Stast Topol09J Ovetvlew

In a stast topolO9 a devices ae cOnmected to

a centoal hub 0 wtch Data passes thou gh thls

cemtota,l polnt befoe seachn its destlnation.

Reasons tor Recommendation

lasj to Add NodeS Addina new devces ls stoal ghttOwand

ou Only need to comect them to the centoral hub
wUthout dituptlng the elstIng netwonk.

FutuoLe Gowth As the stattup goWs, the netwotk cam

easil epard t0 accommodate more devices, whch s
CSSentlal to a developlng bulslness.

2. ReiablLIty

Is0lation of DeyiceS If One conmection fails it does

TOt affect the Cntle netwok. On the dev.lce comected
t0 that specitIc cable is Impacted, alOwlng the e t Of
the netwostk to tuction nomall

Centoalized Mamagement: Toobleshooting and netwosk

management can be done at the centoal hus, making it
easiet to Jdetlty amd fl lSSUeS.

3. COst

Inltlal Setup costS Stast topoloay tjplcallJ

LequieS mOLe cabling than bils t0p0lOay but ess than
meh top0lO The cost cE SWIIches (certoral hebs) has
decoeased, makl it acOst-effective optiOn

Malntemance and Upgrades The ease Of addImg ost oemolng

devices educes longtesm Opeational costs aSSOCIated
wIth metwonk management.

CompasSOn with Othes Topologies

Mesh Topoloa; While ve1 elable due tO multiple

cOnnectIOnS It is COStL amd Comple to set up ang
maTage. If teqeS SgniticantLmo1ecablngand
hastwae, which maj not be featble fON a stastup.

BusTopOlOg; This ls cost-etfective and slmple but

lacks scalabiity and elabit, If the main cable
tall the entite netwok g0es dowm Addin deviceS can be
dlsuptlve and maj leacd t0 pestosmarce dsSUES as the
netwosk awS.

Ques 2

Key Ditfestenres Between OSI and TCP/Ip Models

L Stotuctoe

OSI MOdeli comslsts 0t seven lajes Agplication,

PoresentatIon SeslOn Toranspast, Netuok Data Link
and Phjslcal. Pah aye has distInt funtIOns and
OLe-SPonsbilities.

TcP/IpModel: TJPICaLl has tous lajesAppLicatIon

Toransp0t, Inteslnet, ad Netwotk IntesLface
ThelaJetSaLemore conSOidatedcompaned to
OSI.

2. Developnent and Vse:

OSI MOdel: A theosettcal foamework developed by ISO

that povldes aidelnes fot stardasdizlng metwotk
CÚmmLicatioms.

TCP/IP Mode l: Apractlcal totamewotk developed bj the

US Depasttment of Defemse, wide l1 sed in oeal-word
appcat IOns, espectaly on the Intestnet.

3. Laje FnctIonaliti

OSI MOde l: Pach lajes s well-detIned with speciEIC

tumtIns. The model s mQre poeSCLIptIve.

TCP/Ip Mode: Lajests aote mare t u e Some functiOns

asLe combIned. F eNample the TCP/IP Appication
laye ecompasses the soles Of OSIs Applcat.IOn
Poescntatlon and Scsson
lajess.

4 porotocOl Independence;

OSI Model: PotOCOlS ae sepaate foom the mode,l; the

mOdel SeSlVeS as a qideine.

TCP/IP Model: The protocods(ke TCpP IP HTTP) ase

Integal to +he mode and defIne how commnication
OCCALtS.

5. Flenbllltj and AdoptuOn

OSI MOde l: LesS widely adopted n practIce; Often lsed
fo educatiOnal pupOses.

TCP/Ip Model: Dominant in netwarkIng It ls the

backbone Of the Iatenet and many enterpalSe
netwks.

RecommendatiOn tor MIgatIon

qiven these dtfeenceS, the TCP/IP potOcol Sulte l

ae suitabe far migatiOn based On the folawlnd
ConsideMations

Compat tbllItyand AdopttOrs TCP/IP 1s the standad

tor Intestnet ad modesn networkln IE #he compan
plans t0 conmect to the Intetnet Ot integate wth
Othet netwosks, llng TCP/IP wl enSlMe
CompatIblItj

2. SImpliiy and PrfIcIec The toullaje StuctuLe

OE TCR/Ip is geneNall easlest to Implement and
manage than the mase omple OSI mOdel making lt
mONe p1actica tor man applicatioms

3. INIdespread Suppoxt MOst applicatiOns. tO0ls and

netwarkKIng equipment ate designed to wOk with
TCP/Ip. This makes t easiet t0 find oesoMsCeS,
Suppost, and klled peSOmel

4. Pesttmance; TCP/IP has poroen to be cbust and

etficInt fat vatlous applcatlOns, Lnclding web
setVlces, clOud computing and Io, aligning wel with
modestm bllnesS needs.

QLes 3

Lajen-biLaje GuIdame Vsing the OSI MOdel

LAppdcatIOn Laye (Lajen )

Role Intettaces diecty with use agpicatiOns and
provides metwK SeNVICCs.
ConsideMations Deslgn APIs that cateo to ditfenent
SeAYICEs valce, vJdeo data) and ensloLe they can
CommLnlcate effective Standasd potOcOlslke HTTP
RTP (Realttme Tnanpont Porctocol). and STp (Scsston
InitlatIOn pootocol) shOuld be mplemented fot
SEamleSS SENYice Lntegratiom
van(-handwtIng ftOnt">2. Poresentaton Lajen (Layen
Role: Totanslates data fomats, encoypts/decoypts data,
and hanles data compesUOT:
COnsidestatlOns ensue data tom vasiOus Setvices S
Standandrzed (eg codecs tox vIdeo and audro). This dajen
can alO handle any necesSAsty Cco1ptiOn to secule vOlce
and video commLnications, enhanIng ovetal SeCALItj

3. Sesson Lajen (Lajer s)

Role: Mamages SeSSIOTs between applIcatiOns,
establishing malntaning amd tesmlnating cormectIOns.
ConsidetationsS Implement mechanisms tot seSSIOn
COntoo and mana gememt t0 suppont peSStent
COnmectiOns fot SetVices ke vldeo c a l ,emSlolina
thej can hande Intetuptions and oecormect.IOns
SMOothlj

4 Transpost Lajes (Laye 1)

Role potdes Lelable at uNelable delyety of
data segments, etOL Checkimg and flaw contoOl
ConsidesatiOns Choose appsopiate toanspot protocols
eig TCp tor data setrices and rDP foN sLeal-tIme yotce
and video) t0 emsALE Cfficient data toanst et.
Tmplement techmiques tost congCstlOn contool and estot
 LeCOVeytallaNed to each setvice's needs.

s. Netwootk Layex (Layeo s)

Role: Handles Outind and towasdig of data packets
acLOSS the netwatk.
ConsidetatiOns Design oouting potoCOls that cam
piositize tatfic fost vOlce and video Setvices,
(es)
ls malntalned Vse
IP addoeSSlnA etfectivelyto manage dutfetent setvlce
ypes.

Ques 4

L Forequency MOdulation (E)

Si gnal Qualtj EM OFfes hlgh oeslstarce to nalse

amd intesfeteyce, making it sultabe tot evioOnments
with a ot ot electoOma gnetic UnteteLeNce.
Bandwdthi RequleS a wlden baneurdth than AM, which can.
be a lImitatiOn in banewidthconstoalned scenasiQs.
Distance fM ls effective fot longet dlstances
especkaLLn ne-0t-sljht comunicatIon.
AReicat.ions Commcn used n audio broadcastlng and
twoway adio.
var(-handtn ttlngfont">
2. Amplitude Modulat1on (AM)

Simal Qualit Mare suSCeptIble to oise ad

Intesfetence; vatiatiOns in amptude can be easily
distoted by eltestma tactos.
Bardwidth Vses less bardwdth compased to fM, buut ths
Comes at the cost Of lowet slgal qualit
Distarce; Can be totasmitted avetlon distaçeS, but the
qualtj de gades ugntICantlJ with ntesteerce.
APpicattOns Vsed im AM adio and some basic senSOt
applcations.

3. Quadbtatune Ampltude Modulation (eAm)

Signal Qualit Porortdes a hlgh data nate and bettest
spectoal effcl erc Howevest, Jt can be mose semltiye to
nOlse and InteHfeLEYCe, pattCLlaotl at hhet
YOdelatIOn Qtdests.
Bandwrdth; Genealy Lequres mose bandurdth than AM
bAlt can totam Smit mOsLe intosmatin in the same chanme
Space.
Distance QAM JS typicalUy sedIn digital
CommLnicatioms and can pettOm well ave1 Long
dlstances iE the slgal-ton0se sLati0
va(-hananitlngfont)">Applicatlons Commonlyused
In dital TV, cab.le modems, ard wseless metworks.

OLes 5

AnadogtoDigital (A/D) ConestsIOn PorOCesS

L Sampling The continOus analog slgal toomm the
senSOS l5 sampled at oLegulas Intetvalo The Nglst
theorem sugests Samplng at east twice the highest
fotequercy compon@nt of the sigral to accusatelj
SepreSeTt t.

2. QALamtlzatIon: Cach amped yalue Sthen quantized

Into disCNeLe leyels Thes Imvolves magping the analog
inal to a finite mumbet of digital values. The
precion Of thls quamtization is detetmined bË the blt
depih (eg bblt, b-blt, 2-b1t), whene a hlghe bit depth
alloS tor mQse psLeclse epesentation but sequses
mOe Storage and bamdwidth

3. Pnoding The quantlzed values ase converted Into

binasy code, whlch can be tansmitted digitall
vax(-handntingfont)">

encoding Techrntqes to Reduce Signal Loss

To ensloe minmal slgal Loss dulnA toanSmiSSIO

the tollowing ercodlng techmiqes can be agpied:

Lpulse Code Moduelatton (pCM) This standaod method oe

digitally oepoeSentIng aralog sI grals SeS
quantzation ard binasty encoding PCM is bst and
widelj Sed In digital commAlmcatiOn provtding a
cl eaot NepreSeTtatIon OE the alnalslgnal

2. Delta ModulatiOn (DM): An altetrative to pCM, DM

SImpliEIeS the enodlng process by Onljtan SmItting
changes In the signal oathest tham the abs0lute values
This can sLeduce baduldth oequiements and hele
mtIgate gna loss

3. eotso DetectiOn and CotectiOn Codes Techmques

like Hamming code or Recd Sol omon can be implemented
t0 detect and casLecteQNS that ma CCCAlst dulng
toansmissin enslng the integity 0f the data
sLeCeLed at the cloud sestet.
van(-hanstnitingfont">
4 Loss esS CompnessIOn: Techmiqes Lke Ruength
ersodlng (RLe) ast Huffman coding cam be used t0 oteduce
the size 0f the data ithout losin any imfomation.
Thls is pastticla seful tot sensot data that
may have manj sepetItiye values.

5. MOdulation Techmqes Vslng cbust modulation

Schemes (eg Fotequ eny Shitt kejlng QAM) Cam

Impsoe the toansmission oeiabilty and oeduce the

LikelIhood ot slgral degadatlon duue to itettetece.

Qes 6

LStop-and-Walt ARO
MechanSM; The SeTdes totansmts One packet ad then
warts to an acknowled gnent (ACK) foLom the tecelvet
befosLe Sendlng the net packet.

AdantagCS
Simple t0 Implement.
Minimal butfest sLequlsLements

Disadantages
va(-hawnttlngfOnt)">Inetficlent far londlstage
Commlmication due to high OUTdttip tme (RTT). The
while waltimg tot ACKs, eadlng
Serdest stemals Idle
to undetutilization Ot the
chanmel
setotansmission delajs especial in highatenc
ugh
CvltOnments.

2. Ho-Bak-N ARQ
MechamSm; The sendet can totansmit multiple packets
tO a specIf led lndow slze) befQe needin an
(up
ackrowedgmermt. If an eotsast lS detected, a l packets
foom the etsOneOus packet Onwastd mut be
Letansmitted.

AdvantageS
MOse etfIclent than Stop-andWart, as it allows tOt
COntinuOus toansmiSsIOn and tIzeS the chamel
bettet.
Reduces dle t.tme slgntIcantly compated to Stopant
Walt.

Disadvantages
vasn(-hannitlngfont)">Retransmittlng all packets
attest an esto0t can lead to hidh oveshead, especiallin
enviOnmemts with tAeqLemt et0s.

3. Selective Repeat ARQ

Mechamism: Simila tO Go-BactkN bt Only the
estLOneOLs packets aste tetoamsmitted otathest than a
Subseqent packets. The eceyet cam accept Out-of-ndest
packets amd stoNe them ntI the misslng packets
aslove.

At antages
ugh effIcIent, especiaj In eOL-POne
evoonments, as it mimimlze5 the amont of data
HetoanSmitted.
Reduces delays and mpoes thoughput by allong
the eceiven tO ContIme poceSslng cotect li eceled
packets

Disadantages
Mane comple t0 Impl ement due t0 the meed far buuffest
maTagement aad Out-of-nden packet handlinA