DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY (DDIT)

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER

ENGINEERING

CHAPTER TWO
TRANSFORMER

By Minale B.
11
 Out lines
 Introduction

 Construction

 Principle of action
 Ideal & practical transformers
 parameter Determination
 voltage regulation, efficiency
 3-phase transformers
 3-phase transformer connection groups

22
 Transformers
 A transformer is a static device that changes one voltage
level to another voltage level through the medium of
magnetic field and without a change in the frequency.

 It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a

common ferromagnetic core.

 The transformer winding which receives energy from the

supply mains is called primary winding.

 The other winding which delivers electrical energy to the

load is called secondary winding.

33
 Cont.
 If the secondary winding has more turns than the
primary winding;
 Then, the secondary voltage is higher than the primary
voltage and the transformer is called a step-up
transformer.

 When the secondary winding has less turns than the

primary windings;
 Then, the secondary voltage is lower than that of the
primary voltage and the transformer is called step-down
transformer.

4
The winding which is used in a transformer called
transformer winding

 LV winding
 HV winding

Step down transformer

Step up transformer

55
 Cont.
 A step-up transformer can be used as a step down transformer, in
which the secondary of step up transformer becomes the primary
of the step-down transformer.
 Actually a transformer can be termed a step-up or step down
transformer only after it has been put into service.

The most important tasks performed by transformers are:

i) Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems
ii) Matching source and load impedances for maximum
transfer in electronic and control circuit
iii)Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )

6
 Cont.

 Transformers are used extensively in ac power

systems.
 AC electrical power can be generated at one
central location,
 Its voltage stepped up for transmission over long
distances at very low losses and its voltage stepped
down again for final use.

7
 Types ofTransformers
Depending on construction,
 Core type
 Shell Type

Depending on application,
 Step up transformer/unit transformer
 Sub station transformer/step down transmission line
voltage to distribution level
 Distribution transformer/ to final used voltage
 Instrument transformer/ special transformers ( CT, PT)
 Single phase /three phase transformer

8
 Construction of Transformers

There are basically two types of transformer,

I. Core-type

II. Shell-type.
The two types differ from each other by the manner in which
the windings are wound around the magnetic core.

9
 Cont.
 The magnetic core of a transformer is made up of stacks of
thin laminations (0.35mm) of cold-rolled grain oriented
silicon steel sheets lightly insulated with varnish.

 Silicon steel has a desirable properties of low cost, low core

loss and high permeability at high flux density (1-1.5T).

 The primary and secondary coils are wound on the core and
are electrically insulated from each other and from the core.

10
 Core type winding
 The coils used are form wound and they are of the form
circular, oval, or rectangular.

 The circular cylindrical coils are used in most of the core

type transformers because of their mechanical strength.

11
 Cont.
 The windings surround a considerable part of
steel core.
 Requires less iron but more conductor material
 The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs
or legs and the top and bottom portions are called yoke.
 This means that for single-phase transformers, core-type
has two-legged core.
 Most of the flux is confined to high permeability core.

12
 Cont.
 However, some of the flux leaks through the core legs
and non-magnetic material surrounding the core.
 The flux called leakage flux, links one winding and but
not the other.
 A reduction in this leakage flux is desirable as it improves
the transformer performance considerably.

13
 Cont.

 Since the low voltage winding is easiest to insulate, it is

placed nearest to the core.
14
14
 Cont…
 Concentric coils are used
 Poor voltage regulation
 Due to large leakage flux
 So leakage flux is reduced by:
1. By using high permeability magnetic
materials.
2. Arranging the windings gnetic core

15
 Shell type
The steel core surrounds a major part of the windings.

16
 Cont …
 Better voltage regulation
 Used for low voltage, low power level
 Has three-legged core.
 The low voltage and high voltage windings are wound
over the central limb and are interleaved or sandwiched.
 The flux in the central limb divides equally and returns
through the outer two legs.

17
 Cont...
 In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual
laminations are cut in the form of long strips of L's, E’s and
I's as shown in figure.

18
 Cont.
 During the transformer construction first the primary
and secondary winding are wound, then the laminations are
pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the
steel core is placed.
 The laminations are then tightened by means of clamps and
bolts.
 Low-power transformers are air cooled whereas larger power
transformers are immersed in oil for better cooling.
 In oil-cooled transformer, the coil serves as a coolant.

insulation medium. 19
19
 Core types
 For frequency ranging (20-400Hz) 0.35mm thick silicon
steel laminations

 For frequency 20-20kHz iron core

 For high frequency in communication circuit
powdered ferromagnetic alloys

 For special cases non magnetic /air core

eg Radio, measuring devices

Transformer cooling mechanism

Low power transformer (<25KVA), air cooled
Large power transformers(>25KVA) ,oil is the best coolant media
20
20
Principle of Transformer Action

21
21
 Cont …
 The primary winding P is connected to an alternating

voltage sourceV1.
 An alternating current Im starts flowing through N1 turns.

 The alternating mmf sets up an alternating flux ɸ which is

confined to the high permeability iron path.

 The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P

and E2 in secondary S.

 If a load is connected across the secondary, load current

starts flowing.

22
22
 Works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction between the two coupled circuits/coil.

 When the primary coil is connected to an

voltage (Vp) source, Alternating
alternating
current (Ip) starts to flow through the primary
winding (Np).

 The resulting mmf = NpIp, produces an alternating flux

(ø) in the core.
 This alternating flux induces emf in the primary (Ep)
and in the secondary (Es) windings.

23
 Cont…
Where N1= primary winding number of turns
I1 = current in the primary winding
R = reluctance of magnetic circuit Using
faraday’s law, Ep and Es are determine as
ø R  N1 I 1

Npd
Ep  
dt
Where, Ep = induced voltage in the primary winding
N p = no of turns in the primary winding

The voltage induced in the secondary winding is,

Nsd
E 
s dt 24
24
Taking the ratio,

Ep Np
 a
Es Ns
a is known as transformation ratio
Based on the value of transformation ration ratio (a),
transformers can be classified

1. Step up Es> Ep, Np/Ns=a<1

2. Step down Es<Ep, Np/Ns=a>1
3. Isolation Ep=Es, Np=Ns, a=1
25
 Ideal Two Winding Transformers
For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as
follows

 The primary and secondary windings have zero resistance

(Winding resistances are negligible).
 All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e.
all of the flux is confined to the magnetic core.

 The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.
 The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for
the core is linear.
 It may how ever be noted that it is impossible to realize such a
transformer in practice , yet for convenience, we will start with such a
transformer and step by step approach an actual transformer.( it is
merely to highlight the most important aspect of transformer action.)
26
 EMF Equation in Ideal Transformer
 Primary is connected to the source and secondary is left open.

27
Suppose the current Im due to e1 is sinusoidal

Ie = Imsin(wt)

The mmf =NpIe and therefore , the core flux will be sinusoidal.

The flux will flow the variation of Ie if Ie=0, flux=0,

28
The induced voltage in the primary ,due to

29
 The rms value of induced emf E1 in the primary winding is

 Since the primary winding resistance is negligible hence

e1, at every instant, must be equal and opposite of V1.
 That is,

30
Similarly , the emf induced in the secondary is,

31
 Cont.
Transformation ratio

rmsEp 4.44 fNpmax EP N p

   a
rmsEs 4.44 fNsmax Es N s

32
 Ideal Transformer on no-load phasor diagram
 Sketch of phasor voltages and currents of transformer in a
phasor diagram.
 Since the flux Φ is same for both windings so it is taken as
reference phasor.

 Primary emf E1 and secondary emf E2 lag behind the flux Φ

by 90˚.

 E1 and V1 are equal and 180˚ out of phase with it.

 E1 and E2 are in phase and both lags 90˚ behind Φ.
 Im is no load magnetization current

33
 Example
 A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050
secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 55
cm2. If the primary winding be connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz
single phase supply, calculate
I. The maximum value of flux density in the core and
II. The voltage induced in the secondary winding

Solution
400
I. Bm = =0.93T
4.44×50×55×10−4×350
II. Number of turns in the secondary winding, N2 = 1050
E1 N1
For an ideal transformer, =
E2 N2
Therefore: the voltage induced in the secondary winding is; E2
𝑁2 1050
= × 𝐸1 400× =1200V
𝑁1 350

34
 Power in an IdealTransformer
 The power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is
given by the Equation,

 Where θp is the angle between the primary voltage and the

primary current.
 The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to
its loads is given by the equation,

35
 Practical Transformer (No load)
 The ideal transformers described before can of course never
actually be made.

 What can be produced are real transformers two or more

coils of wire physically wrapped around a ferromagnetic core.

 The characteristics of a real transformer approximate to the

characteristics of an ideal transformer.

 Figure below shows a transformer consisting of two coils of

wire wrapped around a transformer core.

 The primary of the transformer is connected to an ac power

source, and the secondary winding is open-circuited.

36
Figure A real transformer with no load
37
 Cont…
 When an ac power source is connected to a transformer
as shown in figure above.

 Current flows in its primary circuit, even when the

secondary circuit is open-circuited.

 This current is the current required to produce flux in a

real ferromagnetic core. It consists of two components:

38
1.The magnetization current Im , which is the current required to
produce the flux in the transformer core (in phase with flux)

2. The core-loss current which is the current required to make up

for hysteresis and eddy current losses ( in phase with Vp)

• When a primary winding is connected to an alternating supply Vp

I. A current I-e (excitation ) begins to flow through it.

II. Primary winding introduces a voltage drop across its internal

resistance rp in phase with I-e.

39
III. Primary leakage flux induces a voltage in the primary
winding.

 This voltage is known as primary leakage reactance voltage drop

(leads I-e) by 900.

Total voltage drop in the primary is,

I- (r +jx )= I z
e p p e p

Figure Phase diagram for practical transformer at no load

1/27/2018 43
40
Practical Transformer with load

44
41
 The secondary current I2 produces leakage flux in the secondary

 So there is leakage reactance voltage drop Esl = jXsIs leads by

900 secondary winding resistance voltage drop = Isrs in phase
with Is.

 Total voltage drop in the secondary = Is(rs+jXs)=IsZs

Kirchhoff’s voltage low in secondary loop is,
Es=Vs + Is(rs+ jXs)=Vs+IsZs

45
42
Phasor Diagram of Actual Transformer on Load

43
43
44
44
 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
 The equivalent circuit for electromagnetic devices
consists of a combination of resistances, inductances,
capacitances, voltages etc.

Where (Rl +jX1) and (R2 + jX2) are the leakage impedances of
the primary and secondary windings respectively

45
 Components of Primary Current

 The primary current I1 consists of two components

 One component I’1 is the load component and counteracts
the secondary mmf I2N2 completely.

 The other component is exciting current Ie which is

composed of Ic and Im.

 The current Ic is in phase with V’1 and product gives core loss
 The resistance Rc parallel with represents the core loss Pc,
such that

Pc  I Rc  V I
2 '

V 
1
' 2
Rc 
V1'
c 1 c Ic
Rc

46
 V1'
The current Im lags by 90° Xm 
Im

Where; Rc is core-loss resistance

Xm is magnetizing reactance

47
 Referring Equivalent Circuit Parameters

 It is transferring the secondary quantities to primary side

or primary quantities to secondary side.

 Secondary voltage drop I2r2 when transferred to primary

side multiplied by the turn’s ratio N1 /N2 that:

R2’ is called the secondary resistance referred to primary.

48
  The total resistance in the primary circuit
2
 N1 
re1  r1  r2     r1  r2
'

 N2 

 re1 is called the transformer equivalent (or total) resistance

referred to primary winding

 Similarly the primary resistance referred to secondary is

2
 N2 
r ’=
1 r1    
 1N

 The equivalent (or total) resistance referred to secondary is

2
 N 
re 2  r2  r1    2   r2  r1'
 N1 
49
 Cont.
 Secondary leakage reactance drop I2x2, when transferred to
primary is

 N1   N  2 
I 2 x2  
 1 
I  1
 2
x   I x
1 2
'

 2
N  2  
N
2
 N1 
 Total primary leakage reactance is xe1  x1  x2     x1  x2'
 N2 

Where xe1, is called the equivalent or total leakage

reactance referred to primary
2
N 
xe 2  x2  x1   2   x2  x1'
 N1 

50
 Cont.
 The equivalent leakage impedance referred to primary is

ze1  re1  jxe1

 The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to
secondary is

ze 2  re 2  jxe 2
 Following the above procedure, it can be shown that
2
 N1 
2
N 
ze1    ze 2 and ze 2   2  ze1
 N2   N1 

51
 Cont.
 When values are referred to either circuit the following
conditions should be kept in mind

 The energy condition (i.e. the active and reactive) power should
be remain unchanged
 The phase angle between voltage and current i.e. power factor,
should be the same and
 Referring factor must be the same for all values of the same type

52
53
 Examples

The parameters of a 2300/230 V, 50-Hz transformer are

given below:
R1 = 0.286 Ω X1 = 0.73 Ω Rc = 250 Ω
R2′ = 0.319 Ω X2′ = 0.73 Ω Xm = 1250 Ω

The load impedance Z2 = 0.387 + j 0.29 Ω. Based on exact

equivalent circuit with normal voltage across the primary,
calculate:
a)The primary current,
b) Primary power factor
c)The load current referred to primary,
d) The iron loss,
e) Efficiency.

54
 a = 2300/230 = 10 Z2 = 0.387 + j 0.29 Ω

ZL′ = ZL×a2 = 100(0.387+j0.29) = 38.7+j29 = 48.36∠36.8462°Ω

Z2′+ZL′=(38.7+0.319)+j(29+0.73) = 39.019+j29.73
= 49.0546∠37.3051° Ω

Ym = (0.004-j0.0008)Ω-1
Zm = 1/Ym = 240 + j48 = 245.1452 ∠11.3099° Ω
Zm // (Z2′ + ZL′)=245.1452 ∠11.3099° // 49.0546 ∠ 37.3051°
= 41.4622 ∠33.0538°
Ztot = Z1 + Zm // (Z2′ + ZL′) = (0.286+j 0.73)+ 41.4622 ∠33.0538°
= 42.1026<33.6742°

55
Assuming that primary voltage is a reference vector;

a) I1 = 2300<0 / 42.1026<33.6742° = 54.6285<-33.6742° A

b) Primary power factor = Cos(33.6742) = 0.8322 lag

Zm + (Z2′ + ZL′) = 245.1452 ∠11.3099° + 49.0546 ∠ 37.3051°
= 290.035 ∠15.5612°

d) Iron Loss (Piron) = Ic2×Rc = 20521.353 W

Primary Cupper Loss (Pcu1) = I12×R1 = 853.5021 W
Secondary Cupper Loss (Pcu2) = I2′2×R2‘ = 680.1025W
Output power (Pout) = I2′2×RL‘ = 82507.737W
Input Power (Pin) = Pout + PLoss = 104562.6946W
e) Efficiency (η) = Pout / Pin = 78.9074%

56
 Determination of Transformer Parameters
Tests on a transformer helps to determine:
i. The parameters of the equivalent circuit These tests are: Open and
Short circuit test
ii. The voltage regulation and
iii. Efficiency

Open Circuit (No-Load)Test

57
  Voltmeter, Wattmeter and an Ammeter are shown connected on
the low voltage side of the transformer

 The high voltage side is left open circuited

 When the voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the
L.V. winding, all three instrument readings are recorded

Ammeter readings Voltmeter reading

 The-ammeter records the no-load  For all practical purpose,

current or exciting current Ie. the applied voltage V1 is
 Since Ie is quite small (2-6%) of rated equal to the induced emf
current, the primary leakage E1. i.e. V1= E1.
impedance drop is almost negligible  The primary winding is
the low voltage side.

58
  Let V1 = Applied rated voltage on L.V. side,
Ie = exciting current (no-load current) and
Pc = core loss,

Therefore; the core loss power is given as: Pc  V1 I e cos  o

Pc
No load Power factor  cos o 
V1I e
 Core loss current is given as:

I c  I e cos o and I m  I e sin o

V1 V1
Pc RCL  
Ic  Ic I e cos  o
V1
V12 V121
 
 Core loss resistant V1 I e cos  o Pco

59
  The subscript L with Rc and Xm is used merely to emphasize
that these values are for the L.V. side

Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information:

 Core loss at rated voltage and frequency,
 Shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, i.e. Rc & Xm
 Turns ratio of the transformer

60
 Short-CircuitTest
 The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the
instruments are placed on the high voltage side,
 The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated
current in the high voltage side.
 In a transformer, the primary mmf is almost equal to the secondary
mmf, therefore, a rated current in the HV winding causes rated current
to flow in the LV winding.

61
 A primary voltage of 2 to 12% of its rated value is sufficient to
circulate rated currents in both primary and secondary windings.

 So that, the secondary leakage impedance drop appears across the

exciting branch (RC and Xm in parallel)
 About half (1-6%) of the applied voltage appears across the
secondary leakage impedance and also across the exciting branch.

62
The short-circuit test gives the following information:
 Ohmic loss at rated current and frequency and
 The equivalent resistance and
 Equivalent leakage reactance.

 Voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined from

the data obtained from short-circuit test.

 Data of both open-circuit and short-circuit tests is necessary

 For obtaining all the parameters of exact equivalent circuit
 For calculating the transformer efficiency

63
 Example

 We need to determine the equivalent circuit impedances of a 20 kVA,

8000/240 V, 60 Hz transformer.
 The open-circuit and short-circuit tests led to the following data
VOC=8000V VSC=489V
IOC=0.214 ISC=2.5A
POC=400W PSC=240W
The power factor during the open circuit test is

The excitation admittance is

64
 The short circuit power factor

Therefore its equivalent circuit is given as:

65
 PolarityTest
 On the primary side of a two-winding transformer, one
terminal is positive with respect to the other terminal.

 At the same instant, one of the secondary winding is

positive with respect to the other terminal.

 These relative polarities of the primary and secondary

terminals at any instant must be known if the transformers
are to be operated in parallel or are to be used in a poly
phase circuit.

66
 Cont…

Figure Polarity test on a two winding transformer (a) subtractive polarity and (b)
additive polarity
67
 Cont …
 When the voltmeter reads the difference E1–E2, the
transformer is said to possess a subtractive polarity
 when voltmeter reads E1+E2 the transformer has
additive polarity.

68
 Per unitValue
 A system of dimensionless parameters, is used for
computational convenience and for readily comparing the
performance of a set of transformers or a set of electrical
machines.
Actual Quantity
PUValue  Base Quantity

Where ‘actual quantity’ is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

[VA]base and [V]base are chosen first.

I base 
VAbase
V base
VAbase pri  VAbase sec
Pbase  Qbase  S base  VAbase  V base I base

Rbase  X base  Z base

V base  V base
2

V base
2
V base pri

I base Sbase VAbase  turns ratio
V base sec
Ybase 
I base
V base
Z
Z PU
 ohm
Zbase 73
69
Efficiency

70
Condition for Maximum Efficiency.

71
72
 Voltage Regulation
 One of the main important performance parameter
 The difference between the no load and full load secondary
voltage expressed as a percentage of full load voltage.

73
 Three phase transformers
 The use of three-phase systems because of its several advantages over single-
phase systems.
 As such, a large number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-
phase energy system for stepping-up or stepping down the voltage as required.

 For 3-phase up or down transformation, three units of 1-phase

transformers or one unit of 3-phase transformer may be used.

 When three identical units of 1-phase transformers are used, the

arrangement is usually called a bank of three transformers or a 3-phase
transformer bank.

 A single 3-phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase core-type construction

/three phase shell type construction.

74
a) Three-phase transformer bank,
b) Three-phase core-type transformer

75
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections

 Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard

connections.

76
 Phase and line values for voltages and currents on both primary
and secondary sides of star-delta transformer are shown in Figure
above

77
 This connection is commonly used for stepping down
the voltage from a high level to a medium or low level.

78
79
80
 This type of connection is used for stepping up the voltage to ahigh level.

89
 This scheme of connections is used for large LV transformers.

 It is because a delta-connected winding handles line voltage, so it requires

more turns per phase but of smaller cross-sectional area.

82
83
 This connection is used for small h.v transformers.

93
84
 Example:
Three single-phase, 50 kVA, 2300/230 V, 60 Hz transformers are connected to
form a three-phase, 4000/230V transformer bank. The equivalent impedance of
each transformer referred to low voltage is 0.012+j0.016 Ω.
The 3-phase transformer supplies a 3-phase, 120kVA, 230V, 0.85PF (lag) load.
(a) Draw a schematic diagram showing the transformer connection.
(b) Determine the transformer winding currents.
(c) Determine the primary voltage (line-to-line) required.
(d) Determine the voltage regulation.
Solution

(a) The connection diagram is shown below. The HV windings are to be

connected in wye so that the primary can be connected to the 4000 V supply.
The LV winding is connected in delta to form a 230 V system for the load.

85
(b)

86
87