TIMBER

Introduction
Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of trunk and branches of a
tree.
Timber denotes wood, which is suitable for building, carpentry or other various engineering
purposes like construction structural elements in buildings, bridges and railway.

Advantages of Timber as a construction material

- It has low heat conductivity
- It has high amenability with mechanical works
- It has sound absorption quality
- Electrical resistance is more as compared to steel and concrete.

Limitations of Timber in construction works

- High susceptibility to decay
- Low resistance to fire
- Fluctuation in properties due to change in moisture content
- Variation in strength along the length and across fibres

Uses of timber
- Used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door/window frames and roof
members
- Use in flooring, ceiling, panelling and construction of partition walls
- Used for form work for concrete, for the timbering of trenches and scaffolding
- Used in marine installations, railway sleepers and bridges
- Used in making furniture, sport equipment and musical instruments.

Classification of trees
Depending upon their mode of growth, trees may be divided into two major categories.
- Endogeneous trees
- Exogeneous trees
-
Endogeneous trees – these trees grow in-words and fibrous mass is seen in their
longitudinal sections. Timber from these trees has very limited engineering applications.
Examples are: bamboo, cane, palm etc.
Exogeneous trees - these increases in bulk by growing outwards and used for engineering
purposes.
Exogeneous trees are further classified into the following two groups
a) Conifers or evergreen trees: these trees have pointed, needle-like leaves and yields
soft wood.
 b) Deciduous trees: these trees have flat broad leaves and their leaves falls in one
season, then grows back in another season. Timber for engineering purposes is
mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield hard wood.

Examples of such trees are: ash, beach, oak, teak and shishum.

Table 1: Difference between Soft-wood and Hard-wood

Characteristics of good timber

The principal characteristics of timber are: strength, durability and finished appearance.
Specific characteristics of good timber are highlighted below
- Strength: a good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural
member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
- Smell: a good timber must have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed
timber.
- Appearance: a freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and shinning
appearance
- Defects: a good timber should be from series defect such as knots, flaws, shakes etc.
- Durability: a good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the destructive
action of fungi, insects and chemicals.
- Hardness: a good timber should be hard
- Shape: a good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or
seasoning.
- Mechanical wear: a good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
or abrasion.
- Toughness: a good timber should be tough, i.e.: capable of offering resistance to
shock due to vibration
- Working condition: timber should be easily workable. That is, it should not clog the
teeth of saw.
Table 2: Characteristics and uses of Timber from variou trees
Factors Affecting the Wood Strength
Besides its ,own structure, the strength of wood is also determined by such factors as the
percentage of wood moisture, the defects (knots, irregular grain, splits, decay rot and worm
rot), the duration of outside force and temperature.

(1) Water Content of Wood

When the wood contains less water than the saturation point, the percentage of moisture
reduces, and the absorbed water becomes less and less, so that the strength of wood rises. To
the contrary, the absorbed water increases and the cell walls expand, then the structure
loosens and the strength of wood lowers. When the percentage of moisture exceeds the fibre
saturation point, only free water is changing, and the strength of wood remains still.

(2) Environment Temperature

Temperature has direct influence on the wood strength. Experiments has shown that when
the temperature rises from 25 "C to 50 "C, the wood compression strength will be reduced by
20%-40%and the wood sharing strength will be reduced by 12%-20%because the collide
among wood fibres is softened. In addition, if the wood is in hot and dry surrounding, it may
become fragile. During the processing of wood, boiling method is often employed to reduce
its strength contemporarily to meet the needs of processing (such as the production of
plywood).
(3) The Duration of Outer Force
The limit strength of wood stands for the capability of standing the outer force in a short time.
The limit that the wood can stand in a long run is the rupture strength of wood. Because plastic-
flow deformation will occur to wood, the strength of wood will be reduced with the lasting of
loading time, and the rupture strength of wood may be only 50%-60% of the limit strength of
wood.

(4) Defects
The wood strength is judged by the samples without defects. In fact, during the growing,
cutting and processing process of wood, there may be such defects as knots, splits and worm
rot. These defects make the wood uneven, and destroy wood structures; all these influences
may reduce the strength of wood, especially the tensile strength and the bending strength.

Besides the factors above, the species of trees, growing surroundings, the age of trees, and
different parts of trees all influence the wood strength.

Decay and damage of timber

A timber is said to be decayed or damaged when it is so deteriorated that it loses its value as
an engineering material. Timber doesn’t deteriorate naturally by ageing. It is however
affected by destructive elements such as weathering, chemical attack, fungi, insects and
rodents.
Some causes of decay and damage to timber are as follows:
i) Decay due to fungal and bacterial attack: wood is essentially an organic substance
which contains cellulose. With the existence of moisture and suitable temperature in
the wood, fungal and bacterial attack will take place. The wood tissues are
destroyed and wood becomes brittle and weak.
ii) Decay as a result of alternate dryness and wetness: when timber is subjected to
alternate wet and dry conditions, the timber tends to swell and dry up in an irregular
manner, thus, ultimately causing decay.
iii) Improper storage of timber: it should be ensured that there is adequate ventilation
around the timber when stored. This will prevent fungal attack on the timber which
might eventually cause decay.
iv) Damages due to insect activities: insects like termite and wood weevils cause
serious damages to timber. Some of them consume wood fibres as food, thereby
converting the wood to fine particles or termitarium, while some other insects bore
holes and tunnels in the wood and use it for habitation. All these activities greatly
affects the engineering properties of wood.
v) Use of timber without taking out the sap wood. This makes the timber prone to
fungal attack.
 vi) Using seasoned timber without applying suitable preservatives on its surface
vii) Using of unseasoned wood with the application of protective coat of paint and tar.
viii) Improper seasoning of timber

Seasoning of Timber
Timber cut from freshly felled tree contains a lot of water/ moisture in the sap. This makes it
unsuitable for engineering use.
Thus, the process of removal of moisture content from wood, so as to make it useful for
construction and other uses, is called drying of wood or seasoning of wood. This reduces the
chances of decay, improves load bearing properties, reduces weight, and exhibits more
favourable properties like thermal & electrical insulation, glue adhesive capacity & easy
preservative treatment etc. Seasoning of Timber is a process by which moisture content in a
freshly cut tree is reduced to a suitable level. By doing so the durability of timber is increased.
Very rapid seasoning process of timber should avoided since it causes premature hardening
in timber. This increases resistance to penetration of preservatives. It should also be ensured
that the remaining moisture which cannot be removed through seasoning is uniformly
distributed throughout the mass of the timber. Irregular drying causes irregular shrinkage
and development of internal stress. When this is in excess, it leads to warping of timber
(Wood warping is a deviation from flatness in timber as a result of stresses and uneven
shrinkage).

Objectives of seasoning
- To prevent shrinkage, splitting, checking and warping.
- To achieve greater stiffness and strength.
- To allow penetration of preservatives
- To obtain a surface that will accept paint, polish or glue.
- To protect against decay

Defects Due to Seasoning

These defects are directly caused by the movement which occurs in timber due to changes in
moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking
during seasoning can all produce distortions in timber. These defects result in loosening of
fixings or disruption of decoration, or both. The common types of seasoning defects are:
- checks—longitudinal separation of fibres not extending throughout the cross-section
of wood;
- splitting—separation of fibres extending through a piece of timber from one face to
another;
- warping—consists of cupping, twisting and bowing.
Defects Due To Conversion

Conversion is the term used to describe the process whereby the felled tree is converted into
marketable sizes of timber. Conversion defects are basically due to unsound practice in
milling or attempts to economise during conversion of timber. A wane occurs in timber which
contains, on one or more faces, part of the bark or the rounded periphery of the trunk. This
reduces the cross sectional area, with consequent reduction in strength in the parts affected.
Excessive slope of grains may also be classed as a conversion defect when conversion has not
been done parallel to the axis of the trunk.

The various methods of seasoning used may be classified into:

(i) Natural seasoning
(ii) Artificial seasoning.

(i) Natural Seasoning: Natural seasoning is the process in which timber is seasoned by
subjecting it to the natural elements such as air or water. Natural seasoning may be
water seasoning or air seasoning.

Air seasoning: It may be air seasoning or water seasoning. Air seasoning is carried out in
a shed with a platform. On about 300 mm high platform timber balks are stacked as
shown in Fig. 1.
Care is taken to see that there is proper air circulation around each timber balk. Over a
period, in a natural process moisture content reduces. A well-seasoned timber contains
only 15% moisture. This is a slow but a good process of seasoning.

Figure 1: Air seasoning

The advantages of natural (air) seasoning are:

1. It is highly economical;
2. It requires little supervision;
3. It is applicable to thicker timber parts as well as a thin section.
Disadvantages of Air Seasoning:

Among the major disadvantages, following are more important:

1. It is a very slow process;

2. It keeps the valuable land and timber blocked for longer periods (and hence in some
cases may be uneconomical).
3. Moisture content cannot be brought below a certain limit (16-17 percent).
4. Seasoning is not always uniform in all the sections of timber.

Water seasoning: is carried out on the banks of rivers. The thicker end of the timber is kept
pointing upstream side. After a period of 2 to 4 weeks the timber is taken out. During this
period sap contained in the timber is washed out to a great extent. Then timber is stalked in a
shed with free air circulation.

(ii) Artificial Seasoning: In this method timber is seasoned in a chamber with regulated heat,
controlled humidity and proper air circulation. Seasoning can be completed in 4 to 5 days
only. The
different methods of seasoning are:
(a) Boiling
(b) Kiln seasoning
(c) Chemical seasoning
(d) Electrical seasoning.

(a) Boiling:

This is a quick method of removing sap from within the cells. The timber to be seasoned is
immersed in water and the same is raised to boiling temperature. It is kept boiling for four to
five hours. The sap is washed out by this process.

On placing in the air, such boiled timber dries quickly. But, at the cost of the strength and
elasticity of the fibres.

Hence, this method is also rarely used.

(b) Kiln Seasoning:

Kiln is an airtight chamber. This is the modern method of seasoning any type of timber in a
short time.

It involves drying the timber in a specially designed kiln where there is perfect control over
temperature, humidity and air circulation.

With the help of kiln seasoning of timber, it is possible to reduce the moisture content to as
low level as 6 percent.
The method involves broadly the following steps:

(a) Timber is stacked properly in the kiln keeping open spaces for air circulation. The kiln is
then heated to low initial temperatures, only slightly higher than the atmospheric
temperature outside.

It is kept at that temperature for some time.

This initial low heat is essential to avoid cracking or splitting of timber which would become
certain if the temperature is suddenly raised to high drying rates.

In that case, moisture from the surface of the wood will dry out fast (causing shrinkage)
whereas moisture in deeper cells will be slow in moving out.

In slow heating, this risk is adequately covered.

(b) Once the timber has been at low heat and good humidity for some time, the temperature
of the kiln is raised.

Humidity is reduced and air circulation is made faster.

In this way a continuous process of loss of moisture from the deeper cells to the outer cells of
the timber and from there to ‘outside’ the kiln starts.

(c) During the heating process, all efforts are made to maintain a uniform circulation of the
air so that all the parts of timber in the pile receive the same amount of heat.

This aspect is the most difficult one in kiln seasoning and requires expert handling for good
quality seasoning.

Many modifications of kilns for seasoning timber are available.

It is a costly method, no doubt but the quality of seasoned timber is highly satisfactory.

Advantages of Kiln Drying

- Kiln drying permits drying to the exact moisture content required, which may be
much less than that of air dried timber.
- The carefully controlled conditions can minimise degrade – seasoning defects
which occur while drying.
- The heating of the timber while in the kiln kills eggs, larvae and adult borers
which may be present in the wood.
- Although capital costs may be higher, greater turnover is possible by reductions
in drying time, and less timber yard storage space required.

(c) Chemical Seasoning:

This may be grouped under processes of artificial seasoning.

In this method, the timber piece to be seasoned is treated with a chemical solution like
sodium chloride, sodium nitrate or urea.

The essential quality of such a solution is that it reduces the vapour pressure on the surface
of application.

Once such a treated timber is exposed to natural drying, it is the water (sap) from the inner
cells mat moves to outer cells at lower vapour pressure.

The wood surface remains moist while moisture from the interior goes on diffusing to the
exterior.

In other words, chemical seasoning of wood enables the timber to dry first from inside.

It is definitely an advantage as it prevents the risk of cracking of outer shell.

.
(d) Electrical Seasoning:

It is of theoretical importance only. Dry wood is a non-conductor of electricity.

But when a high alternating current is passed through a piece of green timber, heat
generated is enough to dry out the moisture of the cells which do conduct some electricity.

In this way, the timber pieces are dried quickly. The technique involves costly equipment and
even the consumption of electricity is so high that the process is uneconomical.

Moreover, heating of cell walls causes considerable weakness in them.

However it is costly process. This technique has been tried in some plywood industries but
not in seasoning of timber on mass scale.

Preservation of Timber
Preservation of timber against these decaying agencies requires careful selection of the
environment where wood is to be used: dry and properly protected from rain and wind and
direct sun.

The durability of timber can be considerably increased by treating it with certain chemicals,
grouped together as preservatives, before use.

These chemicals inhibit the growth of fungi or insects over the treated wood for certain
length of time.

The preservatives may be water solvable salts or oil solvable salts or volatile base salts.

Examples are zinc chloride, coal tar, creosote oil, and creosote petroleum blends respectively.
The main objectives of such treatment are to ensure a longer, trouble-free life of timber.

There are three types of methods used for preserving timber:

1. Application of some chemical substances (called the preservatives) on the surface of

the timber.
2. Injection of the preservatives into the body of the timber;
3. Construction of protective coverings or shields around timber used in construction.

You’ll know each of these methods in some detail. First of all, we should know about a
suitable preservative and its qualities.

A Preservative is defined as a chemical compound that when used on or injected into the
timber makes the timber ‘poisonous’ for insects and fungi without effecting the structural
properties of wood and timber.

All the wood preserving chemicals are classed under three groups :

(i) The Oil-Soluble Salts. Such compounds are soluble only in oils. The most commonly used
wood-preservative coal tar creosote oil belongs to this category.

It is obtained by destructive distillation of coal.

Following are important qualities of this preservative:

1. It has a high degree of permanence, i.e., it stays within the cells for quite a long time.
2. It penetrates quickly and easily into the wood tissue.
3. It is highly destructive for “fungi.”

Among the negative properties of coal tar Creosote preservative, the most important is its
unpleasant appearance.

Moreover, it does not paint over it. Further, it has a bad smell.

Hence it finds a use for preserving timber parts that are external to the living rooms.

(ii) The Water-Soluble Salts. Such salts make an easy solution with water. There is an
advantage in it. They can be easily dissolved and used.

But there is a disadvantage too. These can be easily “washed away” if the timber happens to
be in moist condition.

Among the water-soluble salts are included: zinc chloride, copper sulfate, sodium fluoride,
sodium fluosilicates, sodium dintrophenoxide, and compounds of arsenic.

(iii) Volatile base salts are those which make solutions with substances like petroleum. The
creosote petroleum blends are the typical example of this category.
Methods of Preservation of Timber.

Preservatives are used by different methods depending upon the extent of preservation
required. Starting from the simplest to complex, these are:

1. Brush applications,
2. dipping,
3. open tank immersion,
4. pressure application.

(1) Brush Application;

In this method, timber is given one or two coats of the preservative with the help of a brush.

This is used for painting the ends of beams or base of poles and posts that go to the ground
with coal tar.

The method is quite cheap. At the same time, it is not very effective.

(2) Dipping Application;

The timber part to be treated is made to dip in the preservative and kept immersed in it for
various periods from a few hours to few days.

It is used when organic preservative solvents are to be applied.

(3) Open Tank Application;

In this method, the timber is kept immersed in a suitable metallic tank of proper size till a
proper saturation is obtained.

To ensure deeper penetration of the preservative, the tank is heated while the timber is
immersed in it.

The temperature of preservative is brought to 70°-80°C, and it is kept at that temperature for
several hours.

After this, the timber is allowed to cool within the tank in the presence of a preservative.

In this way, the timber may actually suck a lot of preservatives and ensure complete
penetration.

Softwoods (confiners) receive this type of treatment in a remarkable manner because their
cells are more permeable.

The treatment has the disadvantage that it increases the weight of the treated timber
considerably.
(4) The Pressure Process;

This is the best and commonly applied method for preservation of timber of costly varieties.
It involves the passage of preservative into the timber under pressure.

This is achieved by either two Process which are: the full cell process and the empty cell
process.

The Full-Cell Process. The timber is placed in a large steel cylinder acting as a pressure vessel.

Vacuum is created and maintained for about one hour or more.

After this, coal tar creosote oil or any other suitable preservative, preheated to a required
temperature, is forced into the cylinder under sufficient pressure.

This is continued till the required quantity of preservative has been introduced into the
timber.

Thereafter, the pressure is reduced, and after giving some vacuum, timber is taken out.

In the empty cell method, no vacuum is created in the beginning.

Instead, timber placed in the pressure vessel is subjected to initial pressure while
preservative is being introduced into the cylinder.

Once the vessel is full of preservative, full pressure is applied which forces the preservative
from the tank into the timber.

After this, the pressure is released. This causes the air compressed in the cells of timber to
come out along with any excessive preservative.

The main advantage of pressure processes (of one type or another) is that they ensure a
proper and deeper penetration of preservative into the timber in a controlled manner.

Even those timbers which may not absorb preservatives in the open-tank process can be
filled with preservatives by this method.

The main disadvantage is that these are as yet costly processes involving the use of pressure
vessels and require skilled operators for better results.

Charring.
It is a common method used for preserving timber poles and posts that are to be dug into
the ground.

The outer part of the lower ends is charred (incompletely burnt) before insertion into the
ground.
The charcoal layer so formed is an easy safeguard against attacks by fungi or termite (as
these organisms do not find any food in charcoal).

Termite Shields.
The base of major timber columns may be preserved against organic attack by constructing a
suitable barrier between the timber and the ground.

These barriers of proper design and shape are called termite shields.