using the command $tcp set packetSize_ 552.

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When we have several flows, we may wish to distinguish them so that we can identify them
with different colors in the visualization part. This is done by the command $tcp set fid_ 1 that
assigns to the TCP connection a flow identification of “1”.We shall later give the flow
identification of “2” to the UDP connection.

CBR over UDP

A UDP source and destination is defined in a similar way as in the case of TCP.
Instead of defining the rate in the command $cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb, one can define the time
interval between transmission of packets using the command.

$cbr set interval_ 0.005

The packet size can be set to some value using

$cbr set packetSize_ <packet size>

Scheduling Events
NS is a discrete event based simulation. The tcp script defines when event should occur.
The initializing command set ns [new Simulator] creates an event scheduler, and events are then
scheduled using the format:

$ns at <time> <event>

The scheduler is started when running ns that is through the command $ns run.
The beginning and end of the FTP and CBR application can be done through the following
command
$ns at 0.1 “$cbr start”
$ns at 1.0 “ $ftp start”
$ns at 124.0 “$ftp stop”
$ns at 124.5 “$cbr stop”

Structure of Trace Files

When tracing into an output ASCII file, the trace is organized in 12 fields as follows in fig
shown below, The meaning of the fields are:
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Event Time From To PKT PKT Flags Fid Src Dest Seq Pkt
Node Node Type Size Addr Addr Num id

1. The first field is the event type. It is given by one of four possible symbols r, +, -, d which
correspond respectively to receive (at the output of the link), enqueued, dequeued and dropped.
2. The second field gives the time at which the event occurs.
3. Gives the input node of the link at which the event occurs.
4. Gives the output node of the link at which the event occurs.
5. Gives the packet type (eg CBR or TCP)
6. Gives the packet size
7. Some flags
8. This is the flow id (fid) of IPv6 that a user can set for each flow at the input OTcl script one
can further use this field for analysis purposes; it is also used when specifying stream color for
the NAM display.
9. This is the source address given in the form of “node.port”.
10. This is the destination address, given in the same form.
11. This is the network layer protocol’s packet sequence number. Even though UDP
implementations in a real network do not use sequence number, ns keeps track of UDP packet
sequence number for analysis purposes
12. The last field shows the Unique id of the packet.

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XGRAPH

The xgraph program draws a graph on an x-display given data read from either data file or
from standard input if no files are specified. It can display upto 64 independent data sets using
different colors and line styles for each set. It annotates the graph with a title, axis labels, grid lines
or tick marks, grid labels and a legend.

Syntax:
Xgraph [options] file-name

Options are listed here

/-bd <color> (Border)
This specifies the border color of the xgraph window.
/-bg <color> (Background)
This specifies the background color of the xgraph window.
/-fg<color> (Foreground)
This specifies the foreground color of the xgraph window.
/-lf <fontname> (LabelFont)
All axis labels and grid labels are drawn using this font.
/-t<string> (Title Text)
This string is centered at the top of the graph.
/-x <unit name> (XunitText)
This is the unit name for the x-axis. Its default is “X”.
/-y <unit name> (YunitText)
This is the unit name for the y-axis. Its default is “Y”.

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Awk- An Advanced

awk is a programmable, pattern-matching, and processing tool available in UNIX. It works equally
well with text and numbers. awk is not just a command, but a programming language too. In other
words, awk utility is a pattern scanning and processing language. It searches one or more files to
see if they contain lines that match specified patterns and then perform associated actions, such as
writing the line to the standard output or incrementing a counter each time it finds a match.
Syntax:
awk option ‘selection_criteria {action}’ file(s)

Here, selection_criteria filters input and select lines for the action component to act upon.
The selection_criteria is enclosed within single quotes and the action within the curly braces. Both
the selection_criteria and action forms an awk program.
Example: $ awk ‘/manager/ {print}’ emp.lst

Variables
Awk allows the user to use variables of there choice. You can now print a serial number,
using the variable kount, and apply it those directors drawing a salary exceeding 6700:
$ awk –F”|” ‘$3 == “director” && $6 > 6700 {
kount =kount+1
printf “ %3f %20s %-12s %d\n”, kount,$2,$3,$6 }’ empn.lst

THE –f OPTION: STORING awk PROGRAMS IN A FILE

You should holds large awk programs in separate file and provide them with the awk
extension for easier identification. Let’s first store the previous program in the file empawk.awk:
$ cat empawk.awk
Observe that this time we haven’t used quotes to enclose the awk program. You can now
use awk with the –f filename option to obtain the same output:

Awk –F”|” –f empawk.awk empn.lst

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The BEGIN and END Sections

Awk statements are usually applied to all lines selected by the address, and if there are no
addresses, then they are applied to every line of input. But, if you have to print something before
processing the first line, for example, a heading, then the BEGIN section can be used gainfully.
Similarly, the end section useful in printing some totals after processing is over.
The BEGIN and END sections are optional and take the form
BEGIN {action}
END {action}
These two sections, when present, are delimited by the body of the awk program. You can
use them to print a suitable heading at the beginning and the average salary at the end.
Built-In Variables
Awk has several built-in variables. They are all assigned automatically, though it is also
possible for a user to reassign some of them. You have already used NR, which signifies the record
number of the current line. We’ll now have a brief look at some of the other variable.
The FS Variable: as stated elsewhere, awk uses a contiguous string of spaces as the default field
delimiter. FS redefines this field separator, which in the sample database happens to be the |. When
used at all, it must occur in the BEGIN section so that the body of the program knows its value
before it starts processing:
BEGIN {FS=”|”}
This is an alternative to the –F option which does the same thing.
The OFS Variable: when you used the print statement with comma-separated arguments, each
argument was separated from the other by a space. This is awk’s default output field separator,
and can reassigned using the variable OFS in the BEGIN section:
BEGIN { OFS=”~” }
When you reassign this variable with a ~ (tilde), awk will use this character for delimiting the print
arguments. This is a useful variable for creating lines with delimited fields.
The NF variable: NF comes in quite handy for cleaning up a database of lines that don’t contain
the right number of fields. By using it on a file, say emp.lst, you can locate those lines not having
6 fields, and which have crept in due to faulty data entry:
$awk ‘BEGIN {FS = “|”}
NF! =6 {

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Print “Record No “, NR, “has”, “fields”}’ empx.lst

PART - A
Experiment 1:
Implement three nodes point – to – point network with duplex links between them. Set the queue
size, vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped.

Step1: Open text editor, type the below program and save with extention .tcl (prog1.tcl )

set ns [new Simulator]

set nf [open prog1.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
set nd [open prog1.tr w]
$ns trace-all $nd

proc finish { } {
global ns nf nd
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $nd
exec nam prog1.nam &
exit 0
}

set n0 [$ns node]

set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]

$ns duplex-link $n0 $n1 1Mb 10ms DropTail

$ns duplex-link $n1 $n2 512kb 10ms DropTail
$ns queue-limit $n1 $n2 10

set udp0 [new Agent/UDP]

$ns attach-agent $n0 $udp0
set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr0 set packetSize_ 500
$cbr0 set interval_ 0.005
$cbr0 attach-agent $udp0
set sink [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n2 $sink
$ns connect $udp0 $sink
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$ns at 0.2 "$cbr0 start"

$ns at 4.5 "$cbr0 stop"
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
$ns run

Step2: Open text editor, type the below program and save with extention .awk (prog1.awk )

BEGIN {
dcount = 0;
rcount = 0;
}
{
event = $1;
if(event == "d")
{
dcount++;
}
if(event == "r")
{
rcount++;
}
}
END {
printf("The no.of packets dropped : %d\n ",dcount);
printf("The no.of packets recieved : %d\n ",rcount);
}

Step3: Run the simulation program

[root@localhost~]# ns prog1.tcl
(Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.)

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Step 4: Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.

Step 5: After simulation is completed run awk file to see the output ,
[root@localhost~]# awk –f prog1.awk prog1.tr
Number of packets droped = 16

Step 6: To see the trace file contents open the file as ,

[root@localhost~]# vi prog1.tr

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Experiment 2:

Implement transmission of ping messages/trace route over a network topology consisting of 6

nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion.

Step1: Open text editor, type the below program and save with extention.tcl (prog3.tcl )

set ns [new Simulator]

set nf [open prog3.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
set nd [open prog3.tr w]
$ns trace-all $nd

proc finish {} {
global ns nf nd
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $nd
exec nam prog4.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
set n6 [$ns node]

$ns duplex-link $n1 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail

$ns duplex-link $n2 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n3 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n4 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n5 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n6 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail

Agent/Ping instproc recv {from rtt} {

$self instvar node_
puts "node [$node_ id] recieved ping answer from \
$from with round-trip-time $rtt ms."
}
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set p1 [new Agent/Ping]

set p2 [new Agent/Ping]
set p3 [new Agent/Ping]
set p4 [new Agent/Ping]
set p5 [new Agent/Ping]
set p6 [new Agent/Ping]

$ns attach-agent $n1 $p1

$ns attach-agent $n2 $p2
$ns attach-agent $n3 $p3
$ns attach-agent $n4 $p4
$ns attach-agent $n5 $p5
$ns attach-agent $n6 $p6

$ns queue-limit $n0 $n4 3

$ns queue-limit $n0 $n5 2
$ns queue-limit $n0 $n6 2

$ns connect $p1 $p4

$ns connect $p2 $p5
$ns connect $p3 $p6

$ns at 0.2 "$p1 send"

$ns at 0.4 "$p2 send"
$ns at 0.6 "$p3 send"
$ns at 1.0 "$p4 send"
$ns at 1.2 "$p5 send"
$ns at 1.4 "$p6 send"
$ns at 2.0 "finish"
$ns run

Step2: Open text editor, type the below program and save with extention .awk (prog3.awk )
BEGIN {
count=0;
}
{
event=$1;
if(event=="d")
{
count++;
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}
}
END {
printf("No of packets dropped : %d\n",count);
}
Step3: Run the simulation program
[root@localhost~]# ns prog3.tcl
(Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.)

Step 4: Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Step 5: After simulation is completed run awk file to see the output ,
[root@localhost~]# awk –f prog3.awk prog3.tr

Step 6: To see the trace file contents open the file as ,

[root@localhost~]# vi prog3.tr

Experiment 3:

Implement an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plot congestion
window for different source / destination.

Step1: Open text editor, type the below program and save with extention .tcl (prog5.tcl )

set ns [new Simulator]

set nf [open prog5.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
set nd [open prog5.tr w]
$ns trace-all $nd

$ns color 1 Blue

$ns color 2 Red

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
proc finish { } {
global ns nf nd
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $nd
exec nam prog5.nam &
exit 0
}

set n0 [$ns node]

set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
set n6 [$ns node]
set n7 [$ns node]
set n8 [$ns node]

$n7 shape box

$n7 color Blue
$n8 shape hexagon
$n8 color Red
$ns duplex-link $n1 $n0 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n2 $n0 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n3 1Mb 20ms DropTail

$ns make-lan "$n3 $n4 $n5 $n6 $n7 $n8" 512Kb 40ms LL Queue/DropTail Mac/802_3

$ns duplex-link-op $n1 $n0 orient right-down

$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n0 orient right-up
$ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n3 orient right

$ns queue-limit $n0 $n3 20

set tcp1 [new Agent/TCP/Vegas]

$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcp1
set sink1 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n7 $sink1
$ns connect $tcp1 $sink1
$tcp1 set class_ 1
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
$tcp1 set packetsize_ 55

set ftp1 [new Application/FTP]

$ftp1 attach-agent $tcp1

set tfile [open cwnd.tr w]

$tcp1 attach $tfile
$tcp1 trace cwnd_

set tcp2 [new Agent/TCP/Reno]

$ns attach-agent $n2 $tcp2
set sink2 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n8 $sink2
$ns connect $tcp2 $sink2
$tcp2 set class_ 2
$tcp2 set packetSize_ 55

set ftp2 [new Application/FTP]

$ftp2 attach-agent $tcp2

set tfile2 [open cwnd2.tr w]

$tcp2 attach $tfile2

$tcp2 trace cwnd_
$ns at 0.5 "$ftp1 start"
$ns at 1.0 "$ftp2 start"
$ns at 5.0 "$ftp2 stop"
$ns at 5.0 "$ftp1 stop"

$ns at 5.5 "finish"

$ns run

Step2: Open text editor, type the below program and save with extention .awk (prog5.awk )

BEGIN {
}
{
if($6=="cwnd_") {
printf("%f\t%f\n",$1,$7);
}
}
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
END {
}

Step3: Run the simulation program

[root@localhost~]# ns prog5.tcl
(Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.)

Step 4: Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.
Step 5: After simulation is completed run awk file and generate the graph ,
[root@localhost~]# awk –f prog5.awk cwnd.tr > a1
[root@localhost~]# awk –f prog5.awk cwnd2.tr > a2
[root@localhost~]#xgraph a1 a2

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
Step 6: To see the trace file contents open the file as ,
[root@localhost~]# vi prog5.tr

Experiment 4
CRC

Problem Statement
Write a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16 bits).

Theory
CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check) is an error detecting technique used in digital networks and
storage devices to detect the accidental changes to raw data. It cannot be used for correcting errors.

If an error is detected in the received message, a ‘Negative acknowledgement’ is sent to

the sender. The sender and the receiver agree upon a fixed polynomial called generator polynomial.
The standard agreed generator polynomial is x16+x12+x5+x0 (any polynomial can be considered, of
degree 16).

The CRC does error checking via polynomial division. The generated polynomial g(x) =
x +x +x5+x0
16 12

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 17 bits.

So the g(x) value is 10001000000100001

Algorithm:

1. Given a bit string (message to be sent), append 16 0S to the end of it (the number of 0s is
the same as the degree of the generator polynomial) let this string + 0S be called as modified
string B
2. Divide B by agreed on polynomial g(x) and determine the remainder R(x). The 16-bit
remainder received is called as checksum.
3. The message string is appended with checksum and sent to the receiver.
4. At the receiver side, the received message is divided by generator polynomial g(x).
5. If the remainder is 0, the receiver concludes that there is no error occurred otherwise, the
receiver concludes an error occurred and requires a retransmission.

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

PROGRAM:

import java.io.*;
class crc_gen
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
int[] data;
int[] div;
int[] divisor;
int[] rem;
int[] crc;
int data_bits, divisor_bits, tot_length;

System.out.println("Enter number of data bits : ");

data_bits=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
data=new int[data_bits];

System.out.println("Enter data bits : ");

for(int i=0; i<data_bits; i++)
data[i]=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());

divisor_bits = 17;
divisor = new int[]{1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1};

tot_length=data_bits+divisor_bits-1;

div=new int[tot_length];
rem=new int[tot_length];
crc=new int[tot_length];
/* CRC GENERATION */
for(int i=0;i<data.length;i++)
div[i]=data[i];

System.out.print("Dividend (after appending 0's) are : ");

for(int i=0; i< div.length; i++)
System.out.print(div[i]);
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Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
System.out.println();

for(int j=0; j<div.length; j++){

rem[j] = div[j];

rem=divide(divisor, rem);

for(int i=0;i<div.length;i++) //append dividend and remainder

{
crc[i]=(div[i]^rem[i]);
}

System.out.println();
System.out.println("CRC code : ");
for(int i=0;i<crc.length;i++)
System.out.print(crc[i]);

/* ERROR DETECTION */
System.out.println();
System.out.println("Enter CRC code of "+tot_length+" bits : ");
for(int i=0; i<crc.length; i++)
crc[i]=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());

for(int j=0; j<crc.length; j++){

rem[j] = crc[j];
}

rem=divide(divisor, rem);

for(int i=0; i< rem.length; i++)

{
if(rem[i]!=0)
{
System.out.println("Error");
break;
}
if(i==rem.length-1)
System.out.println("No Error");
}
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

System.out.println("THANK YOU. .... )");

}
static int[] divide(int divisor[], int rem[])

{
int cur=0;
while(true)
{
for(int i=0;i<divisor.length;i++)
rem[cur+i]=(rem[cur+i]^divisor[i]);

while(rem[cur]==0 && cur!=rem.length-1)

cur++;

if((rem.length-cur)<divisor.length)
break;
}
return rem;
}
}

OUTPUT:
RUN1:

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RUN 2:

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Experiment 5:
Problem Statement:
Develop a program to implement a sliding window protocol in the data link layer.

Theory:
In computer networks sliding window protocol is a method to transmit data on a network. Sliding
window protocol is applied on the Data Link Layer of OSI model. At data link layer data is in the
form of frames. In Networking, Window simply means a buffer which has data frames that needs to be
transmitted.

Both sender and receiver agrees on some window size. If window size=w then after sending w frames
sender waits for the acknowledgement (ack) of the first frame.

As soon as sender receives the acknowledgement of a frame it is replaced by the next frames to be
transmitted by the sender. If receiver sends a collective or cumulative acknowledgement to sender
then it understands that more than one frames are properly received, for eg:- if ack of frame 3 is
received it understands that frame 1 and frame 2 are received properly.

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

In sliding window protocol the receiver has to have some memory to compensate any loss in
transmission or if the frames are received unordered.

Efficiency of Sliding Window Protocol

η = (W*tx)/(tx+2tp)

W = Window Size

tx = Transmission time

tp = Propagation delay

Sliding window works in full duplex mode

It is of two types:-

1. Selective Repeat: Sender transmits only that frame which is erroneous or is lost.

2. Go back n: Sender transmits all frames present in the window that occurs after the error
bit including error bit also.

PROGRAM:
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
int w,i,f,frames[50];

printf("Enter window size: ");

scanf("%d",&w);

printf("\nEnter number of frames to transmit: ");

scanf("%d",&f);

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
printf("\nEnter %d frames: ",f);

for(i=1;i<=f;i++)
scanf("%d",&frames[i]);

printf("\nWith sliding window protocol the frames will be sent in the following manner
(assuming no corruption of frames)\n\n");
printf("After sending %d frames at each stage sender waits for acknowledgement sent by
the receiver\n\n",w);

for(i=1;i<=f;i++)
{
if(i%w==0)
{
printf("%d\n",frames[i]);
printf("Acknowledgement of above frames sent is received by sender\n\n");
}
else
printf("%d ",frames[i]);
}

if(f%w!=0)
printf("\nAcknowledgement of above frames sent is received by sender\n");

return 0;
}

OUTPUT:
Enter window size: 3

Enter number of frames to transmit: 5

Enter 5 frames: 12 5 89 4 6

With sliding window protocol the frames will be sent in the following manner (assuming no
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
corruption of frames)
12 5 89
Acknowledgement of above frames sent is received by sender

46
Acknowledgement of above frames sent is received by sender

Experiment 6

Bellman-Ford algorithm

Problem Statement
Write a program to find the shortest path between vertices using bellman-ford algorithm.

Theory
Routing algorithm is a part of network layer software which is responsible for deciding which output
line an incoming packet should be transmitted on. If the subnet uses datagram internally, this decision must
be made anew for every arriving data packet since the best route may have changed since last time. If the
subnet uses virtual circuits (connection Oriented), routing decisions are made only when a new established
route is being set up.

Routing algorithms can be grouped into two major classes: adaptive and nonadaptive. Nonadaptive
algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurement or estimates of current traffic and topology.
Instead, the choice of route to use to get from I to J (for all I and J) is compute in advance, offline, and
downloaded to the routers when the network ids booted. This procedure is sometime called static routing.

Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect changes in the topology, and
usually the traffic as well. Adaptive algorithms differ in where they get information (e.g., locally, from
adjacent routers, or from all routers), when they change the routes (e.g., every ∆T sec, when the load
changes, or when the topology changes), and what metric is used for optimization (e.g., distance, number
of hops, or estimated transit time).

Two algorithms in particular, distance vector routing and link state routing are the most popular.
Distance vector routing algorithms operate by having each router maintain a table (i.e., vector) giving the
best known distance to each destination and which line to get there. These tables are updated by exchanging
information with the neighbors.

The distance vector routing algorithm uses Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and Ford-Fulkerson
algorithm. In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table that contains two parts: the
preferred out going line to use for that destination, and an estimate of the time or distance to that destination.
The metric used might be number of hops, time delay in milliseconds, total number of packets queued along
the path, or something similar.

The Routing tables are shared among the neighbors, and the tables at the router are updated, such that
the router will know the shortest path to the destination.

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Program
import java.io.*;
import java.util.Scanner;
class dist_vec
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int dmat[][];
int dist[][];

int via[][];
int n=0,i=0,j=0,k=0,count=0;
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("enter the number of nodes\n");

n = in.nextInt();

dmat = new int[n][n];

dist = new int[n][n];
via = new int[n][n];
System.out.println("enter the cost matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
dmat[i][j] = in.nextInt();
dmat[i][i]=0;
dist[i][j]=dmat[i][j];
via[i][j]=j;
}
do
{
count=0;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
if(dist[i][j]>dmat[i][k]+dist[k][j])
{
dist[i][j]=dist[i][k]+dist[k][j];
via[i][j]=k;
count++;
}
}while(count!=0);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
System.out.println("state value for router"+i+" is");
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
System.out.println("To "+j+" -Via "+via[i][j]+" distance is "+dist[i][j]);
}
}
}
}

Output 1

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
Experiment 7

Client-Server Program using TCP/IP sockets

Problem statement:

Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client – server program to make the client send the file name and
to make the server send back the contents of the requested file if present.

Theory:

Procedure:

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Server Program
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;

public class TCPServer

{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
// establishing the connection with the server
ServerSocket sersock = new ServerSocket(4000);
System.out.println("Server ready for connection");
Socket sock = sersock.accept(); // binding with port: 4000
System.out.println("Connection is successful and wating for chatting");
// reading the file name from client
InputStream istream = sock.getInputStream( );
BufferedReader fileRead =new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(istream));
String fname = fileRead.readLine( );
// reading file contents
BufferedReader contentRead = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fname) );

// keeping output stream ready to send the contents

OutputStream ostream = sock.getOutputStream( );
PrintWriter pwrite = new PrintWriter(ostream, true);

String str;
while((str = contentRead.readLine()) != null) // reading line-by-line from file
{
pwrite.println(str); // sending each line to client
}

sock.close(); sersock.close(); // closing network sockets

pwrite.close(); fileRead.close(); contentRead.close();
}
}

Client Program:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

public class TCPClient

{
public static void main( String args[ ] ) throws Exception
{
Socket sock = new Socket( "127.0.0.1", 4000);

// reading the file name from keyboard. Uses input stream

System.out.print("Enter the file name");
BufferedReader keyRead = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
String fname = keyRead.readLine();

// sending the file name to server. Uses PrintWriter

OutputStream ostream = sock.getOutputStream( );
PrintWriter pwrite = new PrintWriter(ostream, true);
pwrite.println(fname);

// receiving the contents from server. Uses input stream

InputStream istream = sock.getInputStream();
BufferedReader socketRead = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(istream));

String str;
while((str = socketRead.readLine()) != null) // reading line-by-line
{
System.out.println(str);
}
pwrite.close(); socketRead.close(); keyRead.close();
}
}

OUTPUT:
Create a text file say abc.txt and type some content in it.
Compile and execute server side program

Open new terminal, compile and execute client side program

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Experiment 8
Client-Server Program using UDP Socket

Problem Statement
Write a program on datagram socket for client/server to display the messages on client side, typed
at the server side.

Theory

Procedure:

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Server Program

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;

class UDPServer
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new DatagramSocket(9876);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
DatagramPacket receivePacket = new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
serverSocket.receive(receivePacket);
String sentence = new String( receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("RECEIVED: " + sentence);
InetAddress IPAddress = receivePacket.getAddress();
int port = receivePacket.getPort();
System.out.println("Enter the Message");
String data = br.readLine();
sendData = data.getBytes();
DatagramPacket sendPacket = new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length,
IPAddress, port);
serverSocket.send(sendPacket);
serverSocket.close();
}
}

Client Program
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;

class UDPClient
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
DatagramSocket clientSocket = new DatagramSocket();
InetAddress IPAddress = InetAddress.getByName("localhost");
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
String sentence = "Hello Server";

sendData = sentence.getBytes();
DatagramPacket sendPacket = new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress,
9876);
clientSocket.send(sendPacket);
DatagramPacket receivePacket = new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
clientSocket.receive(receivePacket);
String modifiedSentence = new String(receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("FROM SERVER:" + modifiedSentence);
clientSocket.close();
}
}

OUTPUT
Compile and execute server side program

Open new terminal, compile and execute client side program

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
Experiment 9

RSA Algorithm

Problem Statement
Write a program for simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data.

Theory
Cryptography is the study of creating ciphers(cipher text) and breaking them (cryptanalysis). The
message to be encrypted, known as the plaintext, are transformed by a function that is parameterized by a
key. The output of the encryption process, known as the ciphertext, is then transmitted. often by messenger
or radio. The hacker, or intruder, hears and accurately copies down the complete ciphertext. However,
unlike the intended recipient, he does not know the decryption key and so cannot decrypt the ciphertext
easily.

There are several ways of classifying cryptographic algorithms. They are generally categorized based
on the number of keys that are employed for encryption and decryption, and further defined by their
application and use. The three types of algorithms are as follows:
1. Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both encryption and decryption. It is also known
as symmetric cryptography.
2. Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and another for decryption. It is also
known as asymmetric cryptography.
3. Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly "encrypt" information

Public-key cryptography has been said to be the most significant new development in cryptography.
Modern PKC was first described publicly by Stanford University professor Martin Hellman and graduate
student Whitfield Diffie in 1976. In public key cryptography, one key is used to encrypt the plaintext and
the other key is used to decrypt the ciphertext.

In PKC, one of the keys is designated the public key and may be advertised as widely as the owner
wants. The other key is designated the private key and is never revealed to another party. It is straight
forward to send messages under this scheme. Public key of the receiver is used for encryption, so that only
the receiver can decrypt the message (using his private key).

The RSA algorithm is named after Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, who invented it in 1977.
The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key encryption and digital signatures.

Algorithm

1. Generate two large random primes, P and Q, of approximately equal size.

2. Compute N = P x Q
3. Compute Z = (P-1) x (Q-1).
4. Choose an integer E, 1 < E < Z, such that GCD (E, Z) = 1
5. Compute the secret exponent D, 1 < D < Z, such that E x D ≡ 1 (mod Z)
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
6. The public key is (N, E) and the private key is (N, D).

Note: The values of P, Q, and Z should also be kept secret.

The message is encrypted using public key and decrypted using private key.

An example of RSA encryption

1. Select primes P=11, Q=3.
2. N = P x Q = 11 x 3 = 33
Z = (P-1) x (Q-1) = 10 x 2 = 20
3. Lets choose E=3
Check GCD(E, P-1) = GCD(3, 10) = 1 (i.e. 3 and 10 have no common factors except 1),
and check GCD(E, Q-1) = GCD(3, 2) = 1
therefore GCD(E, Z) = GCD(3, 20) = 1
4. Compute D such that E x D ≡ 1 (mod Z)
compute D = E^-1 mod Z = 3^-1 mod 20
find a value for D such that Z divides ((E x D)-1)
find D such that 20 divides 3D-1.
Simple testing (D = 1, 2, ...) gives D = 7
Check: (E x D)-1 = 3.7 - 1 = 20, which is divisible by Z.
5. Public key = (N, E) = (33, 3)
Private key = (N, D) = (33, 7).

Now say we want to encrypt the message m = 7,

Cipher code = M^E mod N
= 7^3 mod 33
= 343 mod 33
= 13.
Hence the ciphertext c = 13.

To check decryption we compute Message’ = C^D mod N

= 13^7 mod 33
= 7.

Note that we don't have to calculate the full value of 13 to the power 7 here. We can make use of the
fact that a = bc mod n = (b mod n).(c mod n) mod n so we can break down a potentially large number into
its components and combine the results of easier, smaller calculations to calculate the final value.

Program:

import java.io.DataInputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.math.BigInteger;
import java.util.Random;
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

public class RSA

{
private BigInteger p;
private BigInteger q;
private BigInteger N;
private BigInteger phi;
private BigInteger e;
private BigInteger d;
private int bitlength = 1024;
private Random r;

public RSA()
{
r = new Random();
p = BigInteger.probablePrime(bitlength, r);
q = BigInteger.probablePrime(bitlength, r);
N = p.multiply(q);
phi = p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE).multiply(q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE));
e = BigInteger.probablePrime(bitlength / 2, r);
while (phi.gcd(e).compareTo(BigInteger.ONE) > 0 && e.compareTo(phi) < 0)
{
e.add(BigInteger.ONE);
}
d = e.modInverse(phi);
}

public RSA(BigInteger e, BigInteger d, BigInteger N)

{
this.e = e;
this.d = d;
this.N = N;
}

@SuppressWarnings("deprecation")
public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException
{

RSA rsa = new RSA();

DataInputStream in = new DataInputStream(System.in);
String teststring;
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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru
System.out.println("Enter the plain text:");
teststring = in.readLine();
System.out.println("Encrypting String: " + teststring);
System.out.println("String in Bytes: "
+ bytesToString(teststring.getBytes()));
// encrypt
byte[] encrypted = rsa.encrypt(teststring.getBytes());
// decrypt
byte[] decrypted = rsa.decrypt(encrypted);
System.out.println("Decrypting Bytes: " + bytesToString(decrypted));
System.out.println("Decrypted String: " + new String(decrypted));
}

private static String bytesToString(byte[] encrypted)

{
String test = "";
for (byte b : encrypted)
{
test += Byte.toString(b);
}
return test;
}

// Encrypt message
public byte[] encrypt(byte[] message)
{
return (new BigInteger(message)).modPow(e, N).toByteArray();
}

// Decrypt message
public byte[] decrypt(byte[] message)
{
return (new BigInteger(message)).modPow(d, N).toByteArray();
}
}

Output:

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 Computer Network Laboratory (BCS502) SVIT, Bengaluru

Experiment 10
Leaky Bucket

Problem Statement
Write a program for congestion control using leaky bucket algorithm.

Theory
The congesting control algorithms are basically divided into two groups: open loop and closed loop.
Open loop solutions attempt to solve the problem by good design, in essence, to make sure it does not occur
in the first place. Once the system is up and running, midcourse corrections are not made. Open loop
algorithms are further divided into ones that act at source versus ones that act at the destination.

In contrast, closed loop solutions are based on the concept of a feedback loop if there is any congestion.
Closed loop algorithms are also divided into two sub categories: explicit feedback and implicit feedback.
In explicit feedback algorithms, packets are sent back from the point of congestion to warn the source. In
implicit algorithm, the source deduces the existence of congestion by making local observation, such as the
time needed for acknowledgment to come back.

The presence of congestion means that the load is (temporarily) greater than the resources (in part of the
system) can handle. For subnets that use virtual circuits internally, these methods can be used at the network
layer.

Another open loop method to help manage congestion is forcing the packet to be transmitted at a more
predictable rate. This approach to congestion management is widely used in ATM networks and is called
traffic shaping.

The other method is the leaky bucket algorithm. Each host is connected to the network by an interface
containing a leaky bucket, that is, a finite internal queue. If a packet arrives at the queue when it is full, the
packet is discarded. In other words, if one or more process are already queued, the new packet is
unceremoniously discarded. This arrangement can be built into the hardware interface or simulate d by the
host operating system. In fact it is nothing other than a single server queuing system with constant service
time.

The host is allowed to put one packet per clock tick onto the network. This mechanism turns an uneven
flow of packet from the user process inside the host into an even flow of packet onto the network, smoothing
out bursts and greatly reducing the chances of congestion.

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Program:

import java.lang.*;
import java.util.Random;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.Scanner;
class leaky_bucket
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int drop=0,mini,nsec,p_remain=0;
int o_rate,b_size,i,packet[];

packet = new int[100];

Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Enter bucket size:");

b_size = in.nextInt();

System.out.println("Enter the output rate:");

o_rate = in.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter the number of seconds you want to simulate:");
nsec = in.nextInt();
Random rand = new Random();
for(i=0;i<nsec;i++)
packet[i]=((rand.nextInt(9)+1)*10);
System.out.println("Seconds|packets received|packets sent|packets left|packets dropped");
System.out.println(" ");
for(i=0;i<nsec;i++)

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{
p_remain+=packet[i];
if(p_remain>b_size)
{
drop=p_remain-b_size;
p_remain=b_size;
System.out.print(i+1+" ");
System.out.print(packet[i]+" ");
mini=Math.min(p_remain,o_rate);
System.out.print(mini+" ");
p_remain=p_remain-mini;
System.out.print(p_remain+" ");
System.out.print(drop+" ");
System.out.println();
drop=0;
}
}
while(p_remain!=0)
{
if(p_remain>b_size)
{
drop=p_remain-b_size;
p_remain=b_size;
}
mini=Math.min(p_remain,o_rate);
System.out.print(" "+p_remain+" "+mini);
p_remain=p_remain-mini;
System.out.println(p_remain+" "+drop);
drop=0;
}
}
}

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Output:

Viva Questions
1) What is a Link?
A link refers to the connectivity between two devices. It includes the type of cables and protocols
used in order for one device to be able to communicate with the other.

2) What are the layers of the OSI reference model?

There are 7 OSI layers: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session
Layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.

3) What is backbone network?

A backbone network is a centralized infrastructure that is designed to distribute different routes
and data to various networks. It also handles management of bandwidth and various channels.

4) What is a LAN?
LAN is short for Local Area Network. It refers to the connection between computers and other
network devices that are located within a small physical location.

5) What is a node?
A node refers to a point or joint where a connection takes place. It can be computer or device that
is part of a network. Two or more nodes are needed in order to form a network connection.

6) What are routers?

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Routers can connect two or more network segments. These are intelligent network devices that
store information in its routing table such as paths, hops and bottlenecks. With this info, they are
able to determine the best path for data transfer. Routers operate at the OSI Network Layer.

7) What is point to point link?

It refers to a direct connection between two computers on a network. A point to point connection
does not need any other network devices other than connecting a cable to the NIC cards of both
computers.

8) What is anonymous FTP?

Anonymous FTP is a way of granting user access to files in public servers. Users that are allowed
access to data in these servers do not need to identify themselves, but instead log in as an
anonymous guest.

9) What is subnet mask?

A subnet mask is combined with an IP address in order to identify two parts: the extended network
address and the host address. Like an IP address, a subnet mask is made up of 32 bits.

10) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?

A single segment of UTP cable has an allowable length of 90 to 100 meters. This limitation can
be overcome by using repeaters and switches.

11) What is data encapsulation?

Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller manageable chunks
before it is transmitted across the network. It is also in this process that the source and destination
addresses are attached into the headers, along with parity checks.

12) Describe Network Topology

Network Topology refers to the layout of a computer network. It shows how devices and cables
are physically laid out, as well as how they connect to one another.

13) What is VPN?

VPN means Virtual Private Network, a technology that allows a secure tunnel to be created across
a network such as the Internet. For example, VPNs allow you to establish a secure dialup
connection to a remote server.

14) Briefly describe NAT.

NAT is Network Address Translation. This is a protocol that provides a way for multiple
computers on a common network to share single connection to the Internet.

15) What is the job of the Network Layer under the OSI reference model?
The Network layer is responsible for data routing, packet switching and control of network
congestion. Routers operate under this layer.

16) How does a network topology affect your decision in setting up a network?
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Network topology dictates what media you must use to interconnect devices. It also serves as basis
on what materials, connector and terminations that is applicable for the setup.

17) What is RIP?

RIP, short for Routing Information Protocol is used by routers to send data from one network to
another. It efficiently manages routing data by broadcasting its routing table to all other routers
within the network. It determines the network distance in units of hops.

18) What are different ways of securing a computer network?

There are several ways to do this. Install reliable and updated anti-virus program on all computers.
Make sure firewalls are setup and configured properly. User authentication will also help a lot. All
of these combined would make a highly secured network.

19) What is NIC?

NIC is short for Network Interface Card. This is a peripheral card that is attached to a PC in order
to connect to a network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that identifies the PC on the network.

20) What is WAN?

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is an interconnection of computers and devices that are
geographically dispersed. It connects networks that are located in different regions and countries.

21) What is the importance of the OSI Physical Layer?

The physical layer does the conversion from data bits to electrical signal, and vice versa. This is
where network devices and cable types are considered and setup.

22) How many layers are there under TCP/IP?

There are four layers: the Network Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer and Application Layer.

23) What are proxy servers and how do they protect computer networks?
Proxy servers primarily prevent external users who identifying the IP addresses of an internal
network. Without knowledge of the correct IP address, even the physical location of the network
cannot be identified. Proxy servers can make a network virtually invisible to external users.

24) What is the function of the OSI Session Layer?

This layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to communicate with
each other by holding a session. This includes setting up the session, managing information
exchange during the session, and tear-down process upon termination of the session.

25) What is the importance of implementing a Fault Tolerance System? Are there
limitations?
A fault tolerance system ensures continuous data availability. This is done by eliminating a single
point of failure. However, this type of system would not be able to protect data in some cases, such
as in accidental deletions.

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26) What does 10Base-T mean?

The 10 refers to the data transfer rate, in this case is 10Mbps. The word Base refers to base band,
as oppose to broad band. T means twisted pair, which is the cable used for that network.

27) What is a private IP address?

Private IP addresses are assigned for use on intranets. These addresses are used for internal
networks and are not routable on external public networks. These ensures that no conflicts are
present among internal networks while at the same time the same range of private IP addresses are
reusable for multiple intranets since they do not "see" each other.

28) What is NOS?

NOS, or Network Operating System, is specialized software whose main task is to provide network
connectivity to a computer in order for it to be able to communicate with other computers and
connected devices.

29) What is DoS?

DoS, or Denial-of-Service attack, is an attempt to prevent users from being able to access the
internet or any other network services. Such attacks may come in different forms and are done by
a group of perpetuators. One common method of doing this is to overload the system server so it
cannot anymore process legitimate traffic and will be forced to reset.

30) What is OSI and what role does it play in computer networks?
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) serves as a reference model for data communication. It is made
up of 7 layers, with each layer defining a particular aspect on how network devices connect and
communicate with one another. One layer may deal with the physical media used, while another
layer dictates how data is actually transmitted across the network.

31) What is the purpose of cables being shielded and having twisted pairs?
The main purpose of this is to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalks are electromagnetic interferences or
noise that can affect data being transmitted across cables.

32) What is the advantage of address sharing?

By using address translation instead of routing, address sharing provides an inherent security
benefit. That's because host PCs on the Internet can only see the public IP address of the external
interface on the computer that provides address translation and not the private IP addresses on the
internal network.

33) What are MAC addresses?

MAC, or Media Access Control, uniquely identifies a device on the network. It is also known as
physical address or Ethernet address. A MAC address is made up of 6-byte parts.

34) What is the equivalent layer or layers of the TCP/IP Application layer in terms of OSI
reference model?
The TCP/IP Application layer actually has three counterparts on the OSI model: the Session layer,
Presentation Layer and Application Layer.
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35) How can you identify the IP class of a given IP address?

By looking at the first octet of any given IP address, you can identify whether it's Class A, B or C.
If the first octet begins with a 0 bit, that address is Class A. If it begins with bits 10 then that
address is a Class B address. If it begins with 110, then it's a Class C network.

36) What is the main purpose of OSPF?

OSPF, or Open Shortest Path First, is a link-state routing protocol that uses routing tables to
determine the best possible path for data exchange.

37) What are firewalls?

Firewalls serve to protect an internal network from external attacks. These external threats can be
hackers who want to steal data or computer viruses that can wipe out data in an instant. It also
prevents other users from external networks from gaining access to the private network.

38) Describe star topology

Star topology consists of a central hub that connects to nodes. This is one of the easiest to setup
and maintain.

39) What are gateways?

Gateways provide connectivity between two or more network segments. It is usually a computer
that runs the gateway software and provides translation services. This translation is a key in
allowing different systems to communicate on the network.

40) What is the disadvantage of a star topology?

One major disadvantage of star topology is that once the central hub or switch get damaged, the
entire network becomes unusable.

41) What is SLIP?

SLIP, or Serial Line Interface Protocol, is actually an old protocol developed during the early
UNIX days. This is one of the protocols that are used for remote access.

42) Give some examples of private network addresses.

10.0.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
172.16.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.240.0.0
192.168.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.255.0.0

43) What is tracert?

Tracert is a Windows utility program that can used to trace the route taken by data from the router
to the destination network. It also shows the number of hops taken during the entire transmission
route.

44) What are the functions of a network administrator?

A network administrator has many responsibilities that can be summarize into 3 key functions:
installation of a network, configuration of network settings, and maintenance/troubleshooting of
networks.
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45) Describe at one disadvantage of a peer to peer network.

When you are accessing the resources that are shared by one of the workstations on the network,
that workstation takes a performance hit.

46) What is Hybrid Network?

A hybrid network is a network setup that makes use of both client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture.

47) What is DHCP?

DHCP is short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Its main task is to automatically assign
an IP address to devices across the network. It first checks for the next available address not yet
taken by any device, then assigns this to a network device.

48) What is the main job of the ARP?

The main task of ARP or Address Resolution Protocol is to map a known IP address to a MAC
layer address.

49) What is TCP/IP?

TCP/IP is short for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. This is a set of protocol
layers that is designed to make data exchange possible on different types of computer networks,
also known as heterogeneous network.

50) How can you manage a network using a router?

Routers have built in console that lets you configure different settings, like security and data
logging. You can assign restrictions to computers, such as what resources it is allowed access, or
what particular time of the day they can browse the internet. You can even put restrictions on what
websites are not viewable across the entire network.

51) What protocol can be applied when you want to transfer files between different
platforms, such between UNIX systems and Windows servers?
Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers between such different servers. This is possible
because FTP is platform independent.

52) What is the use of a default gateway?

Default gateways provide means for the local networks to connect to the external network. The
default gateway for connecting to the external network is usually the address of the external router
port.

53) One way of securing a network is through the use of passwords. What can be considered
as good passwords?
Good passwords are made up of not just letters, but by combining letters and numbers. A password
that combines uppercase and lowercase letters is favorable than one that uses all upper case or all
lower case letters. Passwords must be not words that can easily be guessed by hackers, such as
dates, names, favorites, etc. Longer passwords are also better than short ones.

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54) What is the proper termination rate for UTP cables?

The proper termination for unshielded twisted pair network cable is 100 ohms.

55) What is netstat?

Netstat is a command line utility program. It provides useful information about the current TCP/IP
settings of a connection.

56) What is the number of network IDs in a Class C network?

For a Class C network, the number of usable Network ID bits is 21. The number of possible
network IDs is 2 raised to 21 or 2,097,152. The number of host IDs per network ID is 2 raised to
8 minus 2, or 254.

57) What happens when you use cables longer than the prescribed length?
Cables that are too long would result in signal loss. This means that data transmission and reception
would be affected, because the signal degrades over length.

58) What common software problems can lead to network defects?

Software related problems can be any or a combination of the following:
- client server problems
- application conflicts
- error in configuration
- protocol mismatch
- security issues
- user policy and rights issues

59) What is ICMP?

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol. It provides messaging and communication for
protocols within the TCP/IP stack. This is also the protocol that manages error messages that are
used by network tools such as PING.

60) What is Ping?

Ping is a utility program that allows you to check connectivity between network devices on the
network. You can ping a device by using its IP address or device name, such as a computer name.

61) What is peer to peer?

Peer to peer are networks that does not reply on a server. All PCs on this network act as individual
workstations.

62) What is DNS?

DNS is Domain Name System. The main function of this network service is to provide host names
to TCP/IP address resolution.

63) What advantages does fiber optics have over other media?

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One major advantage of fiber optics is that is it less susceptible to electrical interference. It also
supports higher bandwidth, meaning more data can be transmitted and received. Signal degrading
is also very minimal over long distances.

64) What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

A hub acts as a multiport repeater. However, as more and more devices connect to it, it would not
be able to efficiently manage the volume of traffic that passes through it. A switch provides a better
alternative that can improve the performance especially when high traffic volume is expected
across all ports.

65) What are the different network protocols that are supported by Windows RRAS
services?
There are three main network protocols supported: NetBEUI, TCP/IP, and IPX.

66) What are the maximum networks and hosts in a class A, B and C network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks and 16,777,214 hosts
For Class B, there are 16,384 possible networks and 65,534 hosts
For Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks and 254 hosts
67) What is the standard color sequence of a straight-through cable?
orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green, brown/white, brown.

68) What protocols fall under the Application layer of the TCP/IP stack?
The following are the protocols under TCP/IP Application layer: FTP, TFTP, Telnet and SMTP.

69) You need to connect two computers for file sharing. Is it possible to do this without using
a hub or router?
Yes, you can connect two computers together using only one cable. A crossover type cable can be
use in this scenario. In this setup, the data transmit pin of one cable is connected to the data receive
pin of the other cable, and vice versa.

70) What is ipconfig?

Ipconfig is a utility program that is commonly used to identify the addresses information of a
computer on a network. It can show the physical address as well as the IP address.

71) What is the difference between a straight-through and crossover cable?

A straight-through cable is used to connect computers to a switch, hub or router. A crossover cable
is used to connect two similar devices together, such as a PC to PC or Hub to hub.

72) What is client/server?

Client/server is a type of network wherein one or more computers act as servers. Servers provide
a centralized repository of resources such as printers and files. Clients refers to workstation that
access the server.

73) Describe networking.

Networking refers to the inter connection between computers and peripherals for data
communication.
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Networking can be done using wired cabling or through wireless link.

74) When you move the NIC cards from one PC to another PC, does the MAC address gets
transferred as well?
Yes, that's because MAC addresses are hard-wired into the NIC circuitry, not the PC. This also
means that a PC can have a different MAC address when the NIC card was replace by another one.

75) Explain clustering support

Clustering support refers to the ability of a network operating system to connect multiple servers
in a fault-tolerant group. The main purpose of this is the in the event that one server fails, all
processing will continue on with the next server in the cluster.

76) In a network that contains two servers and twenty workstations, where is the best place
to install an Anti-virus program?
An anti-virus program must be installed on all servers and workstations to ensure protection. That's
because individual users can access any workstation and introduce a computer virus when plugging
in their removable hard drives or flash drives.
77) Describe Ethernet.
Ethernet is one of the popular networking technologies used these days. It was developed during
the early 1970s and is based on specifications as stated in the IEEE. Ethernet is used in local area
networks.

78) What are some drawbacks of implementing a ring topology?

In case one workstation on the network suffers a malfunction, it can bring down the entire network.
Another drawback is that when there are adjustments and reconfigurations needed to be performed
on a particular part of the network, the entire network has to be temporarily brought down as well.

79) What is the difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?

CSMA/CD, or Collision Detect, retransmits data frames whenever a collision occurred.
CSMA/CA, or Collision Avoidance, will first broadcast intent to send prior to data transmission.

80) What is SMTP?

SMTP is short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol deals with all Internal mail, and
provides the necessary mail delivery services on the TCP/IP protocol stack.

81) What is multicast routing?

Multicast routing is a targeted form of broadcasting that sends message to a selected group of user,
instead of sending it to all users on a subnet.

82) What is the importance of Encryption on a network?

Encryption is the process of translating information into a code that is unreadable by the user. It is
then translated back or decrypted back to its normal readable format using a secret key or
password. Encryption help ensure that information that is intercepted halfway would remain
unreadable because the user has to have the correct password or key for it.

83) How are IP addresses arranged and displayed?

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IP addresses are displayed as a series of four decimal numbers that are separated by period or dots.
Another term for this arrangement is the dotted decimal format. An example is 192.168.101.2

84) Explain the importance of authentication.

Authentication is the process of verifying a user's credentials before he can log into the network.
It is normally performed using a username and password. This provides a secure means of limiting
the access from unwanted intruders on the network.

85) What do mean by tunnel mode?

This is a mode of data exchange wherein two communicating computers do not use IPSec
themselves. Instead, the gateway that is connecting their LANs to the transit network creates a
virtual tunnel that uses the IPSec protocol to secure all communication that passes through it.

86) What are the different technologies involved in establishing WAN links?
Analog connections - using conventional telephone lines; Digital connections - using digitalgrade
telephone lines; switched connections - using multiple sets of links between sender and receiver
to move data.

87) What is one advantage of mesh topology?

In the event that one link fails, there will always be another available. Mesh topology is actually
one of the most fault-tolerant network topology.

88) When troubleshooting computer network problems, what common hardware-related

problems can occur?
A large percentage of a network is made up of hardware. Problems in these areas can range from
malfunctioning hard drives, broken NICs and even hardware startups. Incorrectly hardware
configuration is also one of those culprits to look into.

89) What can be done to fix signal attenuation problems?

A common way of dealing with such a problem is to use repeaters and hub, because it will help
regenerate the signal and therefore prevent signal loss. Checking if cables are properly terminated
is also a must.

90) How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network administration?
Instead of having to visit each client computer to configure a static IP address, the network
administrator can apply dynamic host configuration protocol to create a pool of IP addresses
known as scopes that can be dynamically assigned to clients.

91) Explain profile in terms of networking concept?

Profiles are the configuration settings made for each user. A profile may be created that puts a user
in a group, for example.

92) What is sneakernet?

Sneakernet is believed to be the earliest form of networking wherein data is physically transported
using removable media, such as disk, tapes.

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93) What is the role of IEEE in computer networking?

IEEE, or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is an organization composed of
engineers that issues and manages standards for electrical and electronic devices. This includes
networking devices, network interfaces, cablings and connectors.

94) What protocols fall under the TCP/IP Internet Layer?

There are 4 protocols that are being managed by this layer. These are ICMP, IGMP, IP and ARP.

95) When it comes to networking, what are rights?

Rights refer to the authorized permission to perform specific actions on the network. Each user on
the network can be assigned individual rights, depending on what must be allowed for that user.

96) What is one basic requirement for establishing VLANs?

A VLAN requires dedicated equipment on each end of the connection that allows messages
entering the Internet to be encrypted, as well as for authenticating users.

97) What is IPv6?

IPv6 , or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4 is being used
to control internet traffic, butis expected to get saturated in the near future. IPv6 was designed to
overcome this limitation.

98) What is RSA algorithm?

RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used public key
encryption algorithm in use today.

99) What is mesh topology?

Mesh topology is a setup wherein each device is connected directly to every other device on the
network. Consequently, it requires that each device have at least two network connections.

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