Language & Ecology vol. 2 no.

3 (2008)

WORLDVIEWS AND METAPHORS IN THE HUMAN-NATURE RELATIONSHIP:

An Ecolinguistic Exploration Through the Ages.

By Frans C. Verhagen

This article shows how language has construed and communicated humankind’s relationship to
Nature from the early beginnings of civilization to the very present. It categorizes the major
metaphors used to describe the human-Nature relationship into those that mainly represent either
an anthropocentric worldview or a biocentric worldview. Predominant in the linguistic corpus for
the former worldview are the metaphors Nature as scala naturae, Nature as machine, while for
the latter worldview the metaphors of Nature as mother, Nature as web, Nature as measure are
predominant. The linguistic corpus of this article in historical ecology consists of nine historical
texts by evolutionary biologists, cosmologists, and cultural historians in Europe and North
America.
______________________________________________

“Every age has its own unique view of nature, its own interpretation of what
the world is all about. Knowing a civilization’s concept of Nature is tantamount to
knowing how a civilization thinks and acts.” 1

INTRODUCTION

The sorrowful plight of planet Earth at the beginning of this new millennium is the result of human
activities that have reduced the quality of life of both humankind and other members of the Earth
community. Varied attempts on all levels of government, business, and civil society have been and
are being made to redress the situation. However, no real or lasting progress in improving the
quality of life of planet and people can be made without a critical assessment of a person’s or
society’s value system and its often implicit worldview. States American biologist Botkin:

“The potential for us to make progress with environmental issues is limited by

the basic assumptions that we make about nature, the unspoken, often
unrecognized perspective from which we view our environment. This perspective,
ironically in the scientific age, depends on myth and deeply buried beliefs. In order
to gain a new view, one necessary to deal with global environmental problems, we
must break free of old assumptions and old myths about nature and ourselves,
while building on the scientific and technical advances of the past.” 2

In any such assessment of worldviews and its relationship to Nature the role of language is of
paramount importance. Language carries, communicates and construes the meaning of Nature,
humankind’s place in Nature, and the relationship between social and ecological peace. Thus, one
of the major functions of the new science of ecolinguistics3 is to contribute to the unmasking of
myths, assumptions, and ideologies that underlie the public’s and scientists’ notions of Nature and
related issues. It is particularly in the linguistic device of the metaphor that these assumptions are
communicated.
Metaphors are important linguistic devices. They are one of our primary means of
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conceptualizing the world. Their power is derived from their ability to assimilate new experiences
to familiar patterns of perception; to project one knowledge domain onto another so as to allow
the newer or abstract domain of experience to be understood in terms of the other and more
concrete one.4 However, metaphors are often used unquestionably as common sense expressions
with which one has grown up. One tends to forget that they are partial conceptualizations of
reality, because, as Goatly has pointed out, highlighting and suppression of experience necessarily
involves “ignoring of differences and highlighting of selected similarities.”5 Therefore, it is
necessary to critically analyze metaphors in order to unmask what they hide and to discover the
interests that are at stake in the use of particular metaphors. According to Chalton and Lakoff
metaphors need to be discussed out in the open both by academics and the public, because what
metaphors entail is a crucial topic for theoretical discussion. Alternative metaphors need to be
formulated and thoroughly aired.6
Therefore, the purpose of this article is to investigate how metaphors have construed and
communicated the human-Nature relationship in various cultures and different time periods. The
corpus for this ecolinguistic exploration consists primarily of the prefaces, the introductory and
concluding chapters of nine book-length texts (Table 1) and secondarily of selected keywords as
they appear in the indices of these texts (Table 2). The authors of these texts were selected on the
basis of historical reach and diversity in disciplinary background. As regards geographic
distribution, however, they were selected primarily because of their connection with Western
culture.

TABLE 1
Selected texts with the disciplinary background of their authors
Daniel B. Botkin, Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the 21rst Century. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1990)--Biology and environmental sciences

Peter J. Bowler, The Environmental Sciences. (New York:,Norton,1992)--History of science,

Modern history of civilizations.

Timothy Ferris, Coming of Age in the Milky Way. (New York: Morrow, 1988)--Science writing.

Peter Marshall, Nature's Web. Rethinking Our Place On Earth. (New York: Paragon
House,1994)--History of ideas.

Elisabeth Sahtouris, Gaia: The Human Journey From Chaos to Cosmos. (New York: Pocket
Books. 1989)--Evolutionary biology.

Brian Swimme and Thomas. Berry, The Universe Story From the Primordial Flaring Forth to
the Ecozoic Era. A Celebration of the Unfolding of the Cosmos. (San Francisco: Harper, 1992 )--
Cosmology and cultural history.

Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History. The First Abridged One-Volume Edition; Illustrated. (New
York: Weathervane, 1972)--Traditional history of civilizations.

Donald Worster, Nature's Economy. A History of Ecological Ideas. Second Edition. (New York:
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Cambridge University Press. 1994)--History of ideas.

TABLE 2
Keywords
anthropic principle, anthropocentrism, Aristotle, Francis Bacon, balance of nature, biocentrism,
catastrophism, chain of being, creation, culture, diversity, dominion, dominance, Earth Goddess,
economy of Nature, environment, environmentalism, evolution, Gaia, man(kind), machine,
mechanical philosophy, Nature, order/disorder, natural philosophy, natural theology, partnership,
philosophy of Nature, religion, symbiosis, unity, uniformitarianism, universe.

The Thorndike-Barnhardt dictionary lists about a dozen meanings for the term nature. One of
these is the “sum total of all things in the physical universe” or, using the words of Pliny the Elder,
Nature as “everything not made by humans”. In line with several of the texts that form the corpus
of this study, Nature is used in this broad sense here. It is not limited to planet Earth or the
Earth’s biosphere7 but to the whole universe in which all things are bound together in the
intimacy of “friendship” because of their unity of origin.8
The article is organized into three sections. The first two sections deal with one of the two
main worldviews into which the metaphors about the human-Nature relationship that have
emerged from the above corpus are categorized, i.e. the anthropocentric worldview (section 1)
and the biocentric one (section 2). The third section discusses the social manifestations of each
set of metaphors.
Though the anthropocentric and biocentric metaphors are discussed separately for analytical
purposes, it is to be noted that these metaphors and their associated worldviews existed and exist
in dominant or subdominant positions in different cultures and, sometimes in the same culture
during different time periods.

THE ANTHROPOCENTRIC WORLDVIEW

The anthropocentric worldview consists of a more or less consistent set of explicit and implicit
concepts, assumptions, biases and ideologies that place the human being at the center of the Earth
and even the Universe. This worldview is often associated with a utilitarian attitude towards
Nature. That is, it considers Nature to be an instrument for human ends without taking into
reasonable account the needs and rights of other life forms and Earth systems themselves. An
essential component of the anthropocentric worldview, therefore, is the dominator model of the
human-Nature relationship where, according to Francis Bacon, man - particularly the male - is
not only the lord of creation, but also its principle of order.

“Man, if we look to final causes, may be regarded as the centre of the

world...For the whole world works together in the service of man; and there is
nothing from which he does not derive use and fruit...insomuch that all things seem
to going about man’s business and not their own.”9

The anthropic principle can also be considered part of the anthropocentric worldview. According
to Ferris this principle refers to “the doctrine that the value of certain fundamental constants in
nature can be explained by demonstrating that, were they otherwise, the universe could not
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support life and therefore would contain nobody capable of worrying about why they are as they
are.” In other words, Nature exists to support life, human life. Ferris gives the example of the
strong nuclear force: if it were slightly different in strength, the stars could not shine and life as
we know it would be impossible.10
Two anthropocentrically oriented metaphors for the human -Nature relationship figured
predominantly in the selected texts: Nature as scala naturae, Nature as machine.

Nature as scala naturae

Generally translated as the Chain of Being, scala naturae, which literally means the Ladder or
Stairway of Nature, goes back to classical Greek culture. It also figured prominently in the
Renaissance of the late Middle Ages when Aristotle was introduced into the West via Muslim
scholarship.11 Aristotle believed (as did Plato) that Nature was ordered and beautiful with all
creatures given their place in a proper hierarchy. In this hierarchical order there was not only ‘a
fixity of species’, but also a continuity of species that did not allow for gaps or lost species. The
place of humans and all observable life in this particular scheme of things was based upon degree
of ‘perfection’ which, according to Aristotle, was determined by the ‘powers of the soul’. Thus,
plants existed for the sake of animals, and animals for the sake of humans. According to Bowler,
this metaphor clearly indicates that humans are the standard against which all other animals were
to be measured.12
It was also believed that the scala naturae was divinely ordered. According to Aristotle, only a
divine creator could explain this ordered chain of being. For Cicero this divinely ordered creation
was for the safety and protection of all.13 Neo-platonists, such as Plotinus and Macrobius, who
were essentially philosophers and theologians, interpreted the Chain of Being to mean that God
must have necessarily created all conceivable forms of life from the lowest to the highest
creatures, adhering to a notion of a single, linear scale of organization that Aristotle did not
support. Viewing the world mainly as a symbol of divine perfection,14 they incorporated the
principle of plenitude in their hierarchical view of Nature. That is, Nature had to be complete so
that it could be a reflection of divine perfection. In this hierarchical and divinely inspired view of
Nature, where everything was ordered and in balance, imbalance and disorder were considered a
failure of the divine order caused by the acts of commission or omission on the part of humans.15
A major difficulty with the view of Nature suggested by the scala naturae metaphor was raised
at the beginning of the scientific revolution in the 17th century when fossils pointed to extinction
of species. If God had created every living form, how could gaps be explained in a chain of being
that indicated continuity and plenitude? While some naturalists such as John Ray, could not
abandon the notion of a static hierarchy in Nature and society that defined the scala naturae,
others did. Charles Bonnet was prepared to admit that there might be ‘branches’ in the chain, thus
nullifying the continuity principle. Other naturalists who wanted to maintain the continuity
principle and come to grips with the fact of extinct species came up with the notion of ‘bridges’.
Thus, flying fish were considered intermediaries between birds and fish or corals between plants
and animals. Bowler notes that the ideas of fixity and continuity of species grew ever more
implausible as naturalists became more sophisticated and that the vast number of species being
discovered in foreign parts made it seem increasingly less likely that the plan of creation was quite
as simple as the chain concept supposed.16
Over time the view of the human-Nature relationship represented by the scala naturae changed
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drastically. After the Scientific Revolution the notion of its divine origin was gradually abandoned
as different sciences began to attempt to answer questions about Nature without relying upon a
religious interpretation. The same happened with the notion of the fixity of species after Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution through natural selection became widely accepted.

Nature as machine

This metaphor, which also represents human dominion over Nature, separates pre-modern and
modern views of the human-Nature relationship. It may be considered to construe and
communicate the major content of the present day worldview in the Western world.
The metaphor’s origins clearly date back to the 17th century when the ‘mechanick philosophy’
was developed to interpret planetary movement. Swimme and Berry point out that Newton,
Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo made enormous strides in understanding the Cosmos by applying
mathematics and calculus to the study of astronomy and by introducing scientific instruments to
extend their observations of the Universe. On the other hand, these scientists remained part of the
17th century pathos which saw the world as a huge mechanical system designed and sustained by
a Father God who expected obedience.17 Swimme and Berry also note that during the period of
the Scientific Revolution the earlier anthropomorphic language was replaced by a Mechano-
morphical language, which used linguistic expressions derived from the machine world. They
explain that such mechano-morphical language construes a view of Nature that considers the
“inner spontaneities guiding the destinies of the natural world” as irrelevant, thus misrepresenting
the “ biological functioning of the living world” by this “overlay of mechanistic patterns.”18 The
exemplar of such a language view is Isaac Newton. In his universal theory of gravitation he
makes abstraction of the Earth’s composition, shape, life, etc and only uses the Earth’s mass to
develop his “mechanick” philosophy.
The view of Nature as machine continued into the 18th century, when the notion of its divine
origins was gradually replaced by scientific explanations. While Carolus Linnaeus in his
Oeconomie of Nature of 1749 still believed “that the Creator had designed an integrated order in
nature which functioned like a 'single, universal, well-oiled machine'” and that the Universe as “a
vast celestial contrivance was set in operation by an omniscient mechanic mathematician”,
beliefs shared by contemporary George Cheyne who referred to the Universe as the “whole great
and complicated Machine of the Universe”, Sir Matthew Hale believed that “The Qualities of
Natural things are so ordered to keep always the Great Wheel in Circulation”. He compared the
universe with a Great Wheel. In his view the “influxes of the heat” of the sun and the physics of
heat and cold keep the “rotation and circle of generations and corruptions” going. In other
words, Newton’s Cosmic Machine with its Great Engineer was being replaced by Hale’s Great
Wheel where the qualities of natural things, not a divine Engineer, make the wheel move. Thus, a
scientific interpretation of natural processes was substituted for the notion that the Cosmic
Machine was of divine origin.19
The clock or clockwork seems to have been a favorite type of machine used by the brave
new philosophers of the Scientific Revolution when referring to Nature. Descartes, who believed
that animals are nothing more than machines, who are incapable of pain and pleasure and who
exist to perform some function in the great apparatus, compared them to clocks and wrote:
“They do not have a mind, and...it is nature which acts in them according to the disposition of
their organs, as one sees that a clock, which is made up of only wheels and springs, can count the
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hours and measure time more exactly than we can with all our art.”20 Johann Kepler, who
continued Copernicus’ search for universal laws to explain the movements of the planets, also
likened Nature to a clock. His aim was “to show that the celestial machine is to be likened not to
a divine organism but rather to a clockwork...insofar as nearly all the manifold movements are
carried out by means of a single, quite simple magnetic force, as in the case of a clockwork all
motions [are caused] by a simple weight.”21
Another variant of the Nature as machine metaphor is Nature as a factory. In "The World as a
Workshop" (1855), US Commissioner of Patents, Thomas Ewbank, states that the "general
economy of the world" was “designed for a factory, furnished by the Great Engineer with all the
equipment of a complete machine shop”. In his opinion, God must be actively emulated in his role
of "mechanician" rather than worshipped in spiritual passivity, which tends to retard progress and
allow the "earth to grow up as a jungle."22 Similar metaphoric language was used by Renheimer in
1910, when he wrote “Bio-economically speaking, it is the duty of the plant world to manufacture
the food stuffs for its complement, the animal world...every day, from sunrise to sunset, myriads
of plant laboratories, factories, workshops and industries all the world over..[make
their]..contribution to the general fund of organic wealth". In 1967 Robert Usinger, a University
of California entomologist, used similar language in portraying a river as an assembly line that
conveys energy and matter to organisms to be used in manufacture. He explains: "Like any
factory, the river's productivity is limited by its supply of raw materials and its efficiency in
converting these materials into finished products. If biotic capital becomes scarce, the output of
living things will be low.” Worster rightly concludes that the use of these mechanistic metaphors
is more than casual or incidental. Rather they express a common tendency among scientific
ecologists of our time to transform nature into a “reflection of the modern corporate, industrial
system” that is based upon machines and assembly lines. This is not surprising in Worster’s
opinion because, to a great extent, ecology today has become "bio-economics: a cognate, or
perhaps even subordinate, division of economics”.23
Nature as a storehouse, another variant of the machine metaphor, emerged during the
industrial age. Adam Smith, founder of modern economics and learned disciple of Linnaean
natural history, considered Nature “a storehouse of raw materials for man’s ingenuity,” where
with the help of technology ever greater control over the Earth’s resources could be exercised.24
For the ecologists, influenced by energetics, energy could also be taken from Nature’s storehouse.
Thus, in the famous 1942 scientific paper entitled "The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology"
American ecologist Raymond Lindeman refers to terms such as “energy budget”, “yield”,
“efficiency of energy capture”, “tropic levels of producers and consumers, and decomposers”. For
Lindeman and other similarly thinking ecologists Earth as a storehouse of materials, and especially
its energy flow, had to be exploited as efficiently as possible. Given that the owner of a storehouse
has complete control over its contents, this metaphor provides another perspective on the
dominator model of the human-Nature relationship.
With the advancement of science, particularly thermodynamics, the Earth was loosely
described as a heat engine, another variant of the machine metaphor. According to this view, life
on planet Earth is only a “momentary stay of entropy” because the end result of being a heat
engine is an Earth death on account of increasing entropy. In fact, nowadays, in the eyes of
thermodynamicists, Nature as a heat engine is no longer a metaphor. It is literally true.25
In sum, the Nature as machine metaphor views the Earth not as an animate creature, but as a
vast machine which, initially, was believed to be created and maintained by the Great Engineer,
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but which was later explained to be maintained by scientific processes.26 With the advancement of
the industrial age and its factory system, the machine metaphor and its several variants became
ever more entrenched in the predominantly mechanistic mode of thinking of Western societies.

THE BIOCENTRIC WORLDVIEW

The biocentric worldview is a more or less consistent set of beliefs, assumptions, biases or
ideologies that place the biosphere at the center of a person’s way of life, thought and feeling. It
represents a partnership model between humans and Nature, one of its main tenets being the belief
that the human is a member of the web of life rather than its master or even its steward. There
are, obviously, various gradations of biocentric worldviews as will become apparent in the
differences between deep, social and libertarian types of ecology referred to below. Three
biocentrically oriented metaphors were predominant in the nine selected texts: Nature as mother,
Nature as web, Nature as measure.

Nature as mother

One often hears the expression Mother Earth and phrases such as ‘You cannot fool Mother Earth’
or ‘Mother Earth knows best’. Indeed, Nature as mother is a metaphor that has been used
throughout the ages to characterize the human-Nature relationship.
Since prehistoric times humans have made creation stories to make sense of reality, of their
origins and future, and as Toynbee and others have pointed out, religion became the vehicle for
creating those stories. Thus, myths of creation became fundamental parts of the explanatory
process of the world27 and in these stories the Earth as Goddess figured prominently. It was
believed that the same source from which human life springs is also the source of all vegetable and
animal life.
The Olympian creation myth, one of many such creation stories, reads as follows.
“At the beginning of all things Mother Earth emerged from Chaos and bore
her son Uranus as she slept. Gazing down fondly at her from the mountains, he
showered fertile rain up her secret clefts, and she bore grass, flowers, and trees,
with the beasts and birds proper to each. This same rain made the rivers flow and
filled the hollow places with water, so that lakes and seas came into being.”28
Homer's Odyssey and Hesiod's works are replete with linguistic remnants of earlier matrilineal
societies with a mythology based on an Earth goddess. For example, it is the “wide -bosomed
Earth " who, like the Goddess of old, gives birth to Heaven and the "lofty hills, the happy haunts
of goddess nymphs." It is a female power which, "without sweet union of love--in other words,
alone-- bears the sea." In prehistoric and historic Anatolia, Cybele and later on Artemis were
worshipped as fertility goddesses.29 Similar references are found in pre-Socratic philosophers like
Xenophanes, Thales, Diogenes, and Pythagoras, who are part of a Hellenistic culture outside
Greece and, thus, subject to form and contents of Earth goddesses of local cultures.
While the metaphor of Nature as mother had mostly disappeared by the 17th century, today it
has re-emerged in the Gaia theory, named after the Greek Earth goddess, Gaia. The Gaia theory
considers the Earth to be a self-organizing or autopoietic organism, not an object, but a subject. It
assumes that life is characterized by a striving against the pressures of entropy and, therefore, that
it organizes itself to overcome entropy and disorder. Moreover, living systems are not merely self-
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organizing but also self-renewing, finding solutions in both cooperative and competitive
interaction with their physical environment.30
Swimme and Berry extend the Gaia theory to the cosmos as a whole. They introduce the
notion of an ever-transforming cosmogenesis rather than an abiding cosmos. They point out
that this sense of the universe as a self-organizing process was presented in its earlier forms by
Henri Bergson, Alfred North Whitehead, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and Ilya Prigogine. These
process thinkers, however, had seldom fully appreciated that the universe in its unfolding is not a
simple process but a sequence of meaningful irreversible events best understood as narrative as
do Swimme and Berry.31
While Marshall believes that the Gaia theory is no more than an untestable, though intriguing
hypothesis, he considers it to have great value as a metaphor for three reasons. By reanimating
nature, it supports the view of modern physicists that the universe is more like an organism than
a machine. By personifying the earth, it implies that it has intrinsic value and that its interests as a
whole are worthy of human consideration. By thus encouraging a sense of reverence for life, it is
to be welcomed.32 According to Worster, Gaia has become the most widely discussed scientific
metaphor of the Age of Ecology, overshadowing Eugene Odum’s Spaceship Earth, Howard
Odum’s electrical circuit board, and, at least, for some scientists and many lay people, Robert
MacArthur’s reductive search for the “machinery”.33 For a considerable number of people and
organizations the Gaia theory has become a movement, a religion or a mixture of both.34

Nature as web

Nature as web refers to the interdependence of all Earth beings or, considering Nature in its
cosmic dimension, the interdependence of all Being.
In Nature’s Web. Rethinking Our Place on Earth Marshall concludes that life on Earth is an
interconnected web, not a hierarchy.35 Donald Worster calls this interconnected human-Nature
relationship the human-umbilical and makes the point that the environment is not merely a set of
things to be used up but has to be looked at as a set of interdependencies rather than as a
storehouse of commodities.36 Closeness to Nature, Unity of all Beings, or even Unity of All
Being (the cosmic perspective), Earth community, i.e. all living beings on planet Earth, are some
of the terms in our texts that reaffirm the interdependence and continuity between human beings
and other animals and the rest of nature in our common dwelling in the Earth House Hold where
we do not stand separate from or above Nature, but form just another strand of her living web.37
Perhaps one of the foremost proponents of Nature as web was Henri David Thoreau, for whom
Nature was a universal, consanguineous family, a vast community of equals, a vast alliance of all
creatures, with whom we must “re-allay ourselves everyday.” He kept out of doors “for the sake
of the mineral, vegetable and animal in me” and considered himself to be “Nature looking into
Nature.” As a professional naturalist he did this “with such easy sympathy as the blue-eyed grass
looks in the face of the sky." Being viscerally convinced of a living Earth or animated whole
where all natural entities were joined together, he strongly objected to the Linnaean phrase ‘arbor
vitae’ or ‘Tree of Life’ because it did not convey “the life that is in nature”, thus anticipating
Sahtouris’ statement that Gaia is a live planet rather than a planet with life on it. He considered
the role of humankind to be one of cosmic commingling, again anticipating Sahtouris’ term of
cosmic continuation.38
Implicit in the metaphor, Nature as web, is the notion of biocentric equality. Similar to
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Thoreau’s vast community of equals, it holds all organisms and entities in the biosphere to be
parts of an interrelated whole and, therefore, equal in intrinsic worth. Thus, every form of life
should have the ‘equal right to live and blossom’; humans have no right to reduce this richness
and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.39 According to Marshall this deep ecology principle of
‘equal right to life’ is similar to the Buddhist compassion for life, the Taoist readiness to let
things be, and the Jain attempt to cause minimum injury. It extends Schweitzer’s principle of
reverence for life and applies it to the whole of Nature. Together with the rights that all Earth
beings enjoy, biocentric equality includes the obligations they must meet.

Another notion implicit in Nature as web is that of symbiosis and mutual aid. Using this
notion as both fact and ideal, Marshall develops his libertarian ecology which would recognize
not only the claims of the individual but also those of the social and biotic community.40 Thus, he
opposes the myth of transcendence which holds that humanity transcends the realm of Nature by
entering the realm of culture. Such a view, in his opinion, clearly shows a lack of ecological
sensibility which recognizes that all subjects, men and women, are interconnected with each other
and other life forms within the web of nature.41 His theory of libertarian ecology further holds
that the human domination of Nature begins in society and that Nature’s freedom will necessarily
involve the freedom of humanity as a whole. The theory wants to liberate both humans and non-
humans, society and Nature, allowing all to find their place in the odyssey of evolution.

Nature as measure

Nature as measure is a metaphor that has been used throughout the ages to characterize Nature
as a guide for human endeavor or as a standard against which to measure human endeavor.

In classical Greece and Rome the phrase to live according to Nature had different
interpretations depending on whether one was a Hedonist or a Stoic. The Hedonists believed the
“mood of abandon” to be the natural way and that natural impulses had to be followed. On the
other hand, the Stoics/Cynics believed that the “ascetic life of self-denial” was the right
interpretation. It was the duty of the sage to mortify human desires that were accepted by the
hedonist as the promptings of Nature. This Stoic self-control and its emphasis on living in tune
with Nature and being firm and steadfast like Nature was reflected by philosopher-emperor
Marcus Aurelius when he wrote: “Be like the headland against which the waves continually
break; but the headland stands firm while the tormented waters sink to rest around it.....This
infinitesimally short span of time is something to be passed through in tune with Nature and
passed out of with a good grace....”42
During the Enlightenment and particularly the Romantic period in the 18th and 19th Century,
when following Nature or returning to Nature became major philosophical and practical
preoccupations, a new understanding of Nature emerged. Nature was seen as a constitutional
monarch, governed by laws with the scientist acting like a constitutional lawyer interpreting and
codifying universal laws.”43 It was based upon the belief that Nature is the foundation upon which
man was to build. The ‘state of nature’ as a state of innocence, goodness and health was
increasingly contrasted with the existing corrupt, mechanical society of the time. “Only by
following or returning to nature could humanity be cured or regenerated.”44 Many of the writers
of this period who took Nature and particularly unspoiled Nature as measure adhered to the cult
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of primitivism, which believed in a golden age or paradise in a beautiful far away country such as
in the South Seas. They wanted society to return to primitive times where they considered their
inhabitants to be “Noble Savages.” Rousseau, at the end of his Discourse of the Origin of
Inequality(1754) develops the contrast between vigorous and healthy ‘savages’ in the state of
nature and modern man in the ‘civilized’ world.
Another variant of Nature as measure was the view of Nature as a source of delight and
imagination. Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury, was one of the first to ‘celebrate Nature in the raw’
and found her wildness more inspiring than the “artificial labyrinths” of the palace. He inverted
centuries of Christian teaching by arguing that ‘if Nature herself be not for man, but man for
Nature, then must man, by his good leave, submit to the elements of Nature and not the elements
to him”. For William Blake Nature as imagination and for the scientist who has the ‘Eyes of a
Man of Imagination’ it becomes a ‘sweet Science’ because Nature with all its diversity is a source
of inspiration. Often walking in the woods in his youth Wordsworth declared that “one impulse of
the vernal wood will tell you more of man, of moral evil and of good, than all the sages can.” He
experienced, much like Thoreau, a ‘visionary power’ when looking at a flower, a tree or other
natural object. His motto was “Let Nature be your teacher”. He found in Nature “The anchor of
my purist thoughts, the nurse, the guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul of all my moral
being.”45 Similar thoughts are expressed by Alexander Pope in a poem where Nature becomes the
“source, and End, Test of Art”.
First follow NATURE, and your Judgment frame
By her just Standard, which is still the same:
Unerring Nature, still divinely bright,
One clear, unchanged, and Universal Light,
Life, Force, and Beauty, must to all impart,
At one the source, and End, and Test of Art.”
Holbach, one of the philosophes of the Enlightenment, took the metaphor of Nature as
measure into a radical direction: Nature became a “touchstone against which the accretions of
Church and state could be measured.” For him Nature as “sovereign of all beings!...forever be our
only Divinities.” These appeals to Nature and the repudiation of religion and state were
subversive and revolutionary and contributed to the revolution in France and reform in Britain.
There, Edmund Burke used the “state of Nature” argument as the basis for the emerging middle
classes to assert their ‘natural rights’ against the divine rights of kings and the remnants of the
feudal and ecclesiastical order. Writing in 1756 he declared, “If left to itself, [nature] were the
best and surest Guide” and in 1780, “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two
masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to
determine what we shall do.” In Britain Adam Smith also used the Nature as measure argument
for his economic theories of laissez faire. His ‘hidden hand’ was an economic law of Nature
which up to this day influences the theories of those in power and with wealth.
In the 20th century Nature as measure is reflected in models that have to be discovered
and then mimicked according to Buckminster Fuller in 1966. “Nature has...some sort of
arithmetic-geometrical coordinate system, because nature has all kinds of models. What we
experience of Nature as in models, and all of nature’s models are so beautiful.” Thus, mimicking
nature in making ever more sophisticated computer simulations has become a modern application
of the metaphor.46 It also underlies the emerging profession of bio-engineering with its emphasis
on biomimicry.47
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Today deep ecologists consider ‘Nature knows best’ as a ‘law of ecology’, while social
ecologists derive from the ‘what is’ in Nature the basis of what ‘ought to be’ in human society.
This environmental ethics is not considered a form of spiritual escapism but a ‘return to earthy
naturalism’,48 in which the Earth is considered the primary context and measure for a new ethics.
For social ecologist Bookchin this new ethics implies that ‘human stewardship of the earth’
requires a radical integration of ‘second nature’(human consciousness) with ‘first nature’ (from
which we have evolved and which is our guide) 49
While recognizing the danger of the “naturalistic fallacy” whereby too much is inferred from
Nature as a guide for society,50 Marshall believes that in the inevitable tension between
intervention in and preservation of Nature the better course is to let Nature determine a course of
action. “It may be necessary to intervene sensitively in an informed attempt to repair the damage
executed by earlier generations. But the ideal is to adopt the Taoist position of letting alone, of
letting be: ‘If nothing is done, then all will be well.”51

SOCIAL MANIFESTATIONS

The dominator and partnership models of the human-Nature relationship respectively represented
by the anthropocentric and biocentric metaphors are evident in the economic, cultural and political
theories and practices that define our social life. As Lakoff and Chilton state,
“They are concepts that can be and often are acted upon. As such they define
in significant part what one takes as '‘reality’ and thus form the basis and
justification for the formulation of policy and its potential execution.”52

Economic manifestations

The anthropocentric metaphors. Nature as machine and its variant Nature as storehouse
justifies the exploitative and managerial character of Western civilization, making it seem
natural, obvious and normal. They undergird the Victorian myth of economic growth, which
assumes the possibility and feasibility of a limitless exploitation of the Earth’s resources and they
equate the statistical measure of a rising gross national product with progress notwithstanding its
exclusion of the degradation of the very life-support systems upon which all human and non-
human life depend. On the other hand, the metaphorical view of Nature as machine is evident
in the mind-set of technological optimism, the belief that technology can fix all social and
ecological problems, if only properly funded and not culturally constrained.53 More recent
versions of this mind-set, which refer primarily to environmental problems, hold that Nature can
be “re-engineered by us.” As Botkin concludes, the present customary approaches to
environmental problems are civil-engineering approaches.54 The 'ecotechnocrat', Howard Odum, is
a clear example of this version of technological optimism. As stated in Worster, he believes that
“the management of nature is ecological engineering…..”. It is “manipulating natural systems into
entirely new designs for the good of man and Nature.” An electrical engineer, turned ecologist, he
would rewire the planet, change the circuits. To control the flow of energy he would manage the
forests and the oceans. He concludes: “Should the auxiliary fossil-fuel and nuclear energy sources
fail, this control is one of the bright prospects of man.”55

Biocentric metaphors The metaphoric view of Nature as measure was used by Adam
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Smith to propose his Hidden Hand theory and its associated laissez faire economic policies.
Though the metaphor had validity during the economy of his time where there was a certain
equality among the economic actors, this is not the case in present economic systems where large
multinational corporations are able to dominate both local and global economies. A proper
economic application of this metaphor in these modern times is found in those theories that
propose a Pegovian or cyclical economy, i.e. an economy where the waste of one process is used
as input for another. Thus, these theories take Nature as measure and purport to imitate Nature
where there is no waste.56 Taken Nature as measure also means that such economy is one where
humans manage with Nature rather than manage Nature.

Cultural manifestations

Anthropocentric metaphors The major civilizational shift in the self-understanding of the

human as being part of the whole of Nature, predominant among Renaissance and Alchemist
scholars, to the view of the unique status of the human and its ascendancy over the rest of
creation is further evidence of how the anthropocentric metaphors Nature as machine,
storehouse, …shape the human-Nature relationship. This shift to a human-centered consciousness
where “man is the measure of all things” paradoxically happened at a time when the geocentric
model of the Earth was refuted in favor of the heliocentric model, first proposed by Copernicus in
1543.57 By making themselves the measure of all things and attempting to humanize Nature rather
than to manage with Nature, human beings, according to Marshall, have denaturalized
themselves.58
Another cultural manifestation of anthropocentric metaphors becomes evident in the
treatment of women. These metaphors reinforce the patriarchal nature of Western societies and
by extension the legitimization of (male) elites to govern. Eco-feminists argue that the domination
of Nature as a characteristic of Western civilization interacts dialectically with and reinforces the
subjugation of women because women are believed to be closer to Nature.59 Similarly, social
ecologists argue that the domination of humans by humans leads to the domination of Nature by
humans. In the past, they both argue, it was thought necessary to dominate and conquer Nature
in order to transcend scarcity. But the very concept of dominating Nature first emerged from
man’s domination of woman in patriarchal society and of man’s domination of man in hierarchical
society. Human beings and Nature have thus become the common victims of oppression and
exploitation.60

Biocentric metaphors Unlike the cultural manifestations of anthropocentric metaphors, the

cultural manifestations of metaphors such as Nature as web, Nature as measure, Nature as
mother are subdominant and emerging, given the mechanistic nature of the dominant, yet
terminal mode of consciousness in Western societies.
One of these emerging cultural manifestations of the biocentric metaphors is the sense of
community of all life. Humans are beginning to understand themselves as being part of the web
of Nature. They begin to understand themselves, according to Sahtouris, “as a new and still
highly experimental organ evolving within a larger organism.”.61 This sense of community is also
evident in an attitude of ‘ecological sensibility’. Derived from this characteristic and the earlier
mentioned deep ecology principle of biocentric equality deep ecologists use the term of
ecocentric impartiality. We, humans, have to overcome our ‘species partiality’ and apply the
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principle of ‘ecocentric impartiality’ where the criterion for value is the contribution to the well-
being of the whole. Such contribution is to take into account such ecological principles as
diversity, richness, stability and scarcity. This sense of community with its species impartiality can
also be seen in Aldo Leopold’s concept of ‘land ethic’, which contains the assertion that the land
has a right to maintain its integrity. Also his statements that humans are called to develop an
‘Ecological Conscience’, that they are to consider themselves ‘plain citizens’ in the biotic
community or that ‘men are fellow-voyagers with other creatures in the odyssey of evolution’ or
Thomas Berry’s term ‘Earth community’ contain similar meanings expressing this sense of
community of all life.
The biocentric metaphors are further reflected in the emergence of an Earth ethical system.
One of its main tenets is that all living beings and Earth systems have an intrinsic right to exist and
blossom. The moral community must be extended beyond the human family to include the Earth
community as a whole or even the Universe. Thus, we do not pollute air or water or wipe out a
species, because they have intrinsic worth, separate from the use we, humans, can make of them.62
Besides this moral justification, the aesthetic and the ecological justifications also play a part in
such Earth ethical systems. The former motivates people to act ecologically in the correct way
because despoiling the beauty of the Earth is bad; the latter grounds the same action on the fact
that disturbing ecological balance is bad.63
According to this emerging Earth ethical system humans are reevaluating their relationship
with animals. In fact, the attitude of the various pre-modern cultures towards these fellow-
creatures was mostly one of respect and reverence, given that humans had to depend on them, in
many cases for survival. Humans and animals often shared quarters. In Medieval times animals
held legal rights, which were practically on a par with humans. Rats who despoiled barns,
grasshoppers who ravaged crops, swallows who defecated in shrines, and dogs who bit people
were tried in court for their “crimes”. They were represented by counsel, and sometimes
acquitted. In Wales and France, pilgrims visited the shrines of canonized dogs, implicitly
acknowledging the moral equivalence of humans and beasts.64 Present-day animal rights activists
are regaining some of this earlier moral equivalence. Marshall states that the denial of moral
consideration of animals by not extending to them the rights of fellow-creatures is speciesism and
is on par with sexism and racism.”65 He and others propose a “Declaration of Independence on
Behalf of Other Animals.”
A final cultural manifestation that is emerging from the biocentric metaphors is a type of Earth
spirituality that posits the well-being of all life as a central point of thinking and behavior. In
contrast to a spirituality of a powerful male deity in the three monotheistic religions of the
Western world66 a spirituality that is associated with the biocentric metaphors emphasizes
ecological sensibility, an integrated social and Earth ethical system, and an Earth friendly life
style. It is a spirituality that enhances and enlivens all aspects of life, as it strives to develop a
sensitive awareness of interconnectedness of all beings or being. Evolutionary biologist Ursula
Goodenough calls such spirituality “religious naturalism” and opines: “Once we have our feelings
about Nature in place, then I believe that we can also find important ways to call ourselves Jews,
or Muslims, or Taoists, or Hopi, or Hindus, or Christians, or Buddhists. Or some of each.”.67 It is
a spirituality that is manifested in the Earth Charter Initiative which is supported by millions of
people and hundreds of non-governmental organizations on all continents. It is this Earth
Charter’s integrated ethical system that can function as a (or the) major guiding principle of a
reordered post September 11 world.68
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Political manifestations

Anthropocentric metaphors The political theories that organized Western societies since the
birth of the nation-state in the 17th century are the main political manifestations of these
metaphors. Thus, for example, liberalism and socialism in the 19th century, progressivism and neo-
conservatism in the 20th century are centered on the well-being of the human species with the
well-nigh exclusion of the well-being of other life forms and of the Earth’s life-support systems.

Biocentric metaphors I have already referred to the fact that the French revolution and the
British reform movement were in part motivated by Holbach’s interpretation of the metaphor of
Nature as measure. Presently, particularly after the 1970s when the environmental movement
came into its own, these biocentric metaphors and their associated biocentric worldview have led
to the emergence of various forms of political theories of environmentalism. According to
Canadian political scientist Paehlke environmentalism will be the organizing theory of societies in
the 21st century in a similar way that progressivism and neo-conservatism were organizing theories
in the 20th century and liberalism and socialism in the 19th century.69 Marshall’s view of
environmentalism which he calls Ecotopia considers the well-being of the Earth community to be
its central organizing principle and its purpose is to decentralize power by replacing the nation
state and to create a loose federation of organic communities, i.e. communities based upon the
opportunities and limits of their physical and biological environs, a main tenet of the bioregional
movement. Adherents to this view are to ‘encourage agencies, legislators, property owners and
managers to consider flowing with rather than forcing natural processes.”70
Thomas Berry’s new term ‘biocracy’ refers to a political system in which not only
humans, but also all the other living beings or Earth systems vote. Evidence of an emerging
biocracy in the modern Western world is legislation about endangered species and the
representation of other life forms during political assemblies when persons or organizations
become spokespersons and keepers of rivers, forests etc.71

CONCLUSION

Clearly, the analysis has attempted to show how metaphors can elucidate the complex reality of
the human-Earth relationship. At the same time, it is well to remember that each metaphor is only
a partial construction of reality and secondly that each one construes and communicates, often
implicitly, modes of thought and worldviews about the relationship, which affect both personal
behavior and societal arrangements. Thus, what is needed is (1) an awareness of metaphors as
linguistic devices that construe and communicate the complex reality of the relationship in a
partial and biased way; (2) a critical approach to comprehending discourse that uses such
metaphors as linguistic devices; (3) a mindfulness of how/when we use them in discourse.
The analysis of the texts also points to the need of language change in bringing about
sustainable, just and participatory societies. There is a need for an ergative language where
language expresses Earth as an active subject rather than a passive object that is acted upon.72
Capitalizing the term Nature and using the personal pronoun of “she” or possessive noun “her”
for Earth are other examples of such language change. Particularly, Swimme and Berry present
some of the most innovative and profound suggestions for an Earth-centered language. They,
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first of all, suggest the new metaphor Nature as celebration, based upon modern experience of
Nature in which the universe is considered “as a single, multiform, sequential, celebratory event”.
The human role in this celebratory event is “to enable this entire community to reflect on and to
celebrate itself and its deepest mystery in a special mode of conscious self-awareness.”.73 They
also point to the need for an Ecozoic dictionary. They argue that since substantive words, such as
society, freedom, justice, literacy, progress, etc. are undergoing transformation, their meanings
need to be extended to include the various members of the Earth community. They think that the
greatest linguistic change that has to take place is the change “from present efforts at an
exclusively univocal, literal, scientific, objective language to a multivalent language much richer in
its symbolic and poetic qualities.”74 Such shift would re-enchant the impoverished Western
languages. They point to the languages of primal cultures as a source of such new symbolism
using their myths and metaphors to embroider the basic Universe story that science has been able
to tell. Finally, they emphasize the importance of story as a linguistic device. It is their opinion
that the main challenge is to compose an integral and complete story of the great liturgy of the
universe that would function as “the comprehensive context of our human understanding of
ourselves.” That task, they argue, not only requires imaginative power and intellectual
understanding, but also a return to the mythic origins of the scientific venture.75 It is this author’s
hope that this latter very challenging view of a biocentric language may become the backbone for
the development of an ecologically sensitive lexicon and grammar in education, be it primary,
secondary, or tertiary.76
___________________________________________________
Frans C. Verhagen, M.Div., M.I.A., Ph.D. is an environmental sociologist who was instrumental
in starting the organization of the ecolinguistic concentration at AILA 1990. He is the founding
president of Earth and Peace Education Associates International(EPE)and specializes in
sustainability education for secondary schools for which he developed the Earth Community
School model. He can be reached at [email protected] and at www.globalepe.org.

15
1
Jeremy Rifkin, Algeny: A New Word--A New World, (NewYork: Penguin Books, 1983)
2
Daniel B. Botkin, Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the 21rst Century. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1990).
3
For the new concentration of ecolinguistics in the field of applied linguistics, consult its web site,
www.ecolinguistics.org
4
Anita Wenden, “Critical Language Education” Language and Peace, eds Christina Schaeffner and
Anita L.. Wenden, (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishing, 1999. First printing by Aldershot:
Dartmouth Press, 1995), p. 223
5
Andrew Goatly, The Language of Metaphors. (London: Routledge, 1997).
6
Paul Chilton and George Lakoff, :”Foreign Policy by Metaphor” in Schaeffner and Wenden, op.
cit., pp. 37ff.
7
Botkin, op.cit., pp. 121-3). Being a biologist, Botkin limits Nature to the biosphere. He points to
the three main meanings of Nature: 1. Undisturbed Nature or wilderness in the strict sense where
chance and uncertainty prevail; 2. Nature preserve of which national parks are an example; 3. Non-
built urban environment. There is very little Nature of the first type.
8
Brian Swimme and Thomas Berry, The Universe Story From the Primordial Flaring Forth to the
Ecozoic Era. A Celebration of the Unfolding of the Cosmos.(San Francisco: Harper, 1992), p.266
9
Peter Marshall, Nature's Web. Rethinking Our Place On Earth. (New York: Paragon House,
1994), p. 184
10
Timothy Ferris, Coming of Age in the Milky Way. (New York: Morrow, 1988), p.392
11
Most of the information about this metaphor is derived from Peter J. Bowler, The
Environmental Sciences. (New York: Norton, 1992). The most important pages are 53-57, 157-9
and passim
12
Bowler, see endnote 11
13
Botkin, op.cit., pp. 80-9
14
Ibid., op.cit., p.56
15
See endnote 11.
16
Bowler, op.cit. pp.157-9
17
Passim.
18
Swimme and Berry, op.cit., p. 40 and p. 241
19
Botkin, op.cit., p. 106 and p. 29
20
Marshall, op.cit. p. 187-8
21
Ibid, p. 181-2
22
Ibid, p. 53-4
23
Ibid, p. 292
 Donald Worster, Nature's Economy. A History of Ecological Ideas. Second Edition. (New York:
24

Cambridge University Press, 1994) p.53

25
Botkin, op.cit., p.104
26
Botkin, op.cit., p.103 with Majorie Nicolson’s statement and his opinion.

Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History. The First Abridged One-Volume Edition; Illustrated. (New
27

York: Weathervane, 1972),, p.344

28
Marshall, op.cit., p. 391

Staff of the Ankara Museum, The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. Ankara, Association for the
29

Ankara Museum.
30
The Gaia hypothesis is most elaborately presented in Sahtouris, op.cit., passim.
31
Swimme and Berry, op.cit., p. 227
32
Marshall, op.cit., p.399
33
Worster, op.cit., p. 379
34
Evidence for this statement can be found in the analysis of the Gaia listserve on the Internet.
35
Marshall, op.cit., p.408. His book clearly sets out his plan by listing under its subtitle on the front
cover its three main parts, i.e. “Where Our Ideas About Nature Come From, Why They are Wrong;
How We Can Change.”
36
Worster, op.cit. p. 35 and p. 354
37
Marshall, op.cit. p. 6
38
Worster, op.cit., pp. 57-111
39
Marshall, op.cit., p. 415-6; the reference to ecocentric equality is on pp. 438, the one of plain
citizens and other Leopold terms are on p. 355, equal right on p. 441.
40
Ibid., reference to libertarian ecology on p. 408, hymn on ecological sensibility on p. 460
41
Marshall, op.cit., p. 410
42
Toynbee, op.cit., pp. 241
43
Marshall, op.cit. p. 223

Ibid., op.cit. p. 223. The examples in this section are from Marshall’s Chapter 17 and 18, entitled
44

“To Follow Nature” and “Primitivism and the Noble Savage

45
Ibid., op.cit. pp. 274-7
46
Botkin, op.cit. pp. 113ff.

Janine M. Benyus, Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. (New York: William Morrow,
47

1997) and Ken Ausubel,. Restoring the Earth: Visionary Solutions of the Bioneers. (Tiburon,
CA94920, PO Box 1082: HJ Kramer Inc., 1997)
48
Marshall, op.cit. pp. 422-6
49
Marshall, op.cit., p. 422, 426, 446
50
Ibid., op.cit, p. 334-5
51
Marshall, op.cit. p. 428 and.446
52
in Schaeffner and Wenden, op.cit., p. 56

In earlier days many societies had rites before they engaged in mining and smelting, thus protecting
53

Nature against overexploitation. Marshall, o.c. p.154-5, 161

54
Botkin, o.c., p.105
55
Worster, o.c. p.370-1

Paul Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability. (New York: Harper
56

Collins, 1993).
57
Marshall, o.c. p. 163 and p. 180
58
Marshall, op.cit., p.xii
59
Ibidem, op.cit., p. 409
60
Ibidem, op.cit., p. 426
61
Sahtouris, op.cit., p. 244
62
For an outstanding treatise on environmental or Earth ethics see Larry Rasmussen, Earth
Community, Earth Ethics. (Maryknoll, NY: Maryknoll, 1996).
63
See Botkin, op.cit., passim
64
Fernandez, op.cit., p. 455. He facetiously remarks that “Today’s animal-rights activists are
ultraconservative revolutionaries who want to put the clock back hundreds of years.”
65
Marshall, op.cit., p. 433
66
[Fox, 2000 #184; Armstrong, 1993 #239]
67
Ursala Goodenough, The Sacred Depths of Nature. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

68
See the web sites www.earthcharter.org and www.earthcharterusa.org.

Robert Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics, ( New Haven: Yale
69

University Press, 1989).

70
Marshall, op.cit., p. 416-9
71
Thomas Berry, Dream of the Earth (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1990)
72
Andrew Goatly, Critical Reading and Writing: An Introductory Coursebook. (London:
New York, Routledge, 2000) applies in Chapter 10 other linguistic devices such as marking to the
environmental issues. See also Halliday’s key note address at the 9th AILA conference in Greece in
the summer of 1990, entitled “Ways of Meaning: The Challenge to Applied Linguistics"
73
Ibid., op.cit., pp. 263-4
74
Swimme and Berry, op.cit., p. 258
75
Ibid., op.cit., p. 279 and p. 237 Sahtouris also uses this narrative method and introduces names
such as the blubbers, breathers in her story of the dance of life which she develops from protists,
polyps, possum to people. The point of her story is that Earth is a live planet rather than a planet
with life on it.
76
See Frans C. Verhagen , “The Earth Community School: A Back-to-Basics Model of Secondary
Education” in Green Teacher, Fall 1999, pp. 28-33, where one of the components of the Earth
Community School model of secondary education is a robust ecolinguistic training. Another
component is the Earth and Peace Literacy Perspective which is based on the integrated ethical
system of the earlier discussed Earth Charter. Taking the Earth Charter as the philosophical basis of
a curriculum is not only a responsible choice given that the Earth Charter is supported by millions of
people and hundreds of non-governmental organizations and that it will very probably be adopted by
the UN General Assembly in 2002, it seems to be a necessary choice in a post September 11 world
to overcome the barriers of belief and culture in a pluralistic and ever more interdependent world.