Physics

Chapter Eleven

DUAL NATURE OF

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RADIATION AND
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MATTER
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11.1 I NTRODUCTION
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The Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism and Hertz experiments on

the generation and detection of electromagnetic waves in 1887 strongly
established the wave nature of light. Towards the same period at the end
of 19th century, experimental investigations on conduction of electricity
(electric discharge) through gases at low pressure in a discharge tube led
to many historic discoveries. The discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1895,
and of electron by J. J. Thomson in 1897, were important milestones in
the understanding of atomic structure. It was found that at sufficiently
low pressure of about 0.001 mm of mercury column, a discharge took
place between the two electrodes on applying the electric field to the gas
in the discharge tube. A fluorescent glow appeared on the glass opposite
to cathode. The colour of glow of the glass depended on the type of glass,
it being yellowish-green for soda glass. The cause of this fluorescence
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was attributed to the radiation which appeared to be coming from the

cathode. These cathode rays were discovered, in 1870, by William
Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested that these rays consisted of streams
of fast moving negatively charged particles. The British physicist
J. J. Thomson (1856 -1940) confirmed this hypothesis. By applying
mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields across the discharge
tube, J. J. Thomson was the first to determine experimentally the speed
386 and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (e/m )] of the cathode ray
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
particles. They were found to travel with speeds ranging from about 0.1
to 0.2 times the speed of light (3 ×108 m/s). The presently accepted value
of e/m is 1.76 × 1011 C/kg. Further, the value of e/m was found to be
independent of the nature of the material/metal used as the cathode
(emitter), or the gas introduced in the discharge tube. This observation
suggested the universality of the cathode ray particles.

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Around the same time, in 1887, it was found that certain metals, when
irradiated by ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having
small speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature were

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found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m of these particles
was found to be the same as that for cathode ray particles. These
observations thus established that all these particles, although produced
under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J. Thomson, in 1897,

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named these particles as electrons, and suggested that they were

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fundamental, universal constituents of matter. For his epoch-making
discovery of electron, through his theoretical and experimental
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investigations on conduction of electricity by gasses, he was awarded the

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Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906. In 1913, the American physicist R. A.
Millikan (1868-1953) performed the pioneering oil-drop experiment for
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the precise measurement of the charge on an electron. He found that the
charge on an oil-droplet was always an integral multiple of an elementary
charge, 1.602 × 10 –19 C. Millikan’s experiment established that electric
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charge is quantised. From the values of charge (e ) and specific charge

(e/m ), the mass (m) of the electron could be determined.
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11.2 ELECTRON EMISSION

We know that metals have free electrons (negatively charged particles) that
are responsible for their conductivity. However, the free electrons cannot
normally escape out of the metal surface. If an electron attempts to come
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out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a positive charge and pulls the
electron back to the metal. The free electron is thus held inside the metal
surface by the attractive forces of the ions. Consequently, the electron can
come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient energy to overcome
the attractive pull. A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be
given to an electron to pull it out from the surface of the metal. This
minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface
is called the work function of the metal. It is generally denoted by φ0 and
measured in eV (electron volt). One electron volt is the energy gained by an
electron when it has been accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt, so
that 1 eV = 1.602 ×10 –19 J.
This unit of energy is commonly used in atomic and nuclear physics.
The work function (φ 0 ) depends on the properties of the metal and the
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nature of its surface. The values of work function of some metals are
given in Table 11.1. These values are approximate as they are very
sensitive to surface impurities.
Note from Table 11.1 that the work function of platinum is the highest
(φ0 = 5.65 eV ) while it is the lowest (φ 0 = 2.14 eV) for caesium.
The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes: 387
 Physics
TABLE 11.1 WORK FUNCTIONS OF SOME METALS

Metal Work function Metal Work function

φο (eV) φο (eV)

Cs 2.14 Al 4.28

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K 2.30 Hg 4.49

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Na 2.75 Cu 4.65
Ca 3.20 Ag 4.70
Mo 4.17 Ni 5.15

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Pb 4.25 Pt 5.65

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can be imparted to the free electrons to enable them to come out of the
metal.
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(ii) Field emission : By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of
108 V m–1) to a metal, electrons can be pulled out of the metal, as in a
spark plug.
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(iii) Photo-electric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates

a metal surface, electrons are emitted from the metal surface. These
photo(light)-generated electrons are called photoelectrons.
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11.3 PHOTOELECTRIC E FFECT

11.3.1 Hertz’s observations
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The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by

Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894), during his electromagnetic wave experiments.
In his experimental investigation on the production of electromagnetic
waves by means of a spark discharge, Hertz observed that high voltage
sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate
was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp.
Light shining on the metal surface somehow facilitated the escape of
free, charged particles which we now know as electrons. When light falls
on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy
from the incident radiation to overcome the attraction of the positive ions
in the material of the surface. After gaining sufficient energy from the
incident light, the electrons escape from the surface of the metal into the
surrounding space.
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11.3.2 Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations

Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of
photoelectric emission in detail during 1886-1902.
Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were
allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing
two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit (Fig. 11.1). As
388 soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
stopped. These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall
on the emitter plate C, electrons are ejected from it which are attracted
towards the positive, collector plate A by the electric field. The electrons
flow through the evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current flow. Thus,
light falling on the surface of the emitter causes current in the external
circuit. Hallwachs and Lenard studied how this photo current varied with

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collector plate potential, and with frequency and intensity of incident light.
Hallwachs, in 1888, undertook the study further and connected a
negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed that the

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zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.

[Link]
Simulate experiments on photoelectric effect
Further, the uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was
irradiated by ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively charged
zinc plate was found to be further enhanced when it was illuminated by

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ultraviolet light. From these observations he concluded that negatively

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charged particles were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of
ultraviolet light.
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After the discovery of the electron in 1897, it became evident that the

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incident light causes electrons to be emitted from the emitter plate. Due
to negative charge, the emitted electrons are pushed towards the collector
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plate by the electric field. Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when
ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no electrons were emitted at all
when the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain
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minimum value, called the threshold frequency. This minimum frequency

depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.
It was found that certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc.,
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responded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause

electron emission from the surface. However, some alkali metals such as
lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium were sensitive
even to visible light. All these photosensitive substances emit electrons
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when they are illuminated by light. After the discovery of electrons, these
electrons were termed as photoelectrons. The phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect.

11.4 EXPERIMENTAL S TUDY OF P HOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT
Figure 11.1 depicts a schematic view of the arrangement used for the
experimental study of the photoelectric effect. It consists of an evacuated
glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C and another metal
plate A. Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short
wavelength passes through the window W and falls on the photosensitive
plate C (emitter). A transparent quartz window is sealed on to the glass
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tube, which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate

the photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and
are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the
battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates
C and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be
reversed by a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired
positive or negative potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector
plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are 389
 Physics
attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of
electric current in the circuit. The potential difference
between the emitter and collector plates is measured by
a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current
flowing in the circuit is measured by a microammeter
(µA). The photoelectric current can be increased or

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decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A
with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and
frequency of the incident light can be varied, as can the

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potential difference V between the emitter C and the
collector A.
We can use the experimental arrangement of
Fig. 11.1 to study the variation of photocurrent with

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(a) intensity of radiation, (b) frequency of incident

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FIGURE 11.1 Experimental radiation, (c) the potential difference between the
arrangement for study of plates A and C, and (d) the nature of the material
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photoelectric effect. of plate C. Light of different frequencies can be used

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by putting appropriate coloured filter or coloured
glass in the path of light falling on the emitter C. The intensity
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of light is varied by changing the distance of the light source
from the emitter.
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11.4.1 Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with
respect to emitter C so that electrons ejected from C are
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attracted towards collector A. Keeping the frequency of the

incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixed, the
intensity of light is varied and the resulting photoelectric
current is measured each time. It is found that the
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photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light

as shown graphically in Fig. 11.2. The photocurrent is directly
FIGURE 11.2 Variation of proportional to the number of photoelectrons emitted per
Photoelectric current with second. This implies that the number of photoelectrons
intensity of light. emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity
of incident radiation.

11.4.2 Effect of potential on photoelectric current

We first keep the plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect
to the plate C and illuminate the plate C with light of fixed frequency ν
and fixed intensity I1. We next vary the positive potential of plate A gradually
and measure the resulting photocurrent each time. It is found that the
photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating (positive)
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potential. At some stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the
emitted electrons are collected by the plate A and the photoelectric current
becomes maximum or saturates. If we increase the accelerating potential
of plate A further, the photocurrent does not increase. This maximum
value of the photoelectric current is called saturation current. Saturation
current corresponds to the case when all the photoelectrons emitted by
the emitter plate C reach the collector plate A.
We now apply a negative (retarding) potential to the plate A with respect
390 to the plate C and make it increasingly negative gradually. When the
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
polarity is reversed, the electrons are
repelled and only the most energetic
electrons are able to reach the collector A.
The photocurrent is found to decrease
rapidly until it drops to zero at a certain
sharply defined, critical value of the negative

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potential V0 on the plate A. For a particular
frequency of incident radiation, the
minimum negative (retarding) potential V0

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given to the plate A for which the
photocurrent stops or becomes zero is
called the cut-off or stopping potential.
The interpretation of the observation in

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terms of photoelectrons is straightforward.

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All the photoelectrons emitted from the
metal do not have the same energy.
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Photoelectric current is zero when the FIGURE 11.3 Variation of photocurr ent with

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stopping potential is sufficient to repel even collector plate potential for different
the most energetic photoelectrons, with the intensity of incident radiation.
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maximum kinetic energy (K max), so that
Kmax = e V0 (11.1)
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We can now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same
frequency but of higher intensity I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I 1). We note that the
saturation currents are now found to be at higher values. This shows
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that more electrons are being emitted per second, proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping potential remains the
same as that for the incident radiation of intensity I1, as shown graphically
in Fig. 11.3. Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity. In other words, the
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maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light source

and the emitter plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident
radiation.

11.4.3 Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping

potential
We now study the relation between the
frequency ν of the incident radiation and the
stopping potential V0 . We suitably adjust the
same intensity of light radiation at various
frequencies and study the variation of
photocurrent with collector plate potential. The
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resulting variation is shown in Fig. 11.4. We

obtain different values of stopping potential but
the same value of the saturation current for
incident radiation of different frequencies. The
FIGURE 11.4 Variation of photoelectric current
energy of the emitted electrons depends on the
with collector plate potential for different
frequency of the incident radiations. The frequencies of incident radiation.
stopping potential is more negative for higher
frequencies of incident radiation. Note from 391
 Physics
Fig. 11.4 that the stopping potentials are in the
order V03 > V02 > V01 if the frequencies are in the
order ν 3 > ν 2 > ν1 . This implies that greater the
frequency of incident light, greater is the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
Consequently, we need greater retarding

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potential to stop them completely. If we plot a
graph between the frequency of incident radiation
and the corresponding stopping potential for

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different metals we get a straight line, as shown
in Fig. 11.5.
FIGURE 11.5 Variation of stopping potential V0 The graph shows that
with frequency ν of incident radiation for a (i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with

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given photosensitive material. the frequency of incident radiation for a given

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photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν 0 for which the
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stopping potential is zero.
These observations have two implications:
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(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly
with the frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its
intensity.
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(ii) For a frequency ν of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off

frequency ν0 , no photoelectric emission is possible even if the
intensity is large.
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This minimum, cut-off frequency ν0, is called the threshold frequency.

It is different for different metals.
Different photosensitive materials respond differently to light. Selenium
is more sensitive than zinc or copper. The same photosensitive substance
gives different response to light of different wavelengths. For example,
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ultraviolet light gives rise to photoelectric effect in copper while green or

red light does not.
Note that in all the above experiments, it is found that, if frequency of
the incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the photoelectric
emission starts instantaneously without any apparent time lag, even if
the incident radiation is very dim. It is now known that emission starts in
a time of the order of 10 –9 s or less.
We now summarise the experimental features and observations
described in this section.
(i) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation
(above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light (Fig. 11.2).
(ii) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
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saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of

incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of
its intensity (Fig. 11.3).
(iii) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum
cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold
frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place,
no matter how intense the incident light is. Above the threshold
392 frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity
(Fig. 11.5).
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag (∼10 – 9s or less), even when the incident radiation is
made exceedingly dim.

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11.5 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE T HEORY

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OF LIGHT
The wave nature of light was well established by the end of the nineteenth
century. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were
explained in a natural and satisfactory way by the wave picture of light.

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According to this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of

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electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over
the region of space over which the wave is extended. Let us now see if this
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wave picture of light can explain the observations on photoelectric

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emission given in the previous section.
According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface
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of the metal (over which the beam of radiation falls) absorb the radiant
energy continuously. The greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are
the amplitude of electric and magnetic fields. Consequently, the greater
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the intensity, the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron.
In this picture, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the
surface is then expected to increase with increase in intensity. Also, no
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matter what the frequency of radiation is, a sufficiently intense beam of

radiation (over sufficient time) should be able to impart enough energy to
the electrons, so that they exceed the minimum energy needed to escape
from the metal surface . A threshold frequency, therefore, should not exist.
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These expectations of the wave theory directly contradict observations (i),

(ii) and (iii) given at the end of sub-section 11.4.3.
Further, we should note that in the wave picture, the absorption of
energy by electron takes place continuously over the entire
wavefront of the radiation. Since a large number of electrons absorb energy,
the energy absorbed per electron per unit time turns out to be small.
Explicit calculations estimate that it can take hours or more for a single
electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome the work function and
come out of the metal. This conclusion is again in striking contrast to
observation (iv) that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous. In short,
the wave picture is unable to explain the most basic features of
photoelectric emission.
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11.6 EINSTEIN ’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION: ENERGY

QUANTUM OF RADIATION
In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879 -1955) proposed a radically new picture
of electromagnetic radiation to explain photoelectric effect. In this picture,
photoelectric emission does not take place by continuous absorption of
energy from radiation. Radiation energy is built up of discrete units – the
so called quanta of energy of radiation. Each quantum of radiant energy 393
 Physics
has energy hν , where h is Planck’s constant and ν the
frequency of light. In photoelectric effect, an electron
absorbs a quantum of energy (h ν ) of radiation. If this
quantum of energy absorbed exceeds the minimum
energy needed for the electron to escape from the metal
surface (work function φ 0), the electron is emitted with

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maximum kinetic energy
K max = h ν – φ0 (11.2)

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More tightly bound electrons will emerge with kinetic
energies less than the maximum value. Note that the
intensity of light of a given frequency is determined by
the number of photons incident per second. Increasing
the intensity will increase the number of emitted electrons

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Albert Einstein (1879 –
1955) Einstein, one of the per second. However, the maximum kinetic energy of the
greatest physicists of all emitted photoelectrons is determined by the energy of each
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Germany. In 1905, he Equation (11.2) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric
published three path-
breaking papers. In the
equation. We now see how this equation accounts in a
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first paper, he introduced simple and elegant manner all the observations on
the notion of light quanta photoelectric effect given at the end of sub-section 11.4.3.
(now called photons) and • According to Eq. (11.2), Kmax depends linearly on ν ,
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used it to explain the and is independent of intensity of radiation, in

features of photoelectric
effect. In the second paper,
agreement with observation. This has happened
he developed a theory of because in Einstein’s picture, photoelectric effect arises
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Brownian motion, from the absorption of a single quantum of radiation

confirmed experimentally a by a single electron. The intensity of radiation (that is
few years later and provided proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit
a convincing evidence of
the atomic picture of matter.
area per unit time) is irrelevant to this basic process.
• Since Kmax must be non-negative, Eq. (11.2 ) implies
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The third paper gave birth

to the special theory of that photoelectric emission is possible only if
ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879 – 1955)

relativity. In 1916, he h ν > φ0

published the general or ν > ν 0 , where
theory of relativity. Some of
Einstein’s most significant φ0
later contributions are: the ν0 = (11.3)
h
notion of stimulated
emission introduced in an Equation (11.3) shows that the greater the work
alternative derivation of function φ0, the higher the minimum or threshold
Planck’s blackbody frequency ν0 needed to emit photoelectrons. Thus,
radiation law, static model there exists a threshold frequencyν0 (= φ0 /h) for the
of the universe which
started modern cosmology,
metal surface, below which no photoelectric emission
quantum statistics of a gas is possible, no matter how intense the incident
of massive bosons, and a radiation may be or how long it falls on the surface.
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critical analysis of the • In this picture, intensity of radiation as noted above,

foundations of quantum is proportional to the number of energy quanta per
mechanics. In 1921, he was
awarded the Nobel Prize in
unit area per unit time. The greater the number of
physics for his contribution energy quanta available, the greater is the number of
to theoretical physics and electrons absorbing the energy quanta and greater,
the photoelectric effect. therefore, is the number of electrons coming out of
the metal (for ν > ν0 ). This explains why, for ν > ν 0 ,
394 photoelectric current is proportional to intensity.
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
• In Einstein’s picture, the basic elementary process involved in
photoelectric effect is the absorption of a light quantum by an electron.
This process is instantaneous. Thus, whatever may be the intensity
i.e., the number of quanta of radiation per unit area per unit time,
photoelectric emission is instantaneous. Low intensity does not mean
delay in emission, since the basic elementary process is the same.

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Intensity only determines how many electrons are able to participate
in the elementary process (absorption of a light quantum by a single
electron) and, therefore, the photoelectric current.

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Using Eq. (11.1), the photoelectric equation, Eq. (11.2), can be
written as
e V 0 = h ν – φ 0; for ν ≥ ν 0

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h φ
or V0 = ν− 0 (11.4)
e e
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This is an important result. It predicts that the V0 versus ν curve is a

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straight line with slope = (h/e), independent of the nature of the material.
During 1906-1916, Millikan performed a series of experiments on
photoelectric effect, aimed at disproving Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
E
He measured the slope of the straight line obtained for sodium, similar to
that shown in Fig. 11.5. Using the known value of e, he determined the
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value of Planck’s constant h . This value was close to the value of Planck’s
contant (= 6.626 × 10–34J s) determined in an entirely different context.
In this way, in 1916, Millikan proved the validity of Einstein’s photoelectric
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equation, instead of disproving it.

The successful explanation of photoelectric effect using the hypothesis
of light quanta and the experimental determination of values of h and φ0 ,
in agreement with values obtained from other experiments, led to the
acceptance of Einstein’s picture of photoelectric effect. Millikan verified
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photoelectric equation with great precision, for a number of alkali metals

over a wide range of radiation frequencies.

11.7 PARTICLE N ATURE OF LIGHT: THE PHOTON

Photoelectric effect thus gave evidence to the strange fact that light in
interaction with matter behaved as if it was made of quanta or packets of
energy, each of energy h ν.
Is the light quantum of energy to be associated with a particle? Einstein
arrived at the important result, that the light quantum can also be
associated with momentum (h ν /c). A definite value of energy as well as
momentum is a strong sign that the light quantum can be associated
with a particle. This particle was later named photon. The particle-like
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behaviour of light was further confirmed, in 1924, by the experiment of

A.H. Compton (1892-1962) on scattering of X-rays from electrons. In
1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution
to theoretical physics and the photoelectric effect. In 1923, Millikan was
awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the elementary
charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect.
We can summarise the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation
as follows: 395
 Physics
(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is
made up of particles called photons.
(ii) Each photon has energy E (=hν ) and momentum p (= h ν /c), and
speed c, the speed of light.
(iii) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν , or wavelength λ, have
the same energy E (=hν = hc/λ) and momentum p (= hν /c = h/λ),

d
whatever the intensity of radiation may be. By increasing the intensity
of light of given wavelength, there is only an increase in the number of
photons per second crossing a given area, with each photon having

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the same energy. Thus, photon energy is independent of intensity of
radiation.
(iv) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.

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(v) In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the

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total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number
of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be
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Example 11.1 Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is
–3
produced by a laser. The power emitted is 2.0 ×10 W. (a) What is the
energy of a photon in the light beam? (b) How many photons per second,
on an average, are emitted by the source?
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Solution
(a) Each photon has an energy
–34 14
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E = h ν = ( 6.63 ×10 J s) (6.0 ×10 Hz)

–19
= 3.98 × 10 J
(b) If N is the number of photons emitted by the source per second,
EXAMPLE 11.1

the power P transmitted in the beam equals N times the energy

per photon E, so that P = N E. Then
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P 2.0 × 10−3 W
N= = −19
E 3.98 × 10 J
15
= 5.0 ×10 photons per second.

Example 11.2 The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find (a) the
threshold frequency for caesium, and (b) the wavelength of the incident
light if the photocurrent is brought to zero by a stopping potential of
0.60 V.
Solution
(a) For the cut-off or threshold frequency, the energy h ν0 of the incident
radiation must be equal to work function φ 0, so that

ν0 = φ 0 = 2.14eV
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h 6.63 ×10 −34 J s

2.14 × 1.6 × 10 −19 J
EXAMPLE 11.2

= = 5.16 × 1014 Hz
6.63 × 10 −34 J s
Thus, for frequencies less than this threshold frequency, no
photoelectrons are ejected.
(b) Photocurrent reduces to zero, when maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectrons equals the potential energy e V0 by the
396 retarding potential V0. Einstein’s Photoelectric equation is
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

hc
eV0 = hν – φ 0 = – φ0
λ
or, λ = hc/(eV0 + φ0 )
(6.63 × 10−34 J s) × (3 × 108 m/s)
=
(0.60 eV + 2.14 eV)

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EXAMPLE 11.2
19.89 × 10−26 J m
=

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(2.74 eV)
19.89 × 10−26 J m
λ= = 454 nm
2.74 × 1.6 × 10 −19 J

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Example 11.3 The wavelength of light in the visible region is about

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390 nm for violet colour, about 550 nm (average wavelength) for yellow-
green colour and about 760 nm for red colour.
re R
(a) What are the energies of photons in (eV) at the (i) violet end, (ii)

bl
average wavelength, yellow-green colour, and (iii) red end of the
visible spectrum? (Take h = 6.63×10 –34 J s and 1 eV = 1.6×10 –19J.)
E
(b) From which of the photosensitive materials with work functions
listed in Table 11.1 and using the results of (i), (ii) and (iii) of (a),
can you build a photoelectric device that operates with visible
light?
be C

Solution
(a) Energy of the incident photon, E = hν = hc/λ
E = (6.63×10–34J s) (3×108 m/s)/λ
o N

1.989 × 10 –25 J m
=
λ
(i) For violet light, λ1 = 390 nm (lower wavelength en d)
1.989 × 10–25 J m
tt ©

Incident photon energy, E 1 = –9

390×10 m
–19
= 5.10 × 10 J
5.10 × 10–19 J
= –19
1.6×10 J/eV
= 3.19 eV
(ii) For yellow-green light, λ2 = 550 nm (average wavelength)
1.989 × 10–25 J m
Incident photon energy, E 2 = –9
550×10 m
–19
= 3.62×10 J = 2.26 eV
(iii) For red light, λ3 = 760 nm (higher wavelength end )
1.989 × 10–25 J m
Incident photon energy, E3 = –9
760×10 m
no

–19
= 2.62×10 J = 1.64 eV
(b) For a photoelectric device to operate, we require incident light energy
E to be equal to or greater than the work function φ0 of the material.
EXAMPLE 11.3

Thus, the photoelectric device will operate with violet light (with
E = 3.19 eV) photosensitive material Na (with φ0 = 2.75 eV), K (with
φ0 = 2.30 e V) and Cs (with φ0 = 2.14 eV). It will also operate with
yellow-green light (with E = 2.26 eV) for Cs (with φ0 = 2.14 eV ) only.
However, it will not operate with red light (with E = 1.64 eV) for any
of these photosensitive materials. 397
 Physics
11.8 W AVE NATURE OF MATTER
The dual (wave-particle) nature of light (electromagnetic radiation, in
general) comes out clearly from what we have learnt in this and the
preceding chapters. The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena
of interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in

d
photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and
momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of a bunch of
particles – the photons. Whether a particle or wave description is best

he
suited for understanding an experiment depends on the nature of the
experiment. For example, in the familiar phenomenon of seeing an object
by our eye, both descriptions are important. The gathering and focussing
mechanism of light by the eye-lens is well described in the wave picture.

pu T
But its absorption by the rods and cones (of the retina) requires the photon

is
picture of light.
A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature,
re R might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons, etc.) also exhibit

bl
wave-like character? In 1924, the French physicist Louis Victor de Broglie
(pronounced as de Broy) (1892-1987) put forward the bold hypothesis
E
that moving particles of matter should display wave-like properties under
suitable conditions. He reasoned that nature was symmetrical and that
the two basic physical entities – matter and energy, must have symmetrical
be C

character. If radiation shows dual aspects, so should matter. De Broglie

proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of momentum
p is given as
o N

h h
λ = = (11.5)
p mv
where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed. Equation (11.5) is
tt ©

known as the de Broglie relation and the wavelength λ of the matter

wave is called de Broglie wavelength. The dual aspect of matter is evident
in the de Broglie relation. On the left hand side of Eq. (11.5), λ is the
attribute of a wave while on the right hand side the momentum p is a
typical attribute of a particle. Planck’s constant h relates the two
attributes.
Equation (11.5) for a material particle is basically a hypothesis whose
validity can be tested only by experiment. However, it is interesting to see
that it is satisfied also by a photon. For a photon, as we have seen,
p = hν /c (11.6)
Therefore,
h c
no

= =λ (11.7)
p ν
That is, the de Broglie wavelength of a photon given by Eq. (11.5) equals
the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation of which the photon is a
quantum of energy and momentum.
Clearly, from Eq. (11.5 ), λ is smaller for a heavier particle ( large m ) or
more energetic particle (large v). For example, the de Broglie wavelength
of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a speed of 20 m s –1 is easily
398 calculated:
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

P HOTOCELL

A photocell is a technological application of the photoelectric effect. It is a device whose

electrical properties are affected by light. It is also sometimes called an electric eye. A photocell
consists of a semi-cylindrical photo-sensitive metal plate C (emitter) and a wire loop A
(collector) supported in an evacuated glass or quartz bulb. It is connected to the external

d
circuit having a high-tension battery B and microammeter (µA) as shown in the Figure.
Sometimes, instead of the plate C, a thin layer of photosensitive material is pasted on the

he
inside of the bulb. A part of the bulb is left clean for the light to enter it.
When light of suitable wavelength falls on the
emitter C, photoelectrons are emitted. These
photoelectrons are drawn to the collector A.
Photocurrent of the order of a few microampere

pu T
is
can be normally obtained from a photo cell.
A photocell converts a change in intensity of
illumination into a change in photocurrent. This
re R
current can be used to operate control systems

bl
and in light measuring devices. A photocell of lead
sulphide sensitive to infrared radiation is used
E
in electronic ignition circuits.
In scientific work, photo cells are used
whenever it is necessary to measure the intensity
be C

of light. Light meters in photographic cameras

make use of photo cells to measure the intensity
of incident light. The photocells, inserted in the
o N

door light electric circuit, are used as automatic

door opener. A person approaching a doorway
may interrupt a light beam which is incident on
a photocell. The abrupt change in photocurrent
may be used to start a motor which opens the A photo cell
tt ©

door or rings an alarm. They are used in the

control of a counting device which records every interruption of the light beam caused by a
person or object passing across the beam. So photocells help count the persons entering an
auditorium, provided they enter the hall one by one. They are used for detection of traffic
law defaulters: an alarm may be sounded whenever a beam of (invisible) radiation is
intercepted.
In burglar alarm, (invisible) ultraviolet light is continuously made to fall on a photocell
installed at the doorway. A person entering the door interrupts the beam falling on the
photocell. The abrupt change in photocurrent is used to start an electric bell ringing. In fire
alarm, a number of photocells are installed at suitable places in a building. In the event of
breaking out of fire, light radiations fall upon the photocell. This completes the electric
circuit through an electric bell or a siren which starts operating as a warning signal.
Photocells are used in the reproduction of sound in motion pictures and in the television
no

camera for scanning and telecasting scenes. They are used in industries for detecting minor
flaws or holes in metal sheets.

p = m v = 0.12 kg × 20 m s–1 = 2.40 kg m s–1

h 6.63 × 10 −34 J s
λ= = = 2.76 × 10–34 m 399
p 2.40 kg m s− 1
 Physics
This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any
measurement. This is the reason why macroscopic objects
in our daily life do not show wave-like properties. On the
other hand, in the sub-atomic domain, the wave character
LOUIS VICTOR DE BROGLIE (1892 – 1987)

of particles is significant and measurable.

Consider an electron (mass m, charge e) accelerated

d
from rest through a potential V. The kinetic energy K
of the electron equals the work done (eV ) on it by the
electric field:

he
K =e V (11.8)

1 p2
Now, K = m v2 = , so that
2 2m

pu T
is
Louis Victor de Broglie p= 2m K = 2 m eV (11.9)
(1892 – 1987) French
re R physicist who put forth The de Broglie wavelength λ of the electron is then

bl
revolutionary idea of wave h h h
natur e of matter. This idea λ = = = (11.10)
was developed by Erwin p 2mK 2 m eV
E
Schródinger into a full- Substituting the numerical values of h, m, e,
fledged theory of quantum
we get
mechanics commonly
be C

known as wave mechanics. 1.227

λ = nm (11.11)
In 1929, he was awarded the V
Nobel Prize in Physics for his
where V is the magnitude of accelerating potential in
o N

discovery of the wave nature

of electrons. volts. For a 120 V accelerating potential, Eq. (11.11) gives
λ = 0.112 nm. This wavelength is of the same order as
the spacing between the atomic planes in crystals. This
suggests that matter waves associated with an electron could be verified
tt ©

by crystal diffraction experiments analogous to X-ray diffraction. We

describe the experimental verification of the de Broglie hypothesis in the
next section. In 1929, de Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons.
The matter–wave picture elegantly incorporated the Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle. According to the principle, it is not possible to
measure both the position and momentum of an electron (or any other
particle) at the same time exactly. There is always some uncertainty (∆ x )
in the specification of position and some uncertainty (∆p ) in the
specification of momentum. The product of ∆x and ∆p is of the order of ħ*
(with ħ = h/2π), i.e.,
∆x ∆p ≈ ħ (11.12)
no

Equation (11.12) allows the possibility that ∆x is zero; but then ∆p

must be infinite in order that the product is non-zero. Similarly, if ∆p is
zero, ∆x must be infinite. Ordinarily, both ∆x and ∆p are non-zero such
that their product is of the order of ħ.
Now, if an electron has a definite momentum p, (i.e.∆p = 0), by the de
Broglie relation, it has a definite wavelength λ. A wave of definite (single)

400 * A more rigorous treatment gives ∆x ∆p ≥ ħ/2.

 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
wavelength extends all over space. By Born’s
probability interpretation this means that the
electron is not localised in any finite region of
space. That is, its position uncertainty is infinite
(∆x → ∞), which is consistent with the
uncertainty principle.

d
In general, the matter wave associated with
the electron is not extended all over space. It is
a wave packet extending over some finite region

he
of space. In that case ∆x is not infinite but has
some finite value depending on the extension
of the wave packet. Also, you must appreciate
that a wave packet of finite extension does not

pu T
have a single wavelength. It is built up of

is
wavelengths spread around some central
wavelength.
re R
By de Broglie’s relation, then, the

bl
momentum of the electron will also have a
spread – an uncertainty ∆p. This is as expected
E
from the uncertainty principle. It can be shown
that the wave packet description together with FIGURE 11.6 (a) The wave packet description of
an electron. The wave packet corresponds to a
de Broglie relation and Born’s probability
be C

spread of wavelength around some central

interpretation reproduce the Heisenberg’s wavelength (and hence by de Broglie relation,
uncertainty principle exactly. a spread in momentum). Consequently, it is
In Chapter 12, the de Broglie relation will associated with an uncertainty in position
o N

be seen to justify Bohr’s postulate on (∆x) and an uncertainty in momentum (∆p).

quantisation of angular momentum of electron (b) The matter wave corresponding to a
in an atom. definite momentum of an electron
Figure 11.6 shows a schematic diagram of extends all over space. In this case,
tt ©

(a) a localised wave packet, and (b) an extended ∆ p = 0 and ∆ x → ∞.

wave with fixed wavelength.

Example 11.4 What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with (a) an

electron moving with a speed of 5.4×106 m/s, and (b) a ball of mass 150 g
travelling at 30.0 m/s?
Solution
(a) For the electron:
–31 6
Mass m = 9.11×10 kg, speed v = 5.4×10 m/s. Then, momentum
–31 6
p = m v = 9.11×10 (kg) × 5.4 × 10 (m/s)
–24
p = 4.92 × 10 kg m/s
de Broglie wavelength, λ = h/p
no

6.63 × 10–34 J s
= –24
4. 92 ×10 kg m/s
λ = 0.135 nm
EXAMPLE 11.4

(b) For the ball:

Mass m ’ = 0.150 kg, speed v ’ = 30.0 m/s.
Then momentum p ’ = m’ v’ = 0.150 (kg) × 30.0 (m/s)
p ’= 4.50 kg m/s
de Broglie wavelength λ’ = h/p’.
401
 Physics
EXAMPLE 11.4 6. 63 × 10±34 J s
=
4. 50 × kg m/s
–34
λ ’= 1.47 ×10 m
The de Broglie wavelength of electron is comparable with X-ray
–19
wavelengths. However, for the ball it is about 10 times the size of

d
the proton, quite beyond experimental measurement.

he
Example 11.5 An electron, an α-particle, and a proton have the same
kinetic energy. Which of these particles has the shortest de Broglie
wavelength?
Solution
For a particle, de Broglie wavelength, λ = h/p

pu T
is
2
Kinetic energy, K = p /2m
Then, λ = h / 2mK
EXAMPLE 11.5

re R For the same kinetic energy K, the de Broglie wavelength associated

bl
with the particle is inversely proportional to the square root of their
masses. A proton ( H) is 1836 times massive than an electron and
1
1
E
an α-particle 2 ( He) four times that of a proton.
4

Hence, α – particle has the shortest de Broglie wavelength.

be C

P ROBABILITY INTERPRETATION TO MATTER WAVES

o N

It is worth pausing here to reflect on just what a matter wave associated with a particle,
say, an electron, means. Actually, a truly satisfactory physical understanding of the
dual nature of matter and radiation has not emerged so far. The great founders of
quantum mechanics (Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, and many others) struggled with this
tt ©

and related concepts for long. Still the deep physical interpretation of quantum
mechanics continues to be an area of active research. Despite this, the concept of
matter wave has been mathematically introduced in modern quantum mechanics with
great success. An important milestone in this connection was when Max Born (1882-
1970) suggested a probability interpretation to the matter wave amplitude. According
to this, the intensity (square of the amplitude) of the matter wave at a point determines
the probability density of the particle at that point. Probability density means probability
per unit volume. Thus, if A is the amplitude of the wave at a point, |A| 2 ∆V is the
probability of the particle being found in a small volume ∆V around that point. Thus,
if the intensity of matter wave is large in a certain region, there is a greater probability
of the particle being found there than where the intensity is small.
no

Example 11.6 A particle is moving three times as fast as an electron.

EXAMPLE 11.6

The ratio of the de Broglie wavelength of the particle to that of the

electron is 1.813 × 10–4. Calculate the particle’s mass and identify the
particle.
Solution
de Broglie wavelength of a moving particle, having mass m and
402 velocity v:
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

h h
λ= =
p mv
Mass, m = h/λv
For an electron, mass m e = h/λe ve
Now, we have v/ve = 3 and

d
λ/λ e = 1.813 × 10– 4

EXAMPLE 11.6
λe ve

he
Then, mass of the particle, m = me
λ v
m = (9.11×10–31 kg) × (1/3) × (1/1.813 × 10–4)
m = 1.675 × 10–27 kg.
Thus, the particle, with this mass could be a proton or a neutron.

pu T
is
Example 11.7 What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an
electron, accelerated through a potential differnece of 100 volts?
re R
bl
Solution Accelerating potential V = 100 V. The de Broglie wavelength
λ is
E
1.227
λ = h /p = nm

EXAMPLE 11.7
V
1.227
be C

λ = nm = 0.123 nm
100
The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron in this case is of
the order of X-ray wavelengths.
o N

11.9 DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified by C.J.
tt ©

Davisson and L.H. Germer in 1927 and independently by G.P. Thomson,

in 1928, who observed
diffraction effects with beams of
electrons scattered by crystals.
Davisson and Thomson shared
the Nobel Prize in 1937 for their
experimental discovery of
diffraction of electrons by
crystals.
The experimental arrange-
ment used by Davisson and
Germer is schematically shown
no

in Fig. 11.7. It consists of an

electron gun which comprises of
a tungsten filament F, coated
with barium oxide and heated
by a low voltage power supply
(L.T. or battery). Electrons
FIGURE 11.7 Davisson-Germer electron
emitted by the filament are
diffraction arrangement.
accelerated to a desired velocity 403
 Physics
by applying suitable potential/voltage from a high voltage power supply
(H.T. or battery). They are made to pass through a cylinder with fine
holes along its axis, producing a fine collimated beam. The beam is made
to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The electrons are scattered in all
directions by the atoms of the crystal. The intensity of the electron beam,
[Link]

scattered in a given direction, is measured by the electron detector

d
(collector). The detector can be moved on a circular scale and is connected
to a sensitive galvanometer, which records the current. The deflection of

he
the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of the electron beam
entering the collector. The apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.
By moving the detector on the circular scale at different positions, the
intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured for different values
of angle of scattering θ which is the angle between the incident and the

pu T
is
scattered electron beams. The variation of the intensity (I ) of the scattered
electrons with the angle of scattering θ is obtained for different accelerating
re R voltages.

bl
The experiment was performed by varying the accelarating voltage
from 44 V to 68 V. It was noticed that a strong peak appeared in the
E
intensity (I ) of the scattered electron for an accelarating voltage of 54V at
a scattering angle θ = 50º
The appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to the
be C
Development of electron microscope

constructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of the

regularly spaced atoms of the crystals. From the electron diffraction
measurements, the wavelength of matter waves was found to be
o N

0.165 nm.
The de Broglie wavelength λ associated with electrons, using
Eq. (11.11), for V = 54 V is given by

1 .227
tt ©

λ = h /p = nm
V

1 .227
λ = nm = 0.167 nm
54
Thus, there is an excellent agreement between the theoretical value
and the experimentally obtained value of de Broglie wavelength. Davisson-
Germer experiment thus strikingly confirms the wave nature of electrons
and the de Broglie relation. More recently, in 1989, the wave nature of a
beam of electrons was experimentally demonstrated in a double-slit
experiment, similar to that used for the wave nature of light. Also, in an
experiment in 1994, interference fringes were obtained with the beams of
no

iodine molecules, which are about a million times more massive than
electrons.
The de Broglie hypothesis has been basic to the development of modern
quantum mechanics. It has also led to the field of electron optics. The
wave properties of electrons have been utilised in the design of electron
microscope which is a great improvement, with higher resolution, over
the optical microscope.
404
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

SUMMARY

1. The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out from a metal

surface is called the work function of the metal. Energy (greater than
the work function (φο) required for electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied by suitably heating or applying strong electric

d
field or irradiating it by light of suitable frequency.
2. Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons by metals

he
when illuminated by light of suitable frequency. Certain metals respond
to ultraviolet light while others are sensitive even to the visible light.
Photoelectric effect involves conversion of light energy into electrical
energy. It follows the law of conservation of energy. The photoelectric
emission is an instantaneous process and possesses certain special

pu T
is
features.
3. Photoelectric current depends on (i) the intensity of incident light, (ii)
re R
the potential difference applied between the two electrodes, and (iii)
the nature of the emitter material.

bl
4. The stopping potential (Vo) depends on (i) the frequency of incident
light, and (ii) the nature of the emitter material. For a given frequency
E
of incident light, it is independent of its intensity. The stopping potential
is directly related to the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted:
e V0 = (1/2) m v2max = K max.
be C

5. Below a certain frequency (threshold frequency) ν 0 , characteristic of

the metal, no photoelectric emission takes place, no matter how large
the intensity may be.
o N

6. The classical wave theory could not explain the main features of
photoelectric effect. Its picture of continuous absorption of energy from
radiation could not explain the independence of Kmax on intensity, the
existence of ν o and the instantaneous nature of the process. Einstein
explained these features on the basis of photon picture of light.
tt ©

According to this, light is composed of discrete packets of energy called

quanta or photons. Each photon carries an energy E (= h ν) and
momentum p (= h/λ), which depend on the frequency (ν ) of incident
light and not on its intensity. Photoelectric emission from the metal
surface occurs due to absorption of a photon by an electron.
7. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is in accordance with the energy
conservation law as applied to the photon absorption by an electron in
the metal. The maximum kinetic energy (1/2)m v2max is equal to
the photon energy ( hν ) minus the work function φ0 (= h ν 0) of the
target metal:

1
m v2max = V0 e = h ν – φ0 = h (ν – ν 0 )
2
no

This photoelectric equation explains all the features of the photoelectric

effect. Millikan’s first precise measurements confirmed the Einstein’s
photoelectric equation and obtained an accurate value of Planck’s
constant h . This led to the acceptance of particle or photon description
(nature) of electromagnetic radiation, introduced by Einstein.
8. Radiation has dual nature: wave and particle. The nature of experiment
determines whether a wave or particle description is best suited for
understanding the experimental result. Reasoning that radiation and
matter should be symmetrical in nature, Louis Victor de Broglie 405
 Physics
attributed a wave-like character to matter (material particles). The waves
associated with the moving material particles are called matter waves
or de Broglie waves.
9. The de Broglie wavelength (λ) associated with a moving particle is related
to its momentum p as: λ = h/p. The dualism of matter is inherent in the
de Broglie relation which contains a wave concept (λ) and a particle concept

d
(p). The de Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge and nature of
the material particle. It is significantly measurable (of the order of the
atomic-planes spacing in crystals) only in case of sub-atomic particles

he
like electrons, protons, etc. (due to smallness of their masses and hence,
momenta). However, it is indeed very small, quite beyond measur ement,
in case of macroscopic objects, commonly encountered in everyday life.
10. Electron diffraction experiments by Davisson and Ger mer, and by G. P.
Thomson, as well as many later experiments, have verified and confirmed

pu T
is
the wave-nature of electrons. The de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves
supports the Bohr ’s concept of stationary orbits.
re R
bl
Physical Symbol Dimensions Unit Remarks
Quantity
E
Planck’s h [ML2 T –1 ] Js E = hν
constant
be C

Stopping V0 [ML 2 T –3A –1] V e V 0= Kmax

potential
o N

Work φ0 [ML2 T –2 ] J ; eV Kmax = E –φ0

function
Threshold ν0 [T –1] Hz ν0 = φ0 /h
frequency
tt ©

de Broglie λ [L] m λ = h/p

wavelength

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Free electrons in a metal are free in the sense that they move inside the
metal in a constant potential (This is only an approximation). They are
not free to move out of the metal. They need additional energy to get
out of the metal.
2. Free electrons in a metal do not all have the same energy. Like molecules
in a gas jar, the electrons have a certain energy distribution at a given
no

temperature. This distribution is different from the usual Maxwell’s

distribution that you have learnt in the study of kinetic theory of gases.
You will lear n about it in later courses, but the difference has to do
with the fact that electrons obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. Because of the energy distribution of free electrons in a metal, the
energy required by an electron to come out of the metal is different for
different electrons. Electrons with higher energy require less additional
energy to come out of the metal than those with lower energies. Work
function is the least energy required by an electron to come out of the
406 metal.
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

4. Observations on photoelectric ef fect imply that in the event of matter-

light interaction, absorption of energy takes place in discrete units of hν .
This is not quite the same as saying that light consists of particles,
each of energy hν .
5. Observations on the stopping potential (its independence of intensity
and dependence on frequency) are the crucial discriminator between
the wave-picture and photon-picture of photoelectric effect.

d
h
6. The wavelength of a matter wave given by λ = has physical

he
p
significance; its phase velocity vp has no physical significance. However,
the group velocity of the matter wave is physically meaningful and
equals the velocity of the particle.

pu T
is
re R
bl
EXERCISES
E
11.1 Find the
(a) maximum frequency, and
be C

(b) minimum wavelength of X-rays produced by 30 kV electrons.

11.2 The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of
frequency 6 ×1014Hz is incident on the metal surface, photoemission
o N

of electrons occurs. What is the

(a) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons,
(b) Stopping potential, and
(c) maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons?
tt ©

11.3 The photoelectric cut-off voltage in a certain experiment is 1.5 V.

What is the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted?
11.4 Monochromatic light of wavelength 632.8 nm is produced by a
helium-neon laser. The power emitted is 9.42 mW.
(a) Find the energy and momentum of each photon in the light beam,
(b) How many photons per second, on the average, arrive at a target
irradiated by this beam? (Assume the beam to have uniform
cross-section which is less than the target area ), and
(c) How fast does a hydrogen atom have to travel in order to have
the same momentum as that of the photon?
11.5 The energy flux of sunlight reaching the surface of the earth is
3 2
1.388 × 10 W/m . How many photons (nearly) per square metre are
incident on the Earth per second ? Assume that the photons in the
no

sunlight have an average wavelength of 550 nm.

11.6 In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut-off
–15
voltage versus frequency of incident light is found to be 4.12 × 10 V s.
Calculate the value of Planck’s constant.
11.7 A 100 W sodium lamp radiates energy uniformly in all directions.
The lamp is located at the centre of a large sphere that absorbs all
the sodium light which is incident on it. The wavelength of the
sodium light is 589 nm. (a) What is the energy per photon associated 407
 Physics
with the sodium light? (b) At what rate are the photons delivered to
the sphere?
11.8 The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3 × 10 14 Hz. If light
of frequency 8.2 × 1014 Hz is incident on the metal, predict the cut-
off voltage for the photoelectric emission.
11.9 The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal give

d
photoelectric emission for incident radiation of wavelength 330 nm?
11.10 Light of frequency 7.21 × 10 14 Hz is incident on a metal surface.

he
5
Electrons with a maximum speed of 6.0 × 10 m/s are ejected from
the surface. What is the threshold frequency for photoemission of
electrons?
11.11 Light of wavelength 488 nm is produced by an argon laser which is
used in the photoelectric effect. When light from this spectral line is

pu T
is
incident on the emitter, the stopping (cut-of f) potential of
photoelectr ons is 0.38 V. Find the work function of the material
re R from which the emitter is made.

bl
11.12 Calculate the
(a) momentum, and
E
(b) de Broglie wavelength of the electrons accelerated through a
potential dif ference of 56 V.
11.13 What is the
be C

(a) momentum,
(b) speed, and
(c) de Broglie wavelength of an electron with kinetic energy of
o N

120 eV.
11.14 The wavelength of light from the spectral emission line of sodium is
589 nm. Find the kinetic energy at which
(a) an electron, and
tt ©

(b) a neutron, would have the same de Broglie wavelength.

11.15 What is the de Broglie wavelength of
(a) a bullet of mass 0.040 kg travelling at the speed of 1.0 km/s,
(b) a ball of mass 0.060 kg moving at a speed of 1.0 m/s, and
(c) a dust particle of mass 1.0 × 10 –9 kg drifting with a speed of
2.2 m/s ?
11.16 An electron and a photon each have a wavelength of 1.00 nm. Find
(a) their momenta,
(b) the energy of the photon, and
(c) the kinetic energy of electron.
11.17 (a) For what kinetic energy of a neutron will the associated de Broglie
wavelength be 1.40 × 10 –10 m?
(b) Also find the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron, in thermal
no

equilibrium with matter, having an average kinetic energy of

(3/2) k T at 300 K.
11.18 Show that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is equal to
the de Broglie wavelength of its quantum (photon).
11.19 What is the de Broglie wavelength of a nitrogen molecule in air at
300 K ? Assume that the molecule is moving with the root-mean-
square speed of molecules at this temperature. (Atomic mass of
408 nitrogen = 14.0076 u)
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
11.20 (a) Estimate the speed with which electrons emitted from a heated
emitter of an evacuated tube impinge on the collector maintained
at a potential difference of 500 V with respect to the emitter.
Ignore the small initial speeds of the electrons. The

d
specific charge of the electron, i.e., its e/m is given to be
11 –1
1.76 × 10 C kg .

he
(b) Use the same formula you employ in (a) to obtain electron speed
for an collector potential of 10 MV. Do you see what is wrong ? In
what way is the formula to be modified ?
11.21 (a) A monoenergetic electron beam with electron speed of
5.20 × 106 m s–1 is subject to a magnetic field of 1.30 × 10–4 T

pu T
is
normal to the beam velocity. What is the radius of the circle traced
by the beam, given e/m for electron equals 1.76 × 1011C kg–1.
(b) Is the formula you employ in (a) valid for calculating radius of
re Rthe path of a 20 MeV electron beam? If not, in what way is it

bl
modified ?
[Note: Exercises 11.20(b) and 11.21(b) take you to relativistic
E
mechanics which is beyond the scope of this book. They have been
inserted here simply to emphasise the point that the formulas you
use in part (a) of the exercises are not valid at very high speeds or
be C

energies. See answers at the end to know what ‘very high speed or
energy’ means.]
11.22 An electron gun with its collector at a potential of 100 V fires out
o N

electrons in a spherical bulb containing hydrogen gas at low

pressure (∼10–2 mm of Hg). A magnetic field of 2.83 × 10 –4 T curves
the path of the electrons in a circular orbit of radius 12.0 cm. (The
path can be viewed because the gas ions in the path focus the beam
by attracting electrons, and emitting light by electron capture; this
tt ©

method is known as the ‘fine beam tube’ method.) Determine

e/m from the data.
11.23 (a) An X-ray tube produces a continuous spectrum of radiation with
its short wavelength end at 0.45 Å. What is the maximum energy
of a photon in the radiation?
(b) From your answer to (a), guess what order of accelerating voltage
(for electrons) is required in such a tube ?
11.24 In an accelerator experiment on high-energy collisions of electrons
with positrons, a certain event is interpreted as annihilation of an
electron-positron pair of total energy 10.2 BeV into two γ-rays of
equal energy. What is the wavelength associated with each γ-ray?
9
(1BeV = 10 eV)
no

11.25 Estimating the following two numbers should be interesting. The

first number will tell you why radio engineers do not need to worry
much about photons! The second number tells you why our eye can
never ‘count photons’, even in barely detectable light.
(a) The number of photons emitted per second by a Medium wave
transmitter of 10 kW power, emitting radiowaves of wavelength
500 m.
(b) The number of photons entering the pupil of our eye per second
corresponding to the minimum intensity of white light that we 409
 Physics
humans can perceive (∼10–10 W m –2). Take the area of the pupil
to be about 0.4 cm2, and the average frequency of white light to
be about 6 × 1014 Hz.
11.26 Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 Å from a 100 W mercury source
irradiates a photo-cell made of molybdenum metal. If the stopping
potential is –1.3 V, estimate the work function of the metal. How

d
would the photo-cell respond to a high intensity (∼105 W m–2) red
light of wavelength 6328 Å produced by a He-Ne laser?
–9
11.27 Monochromatic radiation of wavelength 640.2 nm (1nm = 10 m)

he
from a neon lamp irradiates photosensitive material made of caesium
on tungsten. The stopping voltage is measured to be 0.54 V. The
source is replaced by an iron source and its 427.2 nm line irradiates
the same photo-cell. Predict the new stopping voltage.

pu T
is
11.28 A mercury lamp is a convenient source for studying frequency
dependence of photoelectric emission, since it gives a number of
spectral lines ranging from the UV to the red end of the visible
re R spectrum. In our experiment with rubidium photo-cell, the following

bl
lines from a mercury source were used:
λ 1 = 3650 Å, λ2= 4047 Å, λ3= 4358 Å, λ4= 5461 Å, λ5= 6907 Å,
E
The stopping voltages, respectively, were measured to be:
V 01 = 1.28 V, V 02 = 0.95 V, V 03 = 0.74 V, V 04 = 0.16 V, V05 = 0 V
be C

Determine the value of Planck’s constant h, the threshold frequency

and work function for the material.
[Note: You will notice that to get h from the data, you will need to
know e (which you can take to be 1.6 × 10–19 C). Experiments of this
o N

kind on Na, Li, K, etc. were performed by Millikan, who, using his
own value of e (from the oil-drop experiment) confirmed Einstein’s
photoelectric equation and at the same time gave an independent
estimate of the value of h.]
tt ©

11.29 The work function for the following metals is given:

Na: 2.75 eV; K: 2.30 eV; Mo: 4.17 eV; Ni: 5.15 eV. Which of these
metals will not give photoelectric emission for a radiation of
wavelength 3300 Å from a He-Cd laser placed 1 m away from the
photocell? What happens if the laser is brought nearer and placed
50 cm away ?
11.30 Light of intensity 10–5 W m–2 falls on a sodium photo-cell of surface
2
area 2 cm . Assuming that the top 5 layers of sodium absorb the
incident energy, estimate time required for photoelectric emission
in the wave-picture of radiation. The work function for the metal is
given to be about 2 eV. What is the implication of your answer?
11.31 Crystal diffraction experiments can be performed using X-rays, or
no

electrons accelerated through appropriate voltage. Which probe has

greater energy? (For quantitative comparison, take the wavelength
of the pr obe equal to 1 Å, which is of the order of inter -atomic spacing
–31
in the lattice) (m e=9.11 × 10 kg).
11.32 (a) Obtain the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron of kinetic energy
150 eV. As you have seen in Exer cise 11.31, an electron beam of
this ener gy is suitable for crystal diffraction experiments. Would
a neutron beam of the same energy be equally suitable ? Explain.
410 –27
(m n = 1.675 × 10 kg)
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
(b) Obtain the de Broglie wavelength associated with thermal
neutrons at room temperature (27 ºC). Hence explain why a fast
neutron beam needs to be thermalised with the environment
before it can be used for neutron diffraction experiments.
11.33 An electron microscope uses electrons accelerated by a voltage of
50 kV. Deter mine the de Broglie wavelength associated with the
electrons. If other factors (such as numerical aperture, etc.) are

d
taken to be roughly the same, how does the resolving power of an
electron microscope compare with that of an optical microscope

he
which uses yellow light?
11.34 The wavelength of a probe is roughly a measure of the size of a
structure that it can probe in some detail. The quark structure
of protons and neutrons appears at the minute length-scale of
–15
10 m or less. This structure was first probed in early 1970’s using

pu T
is
high energy electron beams produced by a linear accelerator at
Stanford, USA. Guess what might have been the order of energy of
re R
these electron beams. (Rest mass energy of electron = 0.511 MeV.)

bl
11.35 Find the typical de Broglie wavelength associated with a He atom in
helium gas at room temperature (27 ºC) and 1 atm pressure; and
compare it with the mean separation between two atoms under these
E
conditions.
11.36 Compute the typical de Broglie wavelength of an electron in a metal
be C

at 27 ºC and compare it with the mean separation between two

electrons in a metal which is given to be about 2 × 10–10 m.
[Note: Exercises 11.35 and 11.36 reveal that while the wave-packets
associated with gaseous molecules under ordinary conditions are
o N

non-overlapping, the electron wave-packets in a metal strongly

overlap with one another. This suggests that whereas molecules in
an ordinary gas can be distinguished apart, electrons in a metal
cannot be distintguished apart from one another. This
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indistinguishibility has many fundamental implications which you

will explore in more advanced Physics courses.]
11.37 Answer the following questions:
(a) Quarks inside protons and neutrons are thought to carry
fractional charges [(+2/3)e ; (–1/3)e]. Why do they not show up
in Millikan’s oil-drop experiment ?
(b) What is so special about the combination e/m ? Why do we not
simply talk of e and m separately?
(c) Why should gases be insulators at ordinary pressures and start
conducting at very low pressures ?
(d) Every metal has a definite work function. Why do all
photoelectrons not come out with the same energy if incident
radiation is monochromatic? Why is there an energy distribution
of photoelectrons ?
no

(e) The energy and momentum of an electron are related to the

frequency and wavelength of the associated matter wave by the
relations:
h
E = h ν, p =
λ
But while the value of λ is physically significant, the value of ν
(and therefore, the value of the phase speed ν λ) has no physical
significance. Why? 411
 Physics

APPENDIX

d
11.1 The history of wave-particle flip-flop

he
What is light? This question has haunted mankind for a long time. But systematic experiments were done by
scientists since the dawn of the scientific and industrial era, about four centuries ago. Around the same time,
theoretical models about what light is made of were developed. While building a model in any branch of
science, it is essential to see that it is able to explain all the experimental observations existing at that time.
It is therefore appropriate to summarize some observations about light that were known in the seventeenth

pu T
century.

is
The properties of light known at that time included (a) rectilinear propagation of light, (b) reflection from
plane and curved surfaces, (c) refraction at the boundary of two media, (d) dispersion into various colours, (e)
re R
high speed. Appropriate laws were formulated for the first four phenomena. For example, Snell formulated his

bl
laws of refraction in 1621. Several scientists right from the days of Galileo had tried to measure the speed of
light. But they had not been able to do so. They had only concluded that it was higher than the limit of their
measurement.
E
Two models of light were also proposed in the seventeenth century. Descartes, in early decades of seventeenth
century, proposed that light consists of particles, while Huygens, around 1650-60, proposed that light consists
of waves. Descartes′ proposal was merely a philosophical model, devoid of any experiments or scientific
be C

ar guments. Newton soon after, ar ound 1660-70, extended Descartes′ particle model, known as corpuscular
theory , built it up as a scientific theory, and explained various known properties with it. These models, light
as waves and as particles, in a sense, are quite opposite of each other. But both models could explain all the
known properties of light. There was nothing to choose between them.
o N

The history of the development of these models over the next few centuries is interesting. Bartholinus, in
1669, discovered double refraction of light in some crystals, and Huygens, in 1678, was quick to explain it on
the basis of his wave theory of light. In spite of this, for over one hundred years, Newton’s particle model was
firmly believed and preferred over the wave model. This was partly because of its simplicity and partly because
of Newton’s influence on contemporary physics.
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Then in 1801, Young performed his double-slit experiment and observed interference fringes. This
phenomenon could be explained only by wave theory. It was realized that diffraction was also another
phenomenon which could be explained only by wave theory. In fact, it was a natural consequence of Huygens
idea of secondary wavelets emanating from every point in the path of light. These experiments could not be
explained by assuming that light consists of particles. Another phenomenon of polarisation was discovered
around 1810, and this too could be naturally explained by the wave theory. Thus wave theory of Huygens
came to the forefront and Newton’s particle theory went into the background. This situation again continued
for almost a century.
Better experiments were performed in the nineteenth century to determine the speed of light. With more
accurate experiments, a value of 3×108 m/s for speed of light in vacuum was arrived at. Around 1860, Maxwell
proposed his equations of electromagnetism and it was realized that all electromagnetic phenomena known at
that time could be explained by Maxwell’s four equations. Soon Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic
fields could propagate through empty space (vacuum) in the form of electromagnetic waves. He calculated the
speed of these waves and arrived at a theoretical value of 2.998×108 m/s. The close agreement of this value
no

with the experimental value suggested that light consists of electromagnetic waves. In 1887 Hertz demonstrated
the generation and detection of such waves. This established the wave theory of light on a firm footing. We
might say that while eighteenth century belonged to the particle model, the nineteenth century belonged to
the wave model of light.
Vast amounts of experiments were done during the period 1850-1900 on heat and related phenomena, an
altogether different area of physics. Theories and models like kinetic theory and thermodynamics were developed
which quite successfully explained the various phenomena, except one.

412
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
Every body at any temperature emits radiation of all wavelengths. It also absorbs radiation falling on it.
A body which absorbs all the radiation falling on it is called a black body. It is an ideal concept in physics, like
concepts of a point mass or uniform motion. A graph of the intensity of radiation emitted by a body versus
wavelength is called the black body spectrum. No theory in those days could explain the complete black body
spectrum!
In 1900, Planck hit upon a novel idea. If we assume, he said, that radiation is emitted in packets of energy
instead of continuously as in a wave, then we can explain the black body spectrum. Planck himself regarded

d
these quanta, or packets, as a property of emission and absorption, rather than that of light. He derived a
formula which agreed with the entire spectrum. This was a confusing mixture of wave and particle pictures –
radiation is emitted as a particle, it travels as a wave, and is again absorbed as a particle! Moreover, this put

he
physicists in a dilemma. Should we again accept the particle picture of light just to explain one phenomenon?
Then what happens to the phenomena of interference and diffraction which cannot be explained by the
particle model?
But soon in 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by assuming the particle picture of light.
In 1907, Debye explained the low temperature specific heats of solids by using the particle picture for lattice

pu T
is
vibrations in a crystalline solid. Both these phenomena belonging to widely diverse areas of physics could be
explained only by the particle model and not by the wave model. In 1923, Compton’s x-ray scattering experiments
from atoms also went in favour of the particle pictur e. This increased the dilemma further.
re R
Thus by 1923, physicists faced with the following situation. (a) There were some phenomena like rectilinear

bl
propagation, reflection, refraction, which could be explained by either particle model or by wave model. (b)
There were some phenomena such as diffraction and interference which could be explained only by the wave
E
model but not by the particle model. (c) There were some phenomena such as black body radiation, photoelectric
effect, and Compton scattering which could be explained only by the particle model but not by the wave model.
Somebody in those days aptly remarked that light behaves as a particle on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays,
and as a wave on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, and we don’t talk of light on Sundays!
be C

In 1924, de Broglie proposed his theory of wave-particle duality in which he said that not only photons
of light but also ‘particles’ of matter such as electrons and atoms possess a dual character, sometimes
behaving like a particle and sometimes as a wave. He gave a formula connecting their mass, velocity, momentum
o N

(particle characteristics), with their wavelength and frequency (wave characteristics)! In 1927 Thomson, and
Davisson and Germer, in separate experiments, showed that electrons did behave like waves with a wavelength
which agreed with that given by de Broglie’s formula. Their experiment was on diffraction of electrons through
crystalline solids, in which the regular arrangement of atoms acted like a grating. Very soon, diffraction
experiments with other ‘particles’ such as neutrons and protons were performed and these too confirmed with
tt ©

de Broglie’s formula. This confirmed wave-particle duality as an established principle of physics. Here was a
principle, physicists thought, which explained all the phenomena mentioned above not only for light but also
for the so-called particles.
But there was no basic theoretical foundation for wave-particle duality. De Broglie’s proposal was
merely a qualitative argument based on symmetry of nature. Wave-particle duality was at best a principle, not
an outcome of a sound fundamental theory. It is true that all experiments whatever agreed with de Broglie
formula. But physics does not work that way. On the one hand, it needs experimental confirmation, while on
the other hand, it also needs sound theoretical basis for the models proposed. This was developed over the
next two decades. Dirac developed his theory of radiation in about 1928, and Heisenberg and Pauli gave it a
firm footing by 1930. T omonaga, Schwinger, and Feynman, in late 1940s, produced further refinements and
cleared the theory of inconsistencies which were noticed. All these theories mainly put wave-particle duality
on a theoretical footing.
Although the story continues, it grows more and more complex and beyond the scope of this note. But
we have here the essential structure of what happened, and let us be satisfied with it at the moment. Now it
is regarded as a natural consequence of present theories of physics that electromagnetic radiation as well as
no

particles of matter exhibit both wave and particle properties in different experiments, and sometimes even in
the different parts of the same experiment.

413
 Physics

Chapter Twelve

ATOMS

12.1 INTRODUCTION
By the nineteenth century, enough evidence had accumulated in favour of
atomic hypothesis of matter. In 1897, the experiments on electric discharge
through gases carried out by the English physicist J. J. Thomson (1856 –
1940) revealed that atoms of different elements contain negatively charged
constituents (electrons) that are identical for all atoms. However, atoms on a
whole are electrically neutral. Therefore, an atom must also contain some
positive charge to neutralise the negative charge of the electrons. But what
is the arrangement of the positive charge and the electrons inside the atom?
In other words, what is the structure of an atom?
The first model of atom was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1898.
According to this model, the positive charge of the atom is uniformly
distributed throughout the volume of the atom and the negatively charged
electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a watermelon. This model was
picturesquely called plum pudding model of the atom. However
subsequent studies on atoms, as described in this chapter, showed that
the distribution of the electrons and positive charges are very different
from that proposed in this model.
We know that condensed matter (solids and liquids) and dense gases at
all temperatures emit electromagnetic radiation in which a continuous
distribution of several wavelengths is present, though with different
414 intensities. This radiation is considered to be due to oscillations of atoms
 Atoms
and molecules, governed by the interaction of each atom or
molecule with its neighbours. In contrast, light emitted from
rarefied gases heated in a flame, or excited electrically in a
glow tube such as the familiar neon sign or mercury vapour
light has only certain discrete wavelengths. The spectrum
appears as a series of bright lines. In such gases, the
average spacing between atoms is large. Hence, the
radiation emitted can be considered due to individual atoms
rather than because of interactions between atoms or
molecules.
In the early nineteenth century it was also established
that each element is associated with a characteristic
spectrum of radiation, for example, hydrogen always gives

ERNST RUTHERFORD (1871 – 1937)

a set of lines with fixed relative position between the lines. Ernst Rutherford (1871 –
This fact suggested an intimate relationship between the 1937) British physicist
internal structure of an atom and the spectrum of who did pioneering work on
radiation emitted by it. In 1885, Johann Jakob Balmer radioactive radiation. He
(1825 – 1898) obtained a simple empirical formula which discovered alpha-rays and
gave the wavelengths of a group of lines emitted by atomic beta-rays. Along with
hydrogen. Since hydrogen is simplest of the elements Federick Soddy, he created
known, we shall consider its spectrum in detail in this the modern theory of
chapter. radioactivity. He studied
the ‘emanation’ of thorium
Ernst Rutherford (1871–1937), a former research
and discovered a new noble
student of J. J. Thomson, was engaged in experiments on
gas, an isotope of radon,
α-particles emitted by some radioactive elements. In 1906,
now known as thoron. By
he proposed a classic experiment of scattering of these scattering alpha-rays from
α-particles by atoms to investigate the atomic structure. the metal foils, he
This experiment was later performed around 1911 by Hans discovered the atomic
Geiger (1882–1945) and Ernst Marsden (1889–1970, who nucleus and proposed the
was 20 year-old student and had not yet earned his plenatery model of the
bachelor’s degree). The details are discussed in Section atom. He also estimated the
12.2. The explanation of the results led to the birth of approximate size of the
Rutherford’s planetary model of atom (also called the nucleus.
nuclear model of the atom). According to this the entire
positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a small
volume called the nucleus with electrons revolving around the nucleus just
as planets revolve around the sun.
Rutherford’s nuclear model was a major step towards how we see
the atom today. However, it could not explain why atoms emit light of
only discrete wavelengths. How could an atom as simple as hydrogen,
consisting of a single electron and a single proton, emit a complex
spectrum of specific wavelengths? In the classical picture of an atom, the
electron revolves round the nucleus much like the way a planet revolves
round the sun. However, we shall see that there are some serious
difficulties in accepting such a model.

12.2 ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING AND

RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM
At the suggestion of Ernst Rutherford, in 1911, H. Geiger and E. Marsden
performed some experiments. In one of their experiments, as shown in 415
 Physics
Fig. 12.1, they directed a beam of
5.5 MeV α-particles emitted from a
214
83 Bi
radioactive source at a thin metal
foil made of gold. Figure 12.2 shows a
schematic diagram of this experiment.
Alpha-particles emitted by a 214 83 Bi
radioactive source were collimated into
a narrow beam by their passage
through lead bricks. The beam was
allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of
thickness 2.1 × 10–7 m. The scattered
alpha-particles were observed through
a rotatable detector consisting of zinc
sulphide screen and a microscope. The
scattered alpha-particles on striking
the screen produced brief light flashes
or scintillations. These flashes may be
viewed through a microscope and the
FIGURE 12.1 Geiger-Marsden scattering experiment. distribution of the number of scattered
The entire apparatus is placed in a vacuum chamber particles may be studied as a function
(not shown in this figure).
of angle of scattering.

FIGURE 12.2 Schematic arrangement of the Geiger-Marsden experiment.

A typical graph of the total number of α-particles scattered at different

angles, in a given interval of time, is shown in Fig. 12.3. The dots in this
figure represent the data points and the solid curve is the theoretical
prediction based on the assumption that the target atom has a small,
dense, positively charged nucleus. Many of the α-particles pass through
the foil. It means that they do not suffer any collisions. Only about 0.14%
of the incident α-particles scatter by more than 1º; and about 1 in 8000
deflect by more than 90º. Rutherford argued that, to deflect the α-particle
416 backwards, it must experience a large repulsive force. This force could
 Atoms
be provided if the greater part of the
mass of the atom and its positive charge
were concentrated tightly at its centre.
Then the incoming α-particle could get
very close to the positive charge without
penetrating it, and such a close
encounter would result in a large
deflection. This agreement supported
the hypothesis of the nuclear atom. This
is why Rutherford is credited with the
discovery of the nucleus.
In Rutherford’s nuclear model of
the atom, the entire positive charge and
most of the mass of the atom are
concentrated in the nucleus with the
electrons some distance away. The
electrons would be moving in orbits
about the nucleus just as the planets FIGURE 12.3 Experimental data points (shown by
dots) on scattering of α-particles by a thin foil at
do around the sun. Rutherford’s
different angles obtained by Geiger and Marsden
experiments suggested the size of using the setup shown in Figs. 12.1 and
the nucleus to be about 10–15 m to 12.2. Rutherford’s nuclear model predicts the solid
10–14 m. From kinetic theory, the size curve which is seen to be in good agreement with
of an atom was known to be 10–10 m, experiment.
about 10,000 to 100,000 times larger
than the size of the nucleus (see Chapter 11, Section 11.6 in Class XI
Physics textbook). Thus, the electrons would seem to be at a distance
from the nucleus of about 10,000 to 100,000 times the size of the nucleus
itself. Thus, most of an atom is empty space. With the atom being largely
empty space, it is easy to see why most α-particles go right through a
thin metal foil. However, when α-particle happens to come near a nucleus,
the intense electric field there scatters it through a large angle. The atomic
electrons, being so light, do not appreciably affect the α-particles.
The scattering data shown in Fig. 12.3 can be analysed by employing
Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom. As the gold foil is very thin, it
can be assumed that α-particles will suffer not more than one scattering
during their passage through it. Therefore, computation of the trajectory
of an alpha-particle scattered by a single nucleus is enough. Alpha-
particles are nuclei of helium atoms and, therefore, carry two units, 2e,
of positive charge and have the mass of the helium atom. The charge of
the gold nucleus is Ze, where Z is the atomic number of the atom; for
gold Z = 79. Since the nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier than an
α-particle, it is reasonable to assume that it remains stationary
throughout the scattering process. Under these assumptions, the
trajectory of an alpha-particle can be computed employing Newton’s
second law of motion and the Coulomb’s law for electrostatic
force of repulsion between the alpha-particle and the positively
charged nucleus. 417
 Physics
The magnitude of this force is
1 (2e )( Ze )
F (12.1)
4 0 r2
where r is the distance between the α-particle and the nucleus. The force
is directed along the line joining the α-particle and the nucleus. The
magnitude and direction of the force on an α-particle continuously
changes as it approaches the nucleus and recedes away from it.

12.2.1 Alpha-particle trajectory

The trajectory traced by an α-particle depends on the impact parameter,
b of collision. The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the
initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus (Fig.
12.4). A given beam of α-particles has a
distribution of impact parameters b, so that
the beam is scattered in various directions
with different probabilities (Fig. 12.4). (In
a beam, all particles have nearly same
kinetic energy.) It is seen that an α-particle
close to the nucleus (small impact
parameter) suffers large scattering. In case
of head-on collision, the impact parameter
is minimum and the α-particle rebounds
back (θ ≅ π). For a large impact parameter,
the α-particle goes nearly undeviated and
has a small deflection (θ ≅ 0).
FIGURE 12.4 Trajectory of α-particles in the The fact that only a small fraction of the
coulomb field of a target nucleus. The impact
number of incident particles rebound back
parameter, b and scattering angle θ
are also depicted.
indicates that the number of α-particles
undergoing head on collision is small. This,
in turn, implies that the mass of the atom is concentrated in a small
volume. Rutherford scattering therefore, is a powerful way to determine
an upper limit to the size of the nucleus.

Example 12.1 In the Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom, the

nucleus (radius about 10–15 m) is analogous to the sun about which
the electron move in orbit (radius ≈ 10–10 m) like the earth orbits
around the sun. If the dimensions of the solar system had the same
proportions as those of the atom, would the earth be closer to or
farther away from the sun than actually it is ? The radius of earth’s
orbit is about 1.5 × 1011 m. The radius of sun is taken as 7 × 108 m.
Solution The ratio of the radius of electron’s orbit to the radius of
nucleus is (10–10 m)/(10–15 m) = 105, that is, the radius of the electron’s
orbit is 105 times larger than the radius of nucleus. If the radius of
the earth’s orbit around the sun were 105 times larger than the radius
EXAMPLE 12.1

of the sun, the radius of the earth’s orbit would be 105 × 7 × 108 m =
7 × 1013 m. This is more than 100 times greater than the actual orbital
radius of earth. Thus, the earth would be much farther away from
the sun.
It implies that an atom contains a much greater fraction of empty
418 space than our solar system does.
 Atoms

Example 12.2 In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, what is the distance

of closest approach to the nucleus of a 7.7 MeV α-particle before it
comes momentarily to rest and reverses its direction?
Solution The key idea here is that throughout the scattering process,
the total mechanical energy of the system consisting of an α-particle
and a gold nucleus is conserved. The system’s initial mechanical
energy is Ei, before the particle and nucleus interact, and it is equal
to its mechanical energy Ef when the α-particle momentarily stops.
The initial energy Ei is just the kinetic energy K of the incoming
α- particle. The final energy Ef is just the electric potential energy U
of the system. The potential energy U can be calculated from
Eq. (12.1).
Let d be the centre-to-centre distance between the α-particle and
the gold nucleus when the α-particle is at its stopping point. Then

[Link]
Simulate Rutherford scattering experiment
we can write the conservation of energy Ei = Ef as
1 (2e )( Ze ) 2Ze 2
K
4 0 d 4 0d
Thus the distance of closest approach d is given by
2 Ze 2
d
4 0K
The maximum kinetic energy found in α-particles of natural origin is
7.7 MeV or 1.2 × 10–12 J. Since 1/4πε0 = 9.0 × 109 N m2/C2. Therefore
with e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, we have,
(2)(9.0 109 Nm 2 / C 2 )(1.6 10 –19 C )2 Z
d
1.2 10 12 J
–16
= 3.84 × 10 Z m
The atomic number of foil material gold is Z = 79, so that
d (Au) = 3.0 × 10–14 m = 30 fm. (1 fm (i.e. fermi) = 10–15 m.)
The radius of gold nucleus is, therefore, less than 3.0 × 10–14 m. This
EXAMPLE 12.2

is not in very good agreement with the observed result as the actual
radius of gold nucleus is 6 fm. The cause of discrepancy is that the
distance of closest approach is considerably larger than the sum of
the radii of the gold nucleus and the α-particle. Thus, the α-particle
reverses its motion without ever actually touching the gold nucleus.

12.2.2 Electron orbits

The Rutherford nuclear model of the atom which involves classical
concepts, pictures the atom as an electrically neutral sphere consisting
of a very small, massive and positively charged nucleus at the centre
surrounded by the revolving electrons in their respective dynamically
stable orbits. The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving
electrons and the nucleus provides the requisite centripetal force (Fc ) to
keep them in their orbits. Thus, for a dynamically stable orbit in a
hydrogen atom
Fe = Fc
mv 2 1 e2
(12.2) 419
r 4 0 r2
 Physics
Thus the relation between the orbit radius and the electron
velocity is
e2
r (12.3)
4 0mv 2
The kinetic energy (K ) and electrostatic potential energy (U ) of the electron
in hydrogen atom are
1 e2 e2
K mv 2 and U
2 8 0 r 4 0 r
(The negative sign in U signifies that the electrostatic force is in the –r
direction.) Thus the total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is
e2 e2
E K U
8 0r 4 0 r

e2
(12.4)
8 0 r
The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that
the electron is bound to the nucleus. If E were positive, an electron will
not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.

Example 12.3 It is found experimentally that 13.6 eV energy is

required to separate a hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron.
Compute the orbital radius and the velocity of the electron in a
hydrogen atom.
Solution Total energy of the electron in hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV =
–13.6 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = –2.2 ×10–18 J. Thus from Eq. (12.4), we have
e2 18
2.2 10 J
8 0r

This gives the orbital radius

e2 (9 109 N m 2/C2 )(1.6 10 19
C)2
r
8 0 E (2)(–2.2 10 18 J)
= 5.3 × 10–11 m.
EXAMPLE 12.3

The velocity of the revolving electron can be computed from Eq. (12.3)
with m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg,
e
v 2.2 106 m/s.
4 0mr

12.3 ATOMIC SPECTRA

As mentioned in Section 12.1, each element has a characteristic spectrum
of radiation, which it emits. When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at
low pressure, usually by passing an electric current through it, the emitted
radiation has a spectrum which contains certain specific wavelengths
420 only. A spectrum of this kind is termed as emission line spectrum and it
 Atoms
consists of bright lines on a
dark background. The
spectrum emitted by atomic
hydrogen is shown in
Fig. 12.5. Study of emission
line spectra of a material can
therefore serve as a type of
“fingerprint” for identification
of the gas. When white light
passes through a gas and we
analyse the transmitted light
using a spectrometer we find
some dark lines in the FIGURE 12.5 Emission lines in the spectrum of hydrogen.
spectrum. These dark lines
correspond precisely to those wavelengths which were found in the
emission line spectrum of the gas. This is called the absorption spectrum
of the material of the gas.

12.3.1 Spectral series

We might expect that the frequencies of the light emitted by a particular
element would exhibit some regular pattern. Hydrogen is the simplest
atom and therefore, has the simplest spectrum. In the observed spectrum,
however, at first sight, there does not seem to be
any resemblance of order or regularity in spectral
lines. But the spacing between lines within certain
sets of the hydrogen spectrum decreases in a
regular way (Fig. 12.5). Each of these sets is called
a spectral series. In 1885, the first such series was
observed by a Swedish school teacher Johann Jakob
Balmer (1825–1898) in the visible region of the
hydrogen spectrum. This series is called Balmer
series (Fig. 12.6). The line with the longest
wavelength, 656.3 nm in the red is called Hα; the
next line with wavelength 486.1 nm in the blue- FIGURE 12.6 Balmer series in the
green is called Hβ, the third line 434.1 nm in the emission spectrum of hydrogen.
violet is called Hγ; and so on. As the wavelength
decreases, the lines appear closer together and are weaker in intensity.
Balmer found a simple empirical formula for the observed wavelengths
1 1 1
R (12.5)
2 n2
2

where λ is the wavelength, R is a constant called the Rydberg constant,

and n may have integral values 3, 4, 5, etc. The value of R is 1.097 × 107 m–1.
This equation is also called Balmer formula.
Taking n = 3 in Eq. (12.5), one obtains the wavelength of the Hα line:
1 1 1
1.097 107 m –1
22 32
= 1.522 × 106 m–1
i.e., λ = 656.3 nm 421
 Physics
For n = 4, one obtains the wavelength of Hβ line, etc. For n = ∞, one obtains
the limit of the series, at λ = 364.6 nm. This is the shortest wavelength in
the Balmer series. Beyond this limit, no further distinct lines appear,
instead only a faint continuous spectrum is seen.
Other series of spectra for hydrogen were subsequently discovered.
These are known, after their discoverers, as Lyman, Paschen, Brackett,
and Pfund series. These are represented by the formulae:
Lyman series:
1 1 1
R n = 2,3,4... (12.6)
12 n 2
Paschen series:
1 1 1
R n = 4,5,6... (12.7)
3 n2
2

Brackett series:
1 1 1
R n = 5,6,7... (12.8)
42 n 2
Pfund series:
1 1 1
R n = 6,7,8... (12.9)
5 n2
2

The Lyman series is in the ultraviolet, and the Paschen and Brackett
series are in the infrared region.
The Balmer formula Eq. (12.5) may be written in terms of frequency
of the light, recalling that
c = νλ
1
or
c
Thus, Eq. (12.5) becomes
1 1
= Rc (12.10)
2 n2
2

There are only a few elements (hydrogen, singly ionised helium, and
doubly ionised lithium) whose spectra can be represented by simple
formula like Eqs. (12.5) – (12.9).
Equations (12.5) – (12.9) are useful as they give the wavelengths that
hydrogen atoms radiate or absorb. However, these results are empirical
and do not give any reasoning why only certain frequencies are observed
in the hydrogen spectrum.

12.4 BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

The model of the atom proposed by Rutherford assumes that the atom,
consisting of a central nucleus and revolving electron is stable much like
sun-planet system which the model imitates. However, there are some
fundamental differences between the two situations. While the planetary
system is held by gravitational force, the nucleus-electron system being
422 charged objects, interact by Coulomb’s Law of force. We know that an
 Atoms
object which moves in a circle is being constantly
accelerated – the acceleration being centripetal in nature.
According to classical electromagnetic theory, an
accelerating charged particle emits radiation in the form

NIELS HENRIK DAVID BOHR (1885 – 1962)

of electromagnetic waves. The energy of an accelerating
electron should therefore, continuously decrease. The
electron would spiral inward and eventually fall into the
nucleus (Fig. 12.7). Thus, such an atom can not be stable.
Further, according to the classical electromagnetic theory,
the frequency of the electromagnetic waves emitted by
the revolving electrons is equal to the frequency of
revolution. As the electrons spiral inwards, their angular
velocities and hence their frequencies would change
continuously, and so will the frequency of the light Niels Henrik David Bohr
emitted. Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum, (1885 – 1962) Danish
in contradiction to the line spectrum actually observed. physicist who explained the
spectrum of hydrogen atom
Clearly Rutherford model tells only a part of the story
based on quantum ideas.
implying that the classical ideas are not sufficient to
He gave a theory of nuclear
explain the atomic structure. fission based on the liquid-
drop model of nucleus.
Bohr contributed to the
clarification of conceptual
problems in quantum
mechanics, in particular by
proposing the comple-
mentary principle.

FIGURE 12.7 An accelerated atomic electron must spiral into the

nucleus as it loses energy.

Example 12.4 According to the classical electromagnetic theory,

calculate the initial frequency of the light emitted by the electron
revolving around a proton in hydrogen atom.
Solution From Example 12.3 we know that velocity of electron moving
around a proton in hydrogen atom in an orbit of radius 5.3 × 10–11 m
is 2.2 × 10–6 m/s. Thus, the frequency of the electron moving around
the proton is
v 2.2 106 m s 1

11
2 r 2 5.3 10 m
EXAMPLE 12.4

≈ 6.6 × 10 Hz.
15

According to the classical electromagnetic theory we know that the

frequency of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the revolving
electrons is equal to the frequency of its revolution around the nucleus.
Thus the initial frequency of the light emitted is 6.6 × 1015 Hz.
423
 Physics
It was Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962) who made certain modifications in
this model by adding the ideas of the newly developing quantum
hypothesis. Niels Bohr studied in Rutherford’s laboratory for several
months in 1912 and he was convinced about the validity of Rutherford
nuclear model. Faced with the dilemma as discussed above, Bohr, in
1913, concluded that in spite of the success of electromagnetic theory in
explaining large-scale phenomena, it could not be applied to the processes
at the atomic scale. It became clear that a fairly radical departure from
the established principles of classical mechanics and electromagnetism
would be needed to understand the structure of atoms and the relation
of atomic structure to atomic spectra. Bohr combined classical and early
quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form of three postulates.
These are :
(i) Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve
in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy,
contrary to the predictions of electromagnetic theory. According to
this postulate, each atom has certain definite stable states in which it
can exist, and each possible state has definite total energy. These are
called the stationary states of the atom.
(ii) Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate
states that the electron revolves around the nucleus only in those
orbits for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of
h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 × 10–34 J s). Thus the
angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantised. That is
L = nh/2π (12.11)
(iii) Bohr’s third postulate incorporated into atomic theory the early
quantum concepts that had been developed by Planck and Einstein.
It states that an electron might make a transition from one of its
specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it
does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy
difference between the initial and final states. The frequency of the
emitted photon is then given by
hν = Ei – Ef (12.12)
where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef .
For a hydrogen atom, Eq. (12.4) gives the expression to determine
the energies of different energy states. But then this equation requires
the radius r of the electron orbit. To calculate r, Bohr’s second postulate
about the angular momentum of the electron–the quantisation
condition – is used. The angular momentum L is given by
L = mvr
Bohr’s second postulate of quantisation [Eq. (12.11)] says that the
allowed values of angular momentum are integral multiples of h/2π.
nh
Ln = mvnrn = (12.13)
2
where n is an integer, rn is the radius of nth possible orbit and vn is the
424 speed of moving electron in the nth orbit. The allowed orbits are numbered
 Atoms
1, 2, 3 ..., according to the values of n, which is called the principal
quantum number of the orbit.
From Eq. (12.3), the relation between vn and rn is
e
vn
4 0mrn
Combining it with Eq. (12.13), we get the following expressions for vn
and rn,
1 e2 1
vn (12.14)
n4 0 h 2
and
2
n2 h 4 0
rn (12.15)
m 2 e2
Eq. (12.14) depicts that the orbital speed in the nth orbit falls by a factor
of n. Using Eq. (12.15), the size of the innermost orbit (n = 1) can be
obtained as
h2 0
r1
me 2
This is called the Bohr radius, represented by the symbol a0. Thus,
h2 0
a0 (12.16)
me 2
Substitution of values of h, m, ε0 and e gives a 0 = 5.29 × 10–11 m. From
Eq. (12.15), it can also be seen that the radii of the orbits increase as n2.
The total energy of the electron in the stationary states of the hydrogen
atom can be obtained by substituting the value of orbital radius in Eq.
(12.4) as
2
e2 m 2 e2
En
8 0 n2 h 4 0

me 4
or En (12.17)
8n 2 02h 2
Substituting values, Eq. (12.17) yields

2.18 10 18
En J (12.18)
n2
Atomic energies are often expressed in electron volts (eV) rather than
joules. Since 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J, Eq. (12.18) can be rewritten as
13.6
En eV (12.19)
n2
The negative sign of the total energy of an electron moving in an orbit
means that the electron is bound with the nucleus. Energy will thus be
required to remove the electron from the hydrogen atom to a distance
infinitely far away from its nucleus (or proton in hydrogen atom). 425
 Physics
The derivation of Eqs. (12.17) – (12.19) involves the assumption that
the electronic orbits are circular, though orbits under inverse square
force are, in general elliptical. (Planets move in elliptical orbits under the
inverse square gravitational force of the sun.) However, it was shown by
the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld (1868 – 1951) that, when the
restriction of circular orbit is relaxed, these equations continue to hold
even for elliptic orbits.

ORBIT VS STATE (ORBITAL PICTURE) OF ELECTRON IN ATOM

We are introduced to the Bohr Model of atom one time or the other in the course of
physics. This model has its place in the history of quantum mechanics and particularly
in explaining the structure of an atom. It has become a milestone since Bohr introduced
the revolutionary idea of definite energy orbits for the electrons, contrary to the classical
picture requiring an accelerating particle to radiate. Bohr also introduced the idea of
quantisation of angular momentum of electrons moving in definite orbits. Thus it was a
semi-classical picture of the structure of atom.
Now with the development of quantum mechanics, we have a better understanding
of the structure of atom. Solutions of the Schrödinger wave equation assign a wave-like
description to the electrons bound in an atom due to attractive forces of the protons.
An orbit of the electron in the Bohr model is the circular path of motion of an electron
around the nucleus. But according to quantum mechanics, we cannot associate a definite
path with the motion of the electrons in an atom. We can only talk about the probability
of finding an electron in a certain region of space around the nucleus. This probability
can be inferred from the one-electron wave function called the orbital. This function
depends only on the coordinates of the electron.
It is therefore essential that we understand the subtle differences that exist in the two
models:
 Bohr model is valid for only one-electron atoms/ions; an energy value, assigned to
each orbit, depends on the principal quantum number n in this model. We know
that energy associated with a stationary state of an electron depends on n only, for
one-electron atoms/ions. For a multi-electron atom/ion, this is not true.
 The solution of the Schrödinger wave equation, obtained for hydrogen-like atoms/
ions, called the wave function, gives information about the probability of finding an
electron in various regions around the nucleus. This orbital has no resemblance
whatsoever with the orbit defined for an electron in the Bohr model.

Example 12.5 A 10 kg satellite circles earth once every 2 h in an

orbit having a radius of 8000 km. Assuming that Bohr’s angular
momentum postulate applies to satellites just as it does to an electron
EXAMPLE 12.5

in the hydrogen atom, find the quantum number of the orbit of the
satellite.
Solution
From Eq. (12.13), we have
426 m vn rn = nh/2π
 Atoms

Here m = 10 kg and rn = 8 × 106 m. We have the time period T of the

circling satellite as 2 h. That is T = 7200 s.
Thus the velocity vn = 2π rn/T.
The quantum number of the orbit of satellite
n = (2π rn)2 × m/(T × h).

EXAMPLE 12.5
Substituting the values,
n = (2π × 8 × 106 m)2 × 10/(7200 s × 6.64 × 10–34 J s)
= 5.3 × 1045
Note that the quantum number for the satellite motion is extremely
large! In fact for such large quantum numbers the results of
quantisation conditions tend to those of classical physics.

12.4.1 Energy levels

The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value)
when its electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the
nucleus i.e., the one for which n = 1. For n = 2, 3, ... the
absolute value of the energy E is smaller, hence the energy
is progressively larger in the outer orbits. The lowest state
of the atom, called the ground state, is that of the lowest
energy, with the electron revolving in the orbit of smallest
radius, the Bohr radius, a 0. The energy of this state (n = 1),
E1 is –13.6 eV. Therefore, the minimum energy required to
free the electron from the ground state of the hydrogen atom
is 13.6 eV. It is called the ionisation energy of the hydrogen
atom. This prediction of the Bohr’s model is in excellent
agreement with the experimental value of ionisation energy.
At room temperature, most of the hydrogen atoms are
in ground state. When a hydrogen atom receives energy
by processes such as electron collisions, the atom may
acquire sufficient energy to raise the electron to higher
energy states. The atom is then said to be in an excited
state. From Eq. (12.19), for n = 2; the energy E2 is
–3.40 eV. It means that the energy required to excite an
electron in hydrogen atom to its first excited state, is an FIGURE 12.8 The energy level
energy equal to E2 – E1 = –3.40 eV – (–13.6) eV = 10.2 eV. diagram for the hydrogen atom.
Similarly, E3 = –1.51 eV and E3 – E1 = 12.09 eV, or to excite The electron in a hydrogen atom
the hydrogen atom from its ground state (n = 1) to second at room temperature spends
excited state (n = 3), 12.09 eV energy is required, and so most of its time in the ground
on. From these excited states the electron can then fall back state. To ionise a hydrogen
to a state of lower energy, emitting a photon in the process. atom an electron from the
Thus, as the excitation of hydrogen atom increases (that is ground state, 13.6 eV of energy
as n increases) the value of minimum energy required to must be supplied. (The horizontal
free the electron from the excited atom decreases. lines specify the presence of
allowed energy states.)
The energy level diagram* for the stationary states of a
hydrogen atom, computed from Eq. (12.19), is given in

* An electron can have any total energy above E = 0 eV. In such situations the
electron is free. Thus there is a continuum of energy states above E = 0 eV, as
shown in Fig. 12.8. 427
 Physics
Fig. 12.8. The principal quantum number n labels the stationary
states in the ascending order of energy. In this diagram, the highest
energy state corresponds to n = ∞ in Eq, (12.19) and has an energy
of 0 eV. This is the energy of the atom when the electron is
completely removed (r = ∞) from the nucleus and is at rest. Observe how
the energies of the excited states come closer and closer together as n
increases.

FRANCK – HERTZ EXPERIMENT

The existence of discrete energy levels in an atom was directly verified in 1914 by James
Franck and Gustav Hertz. They studied the spectrum of mercury vapour when electrons
having different kinetic energies passed through the vapour. The electron energy was
varied by subjecting the electrons to electric fields of varying strength. The electrons
collide with the mercury atoms and can transfer energy to the mercury atoms. This can
only happen when the energy of the electron is higher than the energy difference between
an energy level of Hg occupied by an electron and a higher unoccupied level (see Figure).
For instance, the difference between an occupied energy level of Hg and a higher
unoccupied level is 4.9 eV. If an electron of having an energy of 4.9 eV or more passes
through mercury, an electron in mercury atom can absorb energy from the bombarding
electron and get excited to the higher level [Fig (a)]. The colliding electron’s kinetic energy
would reduce by this amount.

The excited electron would subsequently fall back to the ground state by emission of
radiation [Fig. (b)]. The wavelength of emitted radiation is:
hc 6.625 10 34 3 108
= 253 nm
E 4.9 1.6 10 19
By direct measurement, Franck and Hertz found that the emission spectrum of
mercury has a line corresponding to this wavelength. For this experimental verification
of Bohr’s basic ideas of discrete energy levels in atoms and the process of photon emission,
Frank and Hertz were awarded the Nobel prize in 1925.

12.5 THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an atom makes a
transition from the higher energy state with quantum number ni to the
lower energy state with quantum number nf (nf < ni ), the difference of
428 energy is carried away by a photon of frequency νif such that
 Atoms
hνif = Eni – Enf (12.20)
Using Eq. (12.16), for Enf and Eni, we get

me 4 1 1
hνif = (12.21)
8 02h 2 n f2 n i2

me 4 1 1
or νif = (12.22)
8 0h n f2
2 3
n i2
Equation (12.21) is the Rydberg formula, for the spectrum of the
hydrogen atom. In this relation, if we take nf = 2 and ni = 3, 4, 5..., it
reduces to a form similar to Eq. (12.10) for the Balmer series. The Rydberg
constant R is readily identified to be
me 4
R= (12.23)
8 2h 3c
If we insert the values of various constants in Eq. (12.23), we get
R = 1.03 × 107 m–1
This is a value very close to the value (1.097 × 107 m–1) obtained from the
empirical Balmer formula. This agreement between the theoretical and
experimental values of the Rydberg constant provided a direct and
striking confirmation of the Bohr’s model.
Since both nf and ni are integers,
this immediately shows that in
transitions between different atomic
levels, light is radiated in various
discrete frequencies. For hydrogen
spectrum, the Balmer formula
corresponds to nf = 2 and ni = 3, 4, 5,
etc. The results of the Bohr’s model
suggested the presence of other series
spectra for hydrogen atom–those
corresponding to transitions resulting
from nf = 1 and ni = 2, 3, etc.; nf = 3
and ni = 4, 5, etc., and so on. Such
series were identified in the course of
spectroscopic investigations and are
known as the L yman, Balmer,
Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund series.
The electronic transitions
corresponding to these series are
shown in Fig. 12.9.
The various lines in the atomic
spectra are produced when electrons
jump from higher energy state to a
lower energy state and photons are
emitted. These spectral lines are called
emission lines. But when an atom FIGURE 12.9 Line spectra originate in
absorbs a photon that has precisely transitions between energy levels. 429
 Physics
the same energy needed by the electron in a lower energy state to make
transitions to a higher energy state, the process is called absorption.
Thus if photons with a continuous range of frequencies pass through a
rarefied gas and then are analysed with a spectrometer, a series of dark
spectral absorption lines appear in the continuous spectrum. The dark
lines indicate the frequencies that have been absorbed by the atoms of
the gas.
The explanation of the hydrogen atom spectrum provided by Bohr’s
model was a brilliant achievement, which greatly stimulated progress
towards the modern quantum theory. In 1922, Bohr was awarded Nobel
Prize in Physics.

Example 12.6 Using the Rydberg formula, calculate the wavelengths

of the first four spectral lines in the Lyman series of the hydrogen
spectrum.
Solution The Rydberg formula is

me 4 1 1
hc/λif =
8 2h 2 n f2 n i2
The wavelengths of the first four lines in the Lyman series correspond
to transitions from ni = 2,3,4,5 to nf = 1. We know that

me 4
= 13.6 eV = 21.76 ×10–19 J
8 2h 2
Therefore,
hc
i1 m
19 1 1
21.76 10
1 n i2
EXAMPLE 12.6

6.625 10 34 3 108 n i2 0.9134 n i2 7

= m = 10 m
21.76 10 19 (n i2 1) (n i2 1)
= 913.4 ni2/(ni2 –1) Å
Substituting ni = 2,3,4,5, we get λ21 = 1218 Å, λ31 = 1028 Å, λ41 = 974.3 Å,
and λ51 = 951.4 Å.

12.6 DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S

SECOND POSTULATE OF QUANTISATION
Of all the postulates, Bohr made in his model of the atom, perhaps the
most puzzling is his second postulate. It states that the angular
momentum of the electron orbiting around the nucleus is quantised (that
is, Ln = nh/2π; n = 1, 2, 3 …). Why should the angular momentum have
only those values that are integral multiples of h/2π ? The French physicist
Louis de Broglie explained this puzzle in 1923, ten years after Bohr
proposed his model.
We studied, in Chapter 11, about the de Broglie’s hypothesis that
material particles, such as electrons, also have a wave nature. C. J. Davisson
430 and L. H. Germer later experimentally verified the wave nature of electrons
 Atoms
in 1927. Louis de Broglie argued that the electron in its
circular orbit, as proposed by Bohr, must be seen as a particle
wave. In analogy to waves travelling on a string, particle waves
too can lead to standing waves under resonant conditions.
From Chapter 15 of Class XI Physics textbook, we know that
when a string is plucked, a vast number of wavelengths are
excited. However only those wavelengths survive which have
nodes at the ends and form the standing wave in the string. It
means that in a string, standing waves are formed when the
total distance travelled by a wave down the string and back is
one wavelength, two wavelengths, or any integral number of
wavelengths. Waves with other wavelengths interfere with
themselves upon reflection and their amplitudes quickly drop
to zero. For an electron moving in nth circular orbit of radius
rn, the total distance is the circumference of the orbit, 2πrn.
FIGURE 12.10 A standing
Thus
wave is shown on a circular
2π rn = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3... (12.24) orbit where four de Broglie
Figure 12.10 illustrates a standing particle wave on a wavelengths fit into the
circular orbit for n = 4, i.e., 2πrn = 4λ, where λ is the de Broglie circumference of the orbit.
wavelength of the electron moving in nth orbit. From Chapter
11, we have λ = h/p, where p is the magnitude of the electron’s
momentum. If the speed of the electron is much less than the speed of
light, the momentum is mvn. Thus, λ = h/mvn. From Eq. (12.24), we have
2π rn = n h/mvn or m vn rn = nh/2π
This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular
momentum of the electron [Eq. (12.13)]. In Section 12.5, we saw that
this equation is the basis of explaining the discrete orbits and energy
levels in hydrogen atom. Thus de Broglie hypothesis provided an
explanation for Bohr’s second postulate for the quantisation of angular
momentum of the orbiting electron. The quantised electron orbits and
energy states are due to the wave nature of the electron and only resonant
standing waves can persist.
Bohr’s model, involving classical trajectory picture (planet-like electron
orbiting the nucleus), correctly predicts the gross features of the
hydrogenic atoms*, in particular, the frequencies of the radiation emitted
or selectively absorbed. This model however has many limitations.
Some are:
(i) The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be
extended even to mere two electron atoms such as helium. The analysis
of atoms with more than one electron was attempted on the lines of
Bohr’s model for hydrogenic atoms but did not meet with any success.
Difficulty lies in the fact that each electron interacts not only with the
positively charged nucleus but also with all other electrons.

* Hydrogenic atoms are the atoms consisting of a nucleus with positive charge
+Ze and a single electron, where Z is the proton number. Examples are hydrogen
atom, singly ionised helium, doubly ionised lithium, and so forth. In these
atoms more complex electron-electron interactions are nonexistent. 431
 Physics
The formulation of Bohr model involves electrical force between
positively charged nucleus and electron. It does not include the
electrical forces between electrons which necessarily appear in
multi-electron atoms.
(ii) While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light
emitted by hydrogenic atoms, the model is unable to explain the
relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum. In emission
spectrum of hydrogen, some of the visible frequencies have weak
intensity, others strong. Why? Experimental observations depict that
some transitions are more favoured than others. Bohr’s model is
unable to account for the intensity variations.
Bohr’s model presents an elegant picture of an atom and cannot be
generalised to complex atoms. For complex atoms we have to use a new
and radical theory based on Quantum Mechanics, which provides a more
complete picture of the atomic structure.

LASER LIGHT

Imagine a crowded market place or a railway platform with people entering a gate and
going towards all directions. Their footsteps are random and there is no phase correlation
between them. On the other hand, think of a large number of soldiers in a regulated march.
Their footsteps are very well correlated. See figure here.
This is similar to the difference between light emitted by
an ordinary source like a candle or a bulb and that emitted
by a laser. The acronym LASER stands for Light Amplification
by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Since its development
in 1960, it has entered into all areas of science and technology.
It has found applications in physics, chemistry, biology,
medicine, surgery, engineering, etc. There are low power
lasers, with a power of 0.5 mW, called pencil lasers, which
serve as pointers. There are also lasers of different power,
suitable for delicate surgery of eye or glands in the stomach.
Finally, there are lasers which can cut or weld steel.
Light is emitted from a source in the form of packets of
waves. Light coming out from an ordinary source contains a mixture of many wavelengths.
There is also no phase relation between the various waves. Therefore, such light, even if it is
passed through an aperture, spreads very fast and the beam size increases rapidly with
distance. In the case of laser light, the wavelength of each packet is almost the same. Also
the average length of the packet of waves is much larger. This means that there is better
phase correlation over a longer duration of time. This results in reducing the divergence of
a laser beam substantially.
If there are N atoms in a source, each emitting light with intensity I, then the total
intensity produced by an ordinary source is proportional to NI, whereas in a laser source,
it is proportional to N2I. Considering that N is very large, we see that the light from a laser
can be much stronger than that from an ordinary source.
When astronauts of the Apollo missions visited the moon, they placed a mirror on its
surface, facing the earth. Then scientists on the earth sent a strong laser beam, which was
reflected by the mirror on the moon and received back on the earth. The size of the reflected
laser beam and the time taken for the round trip were measured. This allowed a very
accurate determination of (a) the extremely small divergence of a laser beam and (b) the
distance of the moon from the earth.

432
 Atoms

SUMMARY

1. Atom, as a whole, is electrically neutral and therefore contains equal

amount of positive and negative charges.
2. In Thomson’s model, an atom is a spherical cloud of positive charges
with electrons embedded in it.
3. In Rutherford’s model, most of the mass of the atom and all its positive
charge are concentrated in a tiny nucleus (typically one by ten thousand
the size of an atom), and the electrons revolve around it.
4. Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties in explaining the
structure of atom: (a) It predicts that atoms are unstable because the
accelerated electrons revolving around the nucleus must spiral into
the nucleus. This contradicts the stability of matter. (b) It cannot
explain the characteristic line spectra of atoms of different elements.
5. Atoms of each element are stable and emit characteristic spectrum.
The spectrum consists of a set of isolated parallel lines termed as line
spectrum. It provides useful information about the atomic structure.
6. The atomic hydrogen emits a line spectrum consisting of various series.
The frequency of any line in a series can be expressed as a difference
of two terms;
1 1
Lyman series: Rc ; n = 2, 3, 4,...
12 n2
1 1
Balmer series: Rc ; n = 3, 4, 5,...
22 n2
1 1
Paschen series: Rc ; n = 4, 5, 6,...
32 n2
1 1
Brackett series: Rc ; n = 5, 6, 7,...
42 n2
1 1
Pfund series: Rc ; n = 6, 7, 8,...
52 n2
7. To explain the line spectra emitted by atoms, as well as the stability
of atoms, Niel’s Bohr proposed a model for hydrogenic (single elctron)
atoms. He introduced three postulates and laid the foundations of
quantum mechanics:
(a) In a hydrogen atom, an electron revolves in certain stable orbits
(called stationary orbits) without the emission of radiant energy.
(b) The stationary orbits are those for which the angular momentum
is some integral multiple of h/2π. (Bohr’s quantisation condition.)
That is L = nh/2π, where n is an integer called a quantum number.
(c) The third postulate states that an electron might make a transition
from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower
energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal
to the energy difference between the initial and final states. The
frequency (ν) of the emitted photon is then given by
hν = Ei – Ef
An atom absorbs radiation of the same frequency the atom emits,
in which case the electron is transferred to an orbit with a higher
value of n.
Ei + hν = Ef
433
 Physics
8. As a result of the quantisation condition of angular momentum, the
electron orbits the nucleus at only specific radii. For a hydrogen atom
it is given by
2
n2 h 4 0
rn
m 2 e2
The total energy is also quantised:
me 4
En
8n 2 02h 2
= –13.6 eV/n2
The n = 1 state is called ground state. In hydrogen atom the ground
state energy is –13.6 eV. Higher values of n correspond to excited
states (n > 1). Atoms are excited to these higher states by collisions
with other atoms or electrons or by absorption of a photon of right
frequency.
9. de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have a wavelength λ = h/mv gave
an explanation for Bohr’s quantised orbits by bringing in the wave-
particle duality. The orbits correspond to circular standing waves in
which the circumference of the orbit equals a whole number of
wavelengths.
10. Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogenic (single electron) atoms.
It cannot be extended to even two electron atoms such as helium.
This model is also unable to explain for the relative intensities of the
frequencies emitted even by hydrogenic atoms.

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Both the Thomson’s as well as the Rutherford’s models constitute an

unstable system. Thomson’s model is unstable electrostatically, while
Rutherford’s model is unstable because of electromagnetic radiation
of orbiting electrons.
2. What made Bohr quantise angular momentum (second postulate) and
not some other quantity? Note, h has dimensions of angular
momentum, and for circular orbits, angular momentum is a very
relevant quantity. The second postulate is then so natural!
3. The orbital picture in Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom was
inconsistent with the uncertainty principle. It was replaced by modern
quantum mechanics in which Bohr’s orbits are regions where the
electron may be found with large probability.
4. Unlike the situation in the solar system, where planet-planet
gravitational forces are very small as compared to the gravitational
force of the sun on each planet (because the mass of the sun is so
much greater than the mass of any of the planets), the electron-electron
electric force interaction is comparable in magnitude to the electron-
nucleus electrical force, because the charges and distances are of the
same order of magnitude. This is the reason why the Bohr’s model
with its planet-like electron is not applicable to many electron atoms.
5. Bohr laid the foundation of the quantum theory by postulating specific
434 orbits in which electrons do not radiate. Bohr’s model include only
 Atoms

one quantum number n. The new theory called quantum mechanics

supportes Bohr’s postulate. However in quantum mechanics (more
generally accepted), a given energy level may not correspond to just
one quantum state. For example, a state is characterised by four
quantum numbers (n, l, m, and s), but for a pure Coulomb potential
(as in hydrogen atom) the energy depends only on n.
6. In Bohr model, contrary to ordinary classical expectation, the
frequency of revolution of an electron in its orbit is not connected to
the frequency of spectral line. The later is the difference between two
orbital energies divided by h. For transitions between large quantum
numbers (n to n – 1, n very large), however, the two coincide as expected.
7. Bohr’s semiclassical model based on some aspects of classical physics
and some aspects of modern physics also does not provide a true
picture of the simplest hydrogenic atoms. The true picture is quantum
mechanical affair which differs from Bohr model in a number of
fundamental ways. But then if the Bohr model is not strictly correct,
why do we bother about it? The reasons which make Bohr’s model
still useful are:
(i) The model is based on just three postulates but accounts for almost
all the general features of the hydrogen spectrum.
(ii) The model incorporates many of the concepts we have learnt in
classical physics.
(iii) The model demonstrates how a theoretical physicist occasionally
must quite literally ignore certain problems of approach in hopes
of being able to make some predictions. If the predictions of the
theory or model agree with experiment, a theoretician then must
somehow hope to explain away or rationalise the problems that
were ignored along the way.

EXERCISES
12.1 Choose the correct alternative from the clues given at the end of
the each statement:
(a) The size of the atom in Thomson’s model is .......... the atomic
size in Rutherford’s model. (much greater than/no different
from/much less than.)
(b) In the ground state of .......... electrons are in stable equilibrium,
while in .......... electrons always experience a net force.
(Thomson’s model/ Rutherford’s model.)
(c) A classical atom based on .......... is doomed to collapse.
(Thomson’s model/ Rutherford’s model.)
(d) An atom has a nearly continuous mass distribution in a ..........
but has a highly non-uniform mass distribution in ..........
(Thomson’s model/ Rutherford’s model.)
(e) The positively charged part of the atom possesses most of the
mass in .......... (Rutherford’s model/both the models.)
12.2 Suppose you are given a chance to repeat the alpha-particle
scattering experiment using a thin sheet of solid hydrogen in place
of the gold foil. (Hydrogen is a solid at temperatures below 14 K.)
What results do you expect? 435
 Physics
12.3 What is the shortest wavelength present in the Paschen series of
spectral lines?
12.4 A difference of 2.3 eV separates two energy levels in an atom. What
is the frequency of radiation emitted when the atom make a
transition from the upper level to the lower level?
12.5 The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. What are the
kinetic and potential energies of the electron in this state?
12.6 A hydrogen atom initially in the ground level absorbs a photon,
which excites it to the n = 4 level. Determine the wavelength and
frequency of photon.
12.7 (a) Using the Bohr’s model calculate the speed of the electron in a
hydrogen atom in the n = 1, 2, and 3 levels. (b) Calculate the orbital
period in each of these levels.
12.8 The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is
5.3×10–11 m. What are the radii of the n = 2 and n =3 orbits?
12.9 A 12.5 eV electron beam is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at
room temperature. What series of wavelengths will be emitted?
12.10 In accordance with the Bohr’s model, find the quantum number
that characterises the earth’s revolution around the sun in an orbit
of radius 1.5 × 1011 m with orbital speed 3 × 104 m/s. (Mass of earth
= 6.0 × 1024 kg.)

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
12.11 Answer the following questions, which help you understand the
difference between Thomson’s model and Rutherford’s model better.
(a) Is the average angle of deflection of α-particles by a thin gold foil
predicted by Thomson’s model much less, about the same, or
much greater than that predicted by Rutherford’s model?
(b) Is the probability of backward scattering (i.e., scattering of
α-particles at angles greater than 90°) predicted by Thomson’s
model much less, about the same, or much greater than that
predicted by Rutherford’s model?
(c) Keeping other factors fixed, it is found experimentally that for
small thickness t, the number of α -particles scattered at
moderate angles is proportional to t. What clue does this linear
dependence on t provide?
(d) In which model is it completely wrong to ignore multiple
scattering for the calculation of average angle of scattering of
α-particles by a thin foil?
12.12 The gravitational attraction between electron and proton in a
hydrogen atom is weaker than the coulomb attraction by a factor of
about 10–40. An alternative way of looking at this fact is to estimate
the radius of the first Bohr orbit of a hydrogen atom if the electron
and proton were bound by gravitational attraction. You will find the
answer interesting.
12.13 Obtain an expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when a
hydrogen atom de-excites from level n to level (n–1). For large n,
show that this frequency equals the classical frequency of revolution
436 of the electron in the orbit.
 Atoms
12.14 Classically, an electron can be in any orbit around the nucleus of
an atom. Then what determines the typical atomic size? Why is an
atom not, say, thousand times bigger than its typical size? The
question had greatly puzzled Bohr before he arrived at his famous
model of the atom that you have learnt in the text. To simulate what
he might well have done before his discovery, let us play as follows
with the basic constants of nature and see if we can get a quantity
with the dimensions of length that is roughly equal to the known
size of an atom (~ 10–10m).
(a) Construct a quantity with the dimensions of length from the
fundamental constants e, me, and c. Determine its numerical
value.
(b) You will find that the length obtained in (a) is many orders of
magnitude smaller than the atomic dimensions. Further, it
involves c. But energies of atoms are mostly in non-relativistic
domain where c is not expected to play any role. This is what
may have suggested Bohr to discard c and look for ‘something
else’ to get the right atomic size. Now, the Planck’s constant h
had already made its appearance elsewhere. Bohr’s great insight
lay in recognising that h, me, and e will yield the right atomic
size. Construct a quantity with the dimension of length from h,
me, and e and confirm that its numerical value has indeed the
correct order of magnitude.
12.15 The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the
hydrogen atom is about –3.4 eV.
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?
(b) What is the potential energy of the electron in this state?
(c) Which of the answers above would change if the choice of the
zero of potential energy is changed?
12.16 If Bohr’s quantisation postulate (angular momentum = nh/2π) is a
basic law of nature, it should be equally valid for the case of planetary
motion also. Why then do we never speak of quantisation of orbits
of planets around the sun?
12.17 Obtain the first Bohr’s radius and the ground state energy of a
muonic hydrogen atom [i.e., an atom in which a negatively charged
muon (μ–) of mass about 207me orbits around a proton].

437
 Physics

Chapter Thirteen

NUCLEI

d
he
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
o N

13.1 I NTRODUCTION
tt ©

In the previous chapter, we have learnt that in every atom, the positive
charge and mass are densely concentrated at the centre of the atom
forming its nucleus. The overall dimensions of a nucleus are much smaller
than those of an atom. Experiments on scattering of α -particles
demonstrated that the radius of a nucleus was smaller than the radius
of an atom by a factor of about 104 . This means the volume of a nucleus
is about 10 –12 times the volume of the atom. In other words, an atom is
almost empty. If an atom is enlarged to the size of a classroom, the nucleus
would be of the size of pinhead. Nevertheless, the nucleus contains most
(more than 99.9%) of the mass of an atom.
Does the nucleus have a structure, just as the atom does? If so, what
are the constituents of the nucleus? How are these held together? In this
no

chapter, we shall look for answers to such questions. We shall discuss

various properties of nuclei such as their size, mass and stability, and
also associated nuclear phenomena such as radioactivity, fission and fusion.

13.2 ATOMIC MASSES AND COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS

The mass of an atom is very small, compared to a kilogram; for example,
the mass of a carbon atom, 12 C, is 1.992647 × 10–26 kg. Kilogram is not
438 a very convenient unit to measure such small quantities. Therefore, a
 Nuclei
different mass unit is used for expressing atomic masses. This unit is the
atomic mass unit (u), defined as 1/12th of the mass of the carbon (12C)
atom. According to this definition
12
mass of one C atom
1u =
12

d
1.992647 × 10 −26 kg
=
12

he
= 1.660539 ×10− 27 kg (13.1)
The atomic masses of various elements expressed in atomic mass
unit (u) are close to being integral multiples of the mass of a hydrogen

pu T
atom. There are, however, many striking exceptions to this rule. For

is
example, the atomic mass of chlorine atom is 35.46 u.
Accurate measurement of atomic masses is carried out with a mass
re R
spectrometer, The measurement of atomic masses reveals the existence

bl
of different types of atoms of the same element, which exhibit the same
chemical properties, but differ in mass. Such atomic species of the same
E
element differing in mass are called isotopes. (In Greek, isotope means
the same place, i.e. they occur in the same place in the periodic table of
elements.) It was found that practically every element consists of a mixture
be C

of several isotopes. The relative abundance of different isotopes differs

from element to element. Chlorine, for example, has two isotopes having
masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u, which are nearly integral multiples of the
o N

mass of a hydrogen atom. The relative abundances of these isotopes are

75.4 and 24.6 per cent, respectively. Thus, the average mass of a chlorine
atom is obtained by the weighted average of the masses of the two
isotopes, which works out to be
tt ©

75.4 × 34.98 + 24.6 × 36.98

=
100
= 35.47 u
which agrees with the atomic mass of chlorine.
Even the lightest element, hydrogen has three isotopes having masses
1.0078 u, 2.0141 u, and 3.0160 u. The nucleus of the lightest atom of
hydrogen, which has a relative abundance of 99.985%, is called the
proton. The mass of a proton is
m p = 1.00727 u = 1.67262 × 10 −27 kg (13.2)
This is equal to the mass of the hydrogen atom (= 1.00783u), minus
the mass of a single electron (m e = 0.00055 u). The other two isotopes of
hydrogen are called deuterium and tritium. Tritium nuclei, being
no

unstable, do not occur naturally and are produced artificially in

laboratories.
The positive charge in the nucleus is that of the protons. A proton
carries one unit of fundamental charge and is stable. It was earlier thought
that the nucleus may contain electrons, but this was ruled out later using
arguments based on quantum theory. All the electrons of an atom are
outside the nucleus. We know that the number of these electrons outside
the nucleus of the atom is Z, the atomic number. The total charge of the 439
 Physics
atomic electrons is thus (–Ze), and since the atom is neutral, the charge
of the nucleus is (+Ze). The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom
is, therefore, exactly Z, the atomic number.
Discovery of Neutron
Since the nuclei of deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen, they

d
must contain only one proton each. But the masses of the nuclei of
hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are in the ratio of [Link]. Therefore, the

he
nuclei of deuterium and tritium must contain, in addition to a proton,
some neutral matter. The amount of neutral matter present in the nuclei
of these isotopes, expressed in units of mass of a proton, is approximately
equal to one and two, respectively. This fact indicates that the nuclei of
atoms contain, in addition to protons, neutral matter in multiples of a

pu T
is
basic unit. This hypothesis was verified in 1932 by James Chadwick
who observed emission of neutral radiation when beryllium nuclei were
re R bombarded with alpha-particles. ( α-particles are helium nuclei, to be

bl
discussed in a later section). It was found that this neutral radiation
could knock out protons from light nuclei such as those of helium, carbon
E
and nitrogen. The only neutral radiation known at that time was photons
(electromagnetic radiation). Application of the principles of conservation
of energy and momentum showed that if the neutral radiation consisted
be C

of photons, the energy of photons would have to be much higher than is

available from the bombardment of beryllium nuclei with α -particles.
The clue to this puzzle, which Chadwick satisfactorily solved, was to
o N

assume that the neutral radiation consists of a new type of neutral

particles called neutrons. From conservation of energy and momentum,
he was able to determine the mass of new particle ‘as very nearly the
same as mass of proton’.
tt ©

The mass of a neutron is now known to a high degree of accuracy. It is

m n = 1.00866 u = 1.6749×10–27 kg (13.3)
Chadwick was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his
discovery of the neutron.
A free neutron, unlike a free proton, is unstable. It decays into a
proton, an electron and a antineutrino (another elementary particle), and
has a mean life of about 1000s. It is, however, stable inside the nucleus.
The composition of a nucleus can now be described using the following
terms and symbols:
Z - atomic number = number of protons [13.4(a)]
N - neutron number = number of neutrons [13.4(b)]
no

A - mass number = Z + N
= total number of protons and neutrons [13.4(c)]
One also uses the term nucleon for a proton or a neutron. Thus the
number of nucleons in an atom is its mass number A.
Nuclear species or nuclides are shown by the notation AZ X where X is
the chemical symbol of the species. For example, the nucleus of gold is
denoted by 197
79 Au
. It contains 197 nucleons, of which 79 are protons
440 and the rest118 are neutrons.
 Nuclei
The composition of isotopes of an element can now be readily
explained. The nuclei of isotopes of a given element contain the same
number of protons, but differ from each other in their number of neutrons.
Deuterium, 12 H , which is an isotope of hydrogen, contains one proton
and one neutron. Its other isotope tritium, 13 H , contains one proton and
two neutrons. The element gold has 32 isotopes, ranging from A =173 to

d
A = 204. We have already mentioned that chemical properties of elements
depend on their electronic structure. As the atoms of isotopes have

he
identical electronic structure they have identical chemical behaviour and
are placed in the same location in the periodic table.
All nuclides with same mass number A are called isobars. For
example, the nuclides 13 H and 32 He are isobars. Nuclides with same

pu T
neutron number N but different atomic number Z, for example 198 80 Hg

is
and 197
79 Au
re R , are called isotones.

13.3 SIZE OF THE N UCLEUS

bl
As we have seen in Chapter 12, Rutherford was the pioneer who
E
postulated and established the existence of the atomic nucleus. At
Rutherford’s suggestion, Geiger and Marsden performed their classic
experiment: on the scattering of α -particles from thin gold foils. Their
be C

experiments revealed that the distance of closest approach to a gold

nucleus of an α-particle of kinetic energy 5.5 MeV is about 4.0 × 10–14 m.
The scattering of α -particle by the gold sheet could be understood by
o N

Rutherford by assuming that the coulomb repulsive force was solely

responsible for scattering. Since the positive charge is confined to the
nucleus, the actual size of the nucleus has to be less than 4.0 × 10–14 m.
If we use α-particles of higher energies than 5.5 MeV, the distance of
tt ©

closest approach to the gold nucleus will be smaller and at some point
the scattering will begin to be affected by the short range nuclear forces,
and differ from Rutherford’s calculations. Rutherford’s calculations are
based on pure coulomb repulsion between the positive charges of the α-
particle and the gold nucleus. From the distance at which deviations set
in, nuclear sizes can be inferred.
By performing scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead
of α-particles, are projectiles that bombard targets made up of various
elements, the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been accurately
measured.
It has been found that a nucleus of mass number A has a radius
R = R 0 A 1/3 (13.5)
no

–15
where R 0 = 1.2 × 10 m. This means the volume of the nucleus, which
is proportional to R 3 is proportional to A. Thus the density of nucleus is
a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei. Different nuclei are likes
drop of liquid of constant density. The density of nuclear matter is
approximately 2.3 × 1017 kg m–3. This density is very large compared to
ordinary matter, say water, which is 103 kg m–3. This is understandable,
as we have already seen that most of the atom is empty. Ordinary matter
consisting of atoms has a large amount of empty space. 441
 Physics
Example 13.1 Given the mass of iron nucleus as 55.85u and A=56,
find the nuclear density?
Solution
–26
mFe = 55.85, u = 9.27 × 10 kg
EXAMPLE 13.1

mass 9.27 ×10 −26 1

×

d
Nuclear density = = −15 3
volume (4π / 3)(1.2 × 10 ) 56
= 2.29 × 1017 kg m–3
The density of matter in neutron stars (an astrophysical object) is

he
comparable to this density. This shows that matter in these objects
has been compressed to such an extent that they resemble a big nucleus.

13.4 MASS-ENERGY AND N UCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

pu T
is
13.4.1 Mass – Energy
re R Einstein showed from his theory of special relativity that it is necessary

bl
to treat mass as another form of energy. Before the advent of this theory
of special relativity it was presumed that mass and energy were conserved
E
separately in a reaction. However, Einstein showed that mass is another
form of energy and one can convert mass-energy into other forms of
energy, say kinetic energy and vice-versa.
be C

Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation

E = mc 2 (13.6)
o N

Here the energy equivalent of mass m is related by the above equation

and c is the velocity of light in vacuum and is approximately equal to
3×108 m s–1.

Example 13.2 Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.

tt © EXAMPLE 13.2

Solution
–3 8 2
Energy, E = 10 × ( 3 × 10 ) J
E = 10–3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 10 13 J
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release
of enormous amount of energy.

Experimental verification of the Einstein’s mass-energy relation has

been achieved in the study of nuclear reactions amongst nucleons, nuclei,
electrons and other more recently discovered particles. In a reaction the
conservation law of energy states that the initial energy and the final
energy are equal provided the energy associated with mass is also
no

included. This concept is important in understanding nuclear masses

and the interaction of nuclei with one another. They form the subject
matter of the next few sections.

13.4.2 Nuclear binding energy

In Section 13.2 we have seen that the nucleus is made up of neutrons
and protons. Therefore it may be expected that the mass of the nucleus
442 is equal to the total mass of its individual protons and neutrons. However,
 Nuclei
the nuclear mass M is found to be always less than this. For example, let
us consider 168 O ; a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons. We
have
Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u

d
Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055 u
Therefore the expected mass of 168 O nucleus

he
= 8 × 2.01593 u = 16.12744 u.
The atomic mass of 168 O found from mass spectroscopy experiments
is seen to be 15.99493 u. Substracting the mass of 8 electrons (8 × 0.00055 u)
from this, we get the experimental mass of 168 O nucleus to be 15.99053 u.

pu T
is
Thus, we find that the mass of the 168 O nucleus is less than the total
mass of its constituents by 0.13691u. The difference in mass of a nucleus
re R
and its constituents, ∆M, is called the mass defect, and is given by

bl
∆M = [Zm p + ( A − Z )m n ] − M (13.7)
E
What is the meaning of the mass defect? It is here that Einstein’s
equivalence of mass and energy plays a role. Since the mass of the oxygen
nucleus is less that the sum of the masses of its constituents (8 protons
be C

and 8 neutrons, in the unbound state), the equivalent energy of the oxygen
nucleus is less than that of the sum of the equivalent energies of its
constituents. If one wants to break the oxygen nucleus into 8 protons
o N

and 8 neutrons, this extra energy ∆ M c2 , has to supplied. This energy

required Eb is related to the mass defect by
Eb = ∆ M c 2 (13.8)
tt ©

Example 13.3 Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit,
first in Joules and then in MeV. Using this, express the mass defect
2
of 168 O in MeV/c .
Solution
1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
2
To convert it into energy units, we multiply it by c and find that
–27
energy equivalent = 1.6605 × 10 × (2.9979 × 10 ) kg m2/s2
8 2
–10
= 1.4924 × 10 J
1.4924 × 10−10
= −19
eV
1.602 × 10
= 0.9315 × 10 9 eV
= 931.5 MeV
EXAMPLE 13.3
no

or, 1u = 931.5 MeV/ c 2

For 186 O , ∆M = 0.13691 u = 0.13691×931.5 MeV/c 2
2
= 127.5 MeV/c
16
The energy needed to separate 8
O into its constituents is thus
2
127.5 MeV/c .

If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to

form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass, an energy Eb will be released 443
 Physics
in the process. The energy Eb is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a
total energy equal to Eb, to those particles. Although we cannot tear
apart a nucleus in this way, the nuclear binding energy is still a convenient
measure of how well a nucleus is held together. A more useful measure
of the binding between the constituents of the nucleus is the binding

d
energy per nucleon, Ebn, which is the ratio of the binding energy Eb of a
nucleus to the number of the nucleons, A, in that nucleus:

he
E bn = E b / A (13.9)
We can think of binding energy per nucleon as the average energy
per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.
Figure 13.1 is a plot of the

pu T
binding energy per nucleon Ebn

is
versus the mass number A for a
large number of nuclei. We notice
re R the following main features of

bl
the plot:
(i) the binding energy per
E
nucleon, Ebn , is practically
constant, i.e. practically
independent of the atomic
be C

number for nuclei of middle

mass number ( 30 < A < 170).
The curve has a maximum of
o N

about 8.75 MeV for A = 56

and has a value of 7.6 MeV
FIGURE 13.1 The binding energy per nucleon
for A = 238.
as a function of mass number.
(ii) E bn is lower for both light
tt ©

nuclei ( A<30) and heavy

nuclei (A>170).
We can draw some conclusions from these two observations:
(i) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding
energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
(ii) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a
consequence of the fact that the nuclear force is short-ranged. Consider
a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus. It will be under
the influence of only some of its neighbours, which come within the
range of the nuclear force. If any other nucleon is at a distance more
than the range of the nuclear force from the particular nucleon it will
have no influence on the binding energy of the nucleon under
consideration. If a nucleon can have a maximum of p neighbours
no

within the range of nuclear force, its binding energy would be

proportional to p. Let the binding energy of the nucleus be pk, where
k is a constant having the dimensions of energy. If we increase A by
adding nucleons they will not change the binding energy of a nucleon
inside. Since most of the nucleons in a large nucleus reside inside it
and not on the surface, the change in binding energy per nucleon
would be small. The binding energy per nucleon is a constant and is
444 approximately equal to pk. The property that a given nucleon
 Nuclei
influences only nucleons close to it is also referred to as saturation
property of the nuclear force.
(iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per
nucleon compared to that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a
nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more
tightly bound. This implies energy would be released in the process.

d
It has very important implications for energy production through
fission, to be discussed later in Section 13.7.1.

he
(iv) Consider two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) joining to form a heavier
nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei
is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei.
This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial
system. Again energy would be released in such a process of

pu T
is
fusion. This is the energy source of sun, to be discussed later in
Section 13.7.3.
re R
bl
13.5 NUCLEAR FORCE
The force that determines the motion of atomic electrons is the familiar
E
Coulomb force. In Section 13.4, we have seen that for average mass
nuclei the binding energy per nucleon is approximately 8 MeV, which is
much larger than the binding energy in atoms. Therefore, to bind a
be C

nucleus together there must be a strong attractive force of a totally

different kind. It must be strong enough to overcome the repulsion
between the (positively charged) protons and to bind both protons and
o N

neutrons into the tiny nuclear volume. We have already seen

that the constancy of binding energy per nucleon can be
understood in terms of its short-range. Many features of the
nuclear binding force are summarised below. These are
tt ©

obtained from a variety of experiments carried out during 1930

to 1950.
(i) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force
acting between charges or the gravitational forces between
masses. The nuclear binding force has to dominate over
the Coulomb repulsive force between protons inside the
nucleus. This happens only because the nuclear force is
much stronger than the coulomb force. The gravitational
force is much weaker than even Coulomb force.
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to FIGURE 13.2 Potential energy
of a pair of nucleons as a
zero as their distance is more than a few femtometres. This function of their separation.
leads to saturation of forces in a medium or a large-sized
no

For a separation greater

nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of the than r0, the force is attractive
binding energy per nucleon. and for separations less
A rough plot of the potential energy between two nucleons than r0, the force is
as a function of distance is shown in the Fig. 13.2. The strongly repulsive.
potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about
0.8 fm. This means that the force is attractive for distances larger
than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by distances less
than 0.8 fm. 445
 Physics
(iii) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and
proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does not
depend on the electric charge.
Unlike Coulomb’s law or the Newton’s law of gravitation there is no
simple mathematical form of the nuclear force.

d
13.6 R ADIOACTIVITY
A. H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 purely by accident. While

he
studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of compounds irradiated
with visible light, Becquerel observed an interesting phenomenon. After
illuminating some pieces of uranium-potassium sulphate with visible
light, he wrapped them in black paper and separated the package from a

pu T
photographic plate by a piece of silver. When, after several hours of

is
exposure, the photographic plate was developed, it showed blackening
due to something that must have been emitted by the compound and
re R was able to penetrate both black paper and the silver.

bl
Experiments performed subsequently showed that radioactivity was
a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay.
E
This is referred to as radioactive decay. Three types of radioactive decay
occur in nature :
(i) α -decay in which a helium nucleus 42 He is emitted;
be C

(ii) β -decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass
as electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to that of electron)
o N

are emitted;
(iii) γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are
emitted.
Each of these decay will be considered in subsequent sub-sections.
tt ©

13.6.1 Law of radioactive decay

In any radioactive sample, which undergoes α, β or γ-decay, it is found
that the number of nuclei undergoing the decay per unit time is
proportional to the total number of nuclei in the sample. If N is the
number of nuclei in the sample and ∆ N undergo decay in time ∆ t then
∆N
∝N
∆t
or, ∆N/∆ t = λN, (13.10)
where λ is called the radioactive decay constant or disintegration constant.
The change in the number of nuclei in the sample* is dN = – ∆N in
no

time ∆t. Thus the rate of change of N is (in the limit ∆ t → 0)

dN
= – λN
dt

* ∆N is the number of nuclei that decay, and hence is always positive. dN is the
change in N, which may have either sign. Here it is negative, because out of
446 original N nuclei, ∆N have decayed, leaving (N–∆N) nuclei.
 Nuclei

dN
or, = – λdt
N
Now, integrating both sides of the above equation,we get,
N t
dN
= −λ dt (13.11)
N

d
N0 t0

or, ln N − ln N 0 = −λ (t – t0 ) (13.12)

he
Here N 0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at some
arbitrary time t0 and N is the number of radioactive nuclei at any
subsequent time t. Setting t0 = 0 and rearranging Eq. (13.12) gives us

pu T
N

is
ln = −λt (13.13)
N0
re R
which gives

bl
N(t) = N0 e −λ t (13.14)
E
Note, for example, the light bulbs follow no such exponential decay law.
If we test 1000 bulbs for their life (time span before they burn out or
be C

fuse), we expect that they will ‘decay’ (that is, burn out) at more or less
the same time. The decay of radionuclides follows quite a different law,
the law of radioactive decay represented by Eq. (13.14).
o N

The total decay rate R of a sample is the number of nuclei

disintegrating per unit time. Suppose in a time interval dt, the decay
count measured is ∆N. Then dN = – ∆N.
The positive quantity R is then defined as
tt ©

dN
R=–
dt
Differentiating Eq. (13.14), we get

R = λN0 e −λt

or, R = R 0 e – λt (13.15)

This is equivalant to the law of radioactivity decay,

since you can integrate Eq. (13.15) to get back Eq.
(13.14). Clearly, R0 = λN 0 is the decay rate at t = 0. The
FIGURE 13.3 Exponential decay of a
no

decay rate R at a certain time t and the number of

radioactive species. After a lapse of
undecayed nuclei N at the same time are related by
T 1/2 , population of the given species
drops by a factor of 2.
R = λN (13.16)

The decay rate of a sample, rather than the number of radioactive

nuclei, is a more direct experimentally measurable quantity and is given
a specific name: activity. The SI unit for activity is becquerel, named
after the discoverer of radioactivity, Henry Becquerel. 447
 Physics
1 becquerel is simply equal to 1 disintegration or decay per second.
There is also another unit named “curie” that is widely used and is related
to the SI unit as:
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second
= 3.7 × 1010 Bq
Different radionuclides differ greatly in their rate of

d
decay. A common way to characterize this feature is
through the notion of half-life. Half-life of a radionuclide

he
(denoted by T1/2 ) is the time it takes for a sample that has
initially, say N 0 radionuclei to reduce to N0 /2. Putting
N = N0/2 and t = T 1/2 in Eq. (13.14), we get
MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE (1867-1934)

ln 2 0.693
T1/2 = = (13.17)

pu T
is
λ λ
Clearly if N0 reduces to half its value in time T1/2, R0
will also reduce to half its value in the same time according
re R to Eq. (13.16).

bl
Another related measure is the average or mean life
Marie Sklodowska Curie τ . This again can be obtained from Eq. (13.14). The
E
(1867-1934) Born in number of nuclei which decay in the time interval t to t +
Poland. She is recognised ∆t is R(t )∆t (= λN 0e –λt∆t). Each of them has lived for time
both as a physicist and as
t. Thus the total life of all these nuclei would be t λN0e –λt
be C

a chemist. The discovery of

∆t. It is clear that some nuclei may live for a short time
radioactivity by Henri
Becquerel in 1896 inspired
while others may live longer. Therefore to obtain the mean
Marie and her husband life, we have to sum (or integrate) this expression over all
o N

Pierre Curie in their times from 0 to ∞ , and divide by the total number N 0 of
researches and analyses nuclei at t = 0. Thus,
which led to the isolation of ∞

radium and polonium λ N 0 te – λt d t ∞

tt ©

elements. She was the first τ= 0

= λ te – λt d t
person to be awarded two N0 0
Nobel Prizes- for Physics in One can show by performing this integral that
1903 and for Chemistry
in 1911. τ = 1/λ
We summarise these results with the following:
ln 2
T1/2 = = τ ln 2 (13.18)
λ
Radioactive elements (e.g., tritium, plutonium) which are short-lived
i.e., have half-lives much less than the age of the universe ( 15 billion
years) have obviously decayed long ago and are not found in nature.
They can, however, be produced artificially in nuclear reactions.
no

Example 13.4 The half-life of 23892 U

undergoing α-decay is 4.5 × 109
EXAMPLE 13.4

years. What is the activity of 1g sample of 239 28 U ?

Solution
T 1/2 = 4.5 × 109 y
9 7
= 4.5 × 10 y x 3.16 x 10 s/y
17
= 1.42 × 10 s
448
 Nuclei

One k mol of any isotope contains Avogadro’s number of atoms, and

so 1g of 238
92 U
contains
1
kmol × 6.025 × 1026 atoms/kmol
238 × 10–3
20
= 25.3 × 10 atoms.

d
The decay rate R is
R = λN

EXAMPLE 13.4

he
0.693 0.693 × 25.3 × 1020 − 1
= N = s
T1/ 2 1.42 × 1017
= 1.23 × 104 s–1
4
= 1.23 × 10 Bq

pu T
is
Example 13.5 Tritium has a half-life of 12.5 y undergoing beta decay.
re R
What fraction of a sample of pure tritium will remain undecayed

bl
after 25 y.

EXAMPLE 13.5
Solution
E
By definition of half-life, half of the initial sample will remain
undecayed after 12.5 y. In the next 12.5 y, one-half of these nuclei
would have decayed. Hence, one fourth of the sample of the initial
be C

pure tritium will remain undecayed.

13.6.2 Alpha decay

o N

238
A well-known example of alpha decay is the decay of uranium 92 U to
thorium 234
90 Th
with the emission of a helium nucleus 42 He
238 234
U→ Th + 42 He (α-decay) (13.19)
tt ©

92 90

In α-decay, the mass number of the product nucleus (daughter

nucleus) is four less than that of the decaying nucleus (parent nucleus),
while the atomic number decreases by two. In general, α-decay of a parent
nucleus AZ X results in a daughter nucleus AZ−−42Y
A A −4
Z X → Z −2 Y + 42 He (13.20)
From Einstein’s mass-energy equivalance relation [Eq. (13.6)] and
energy conservation, it is clear that this spontaneous decay is possible
only when the total mass of the decay products is less than the mass of
the initial nucleus. This difference in mass appears as kinetic energy of
the products. By referring to a table of nuclear masses, one can check
that the total mass of 234
90 Th
and 42 He is indeed less than that of 238
92 U
.
no

The disintegration energy or the Q-value of a nuclear reaction is the

difference between the initial mass energy and the total mass energy of
the decay products. For α-decay
Q = (mX – m Y – mHe) c2 (13.21)
Q is also the net kinetic energy gained in the process or, if the initial
nucleus X is at rest, the kinetic energy of the products. Clearly, Q> 0 for
exothermic processes such as α-decay. 449
 Physics
Example 13.6 We are given the following atomic masses:
23 8 4
92 U
= 238.05079 u 2 He
= 4.00260 u
23 4 1
9 0 Th
= 234.04363 u 1 H = 1.00783 u
237
Pa = 237.05121 u
91
Here the symbol Pa is for the element protactinium (Z = 91).

d
(a) Calculate the energy released during the alpha decay of 238 92
U.
(b) Show that 238 92
U can not spontaneously emit a proton.

he
Solution
(a) The alpha decay of 23892 U
is given by Eq. (13.20). The energy released
in this process is given by
Q = (M U – M Th – MHe) c 2
Substituting the atomic masses as given in the data, we find

pu T
is
Q = (238.05079 – 234.04363 – 4.00260)u × c 2
= (0.00456 u) c 2
re R = (0.00456 u) (931.5 MeV/u)

bl
= 4.25 MeV.
(b) If 238
92
U spontaneously emits a proton, the decay process would be
E
23 8 23 7 1
92 U → 91Pa + 1 H
The Q for this process to happen is
= (MU – M Pa – MH ) c 2
be C

= (238.05079 – 237.05121 – 1.00783) u × c 2

EXAMPLE 13.6

2
= (– 0.00825 u) c
= – (0.00825 u)(931.5 MeV/u)
= – 7.68 MeV
o N

Thus , the Q of the process is negative and therefore it cannot proceed

spontaneously. We will have to supply an energy of 7.68 MeV to a
23 8
92 U
nucleus to make it emit a proton.
tt ©

13.6.3 Beta decay

In beta decay, a nucleus spontaneously emits an electron (β − decay) or a
positron (β+ decay). A common example of β − decay is
32
15
32
P → 16 S + e− + ν (13.22)

and that of β+ decay is

22
11
22
Na → 10 Ne + e + + ν (13.23)

The decays are governed by the Eqs. (13.14) and (13.15), so that one
can never predict which nucleus will undergo decay, but one can
no

characterize the decay by a half-life T1/2 . For example, T1/2 for the decays
above is respectively 14.3 d and 2.6y. The emission of electron in β − decay
is accompanied by the emission of an antineutrino ( ν ); in β+ decay, instead,
a neutrino (ν) is generated. Neutrinos are neutral particles with very small
(possiblly, even zero) mass compared to electrons. They have only weak
interaction with other particles. They are, therefore, very difficult to detect,
since they can penetrate large quantity of matter (even earth) without any
450 interaction.
 Nuclei
In both β − and β+ decay, the mass number A remains unchanged. In
−
β decay, the atomic number Z of the nucleus goes up by 1, while in β +
decay Z goes down by 1. The basic nuclear process underlying β − decay
is the conversion of neutron to proton
n → p + e– + ν (13.24)
+

d
while for β decay, it is the conversion of proton into neutron
p → n + e+ + ν (13.25)

he
Note that while a free neutron decays to proton, the decay of proton to
neutron [Eq. (13.25)] is possible only inside the nucleus, since proton
has smaller mass than neutron.

13.6.4 Gamma decay

pu T
is
Like an atom, a nucleus also has discrete energy levels - the ground
state and excited states. The scale of energy is, however, very different.
re R
Atomic energy level spacings are of the order of eV, while the difference in

bl
nuclear energy levels is of the order of MeV. When a
nucleus in an excited state spontaneously decays
E
to its ground state (or to a lower energy state), a
photon is emitted with energy equal to the difference
in the two energy levels of the nucleus. This is the
be C

so-called gamma decay. The energy (MeV)

corresponds to radiation of extremely short
wavelength, shorter than the hard X-ray region.
o N

Typically, a gamma ray is emitted when a α or β

decay results in a daughter nucleus in an excited
state. This then returns to the ground state by a
single photon transition or successive transitions
tt ©

involving more than one photon. A familiar example

FIGURE 13.4 β-decay of 60 Ni nucleus
is the successive emmission of gamma rays of 28
followed by emission of two γ rays
energies 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV from the from deexcitation of the daughter
deexcitation of 6028 Ni
nuclei formed from β − decay nucleus 60 Ni .
60 28
of 27 Co .

13.7 NUCLEAR ENERGY

The curve of binding energy per nucleon Ebn, given in Fig. 13.1, has
a long flat middle region between A = 30 and A = 170. In this region
the binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant (8.0 MeV). For
the lighter nuclei region, A < 30, and for the heavier nuclei region,
A > 170, the binding energy per nucleon is less than 8.0 MeV, as we
no

have noted earlier. Now, the greater the binding energy, the less is the
total mass of a bound system, such as a nucleus. Consequently, if nuclei
with less total binding energy transform to nuclei with greater binding
energy, there will be a net energy release. This is what happens when a
heavy nucleus decays into two or more intermediate mass fragments
(fission) or when light nuclei fuse into a havier nucleus (fusion.)
Exothermic chemical reactions underlie conventional energy sources
such as coal or petroleum. Here the energies involved are in the range of 451
 Physics
electron volts. On the other hand, in a nuclear reaction, the energy release
is of the order of MeV. Thus for the same quantity of matter, nuclear
sources produce a million times more energy than a chemical source.
Fission of 1 kg of uranium, for example, generates 10 14 J of energy;
compare it with burning of 1 kg of coal that gives 10 7 J.

d
13.7.1 Fission
New possibilities emerge when we go beyond natural radioactive decays

he
and study nuclear reactions by bombarding nuclei with other nuclear
particles such as proton, neutron, α-particle, etc.
A most important neutron-induced nuclear reaction is fission. An
235
example of fission is when a uranium isotope 92 U bombarded with a

pu T
is
neutron breaks into two intermediate mass nuclear fragments
1
0 n +235 236 144 89 1
92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n (13.26)
re R The same reaction can produce other pairs of intermediate mass

bl
fragments
1
n + 235 236 133 99
Nb + 4 10 n (13.27)
E
0 92 U → 92 U → 51Sb + 41
Or, as another example,
1
n + 235 140
92 U → 54 Xe +
94
Sr + 2 10n (13.28)
be C

0 38

The fragment products are radioactive nuclei; they emit β particles in

o N

succession to achieve stable end products.

The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus. This is
estimated as follows:
Let us take a nucleus with A = 240 breaking into two fragments each
tt ©

of A = 120. Then
E bn for A = 240 nucleus is about 7.6 MeV,
E bn for the two A = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5 MeV.
∴ Gain in binding energy for nucleon is about 0.9 MeV.
Hence the total gain in binding energy is 240×0.9 or 216 MeV.
The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the kinetic
energy of the fragments and neutrons. Eventually it is transferred to the
surrounding matter appearing as heat. The source of energy in nuclear
reactors, which produce electricity, is nuclear fission. The enormous
energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear fission.
no

We discuss some details in the next section how a nuclear reactor

functions.

13.7.2 Nuclear reactor

Notice one fact of great importance in the fission reactions given in Eqs.
(13.26) to (13.28). There is a release of extra neutron (s) in the fission
process. Averagely, 2½ neutrons are released per fission of uranium
452 nucleus. It is a fraction since in some fission events 2 neutrons are
 Nuclei

I NDIA’S ATOMIC ENERGY PROGRAMME

The atomic energy programme in India was launched around the time of independence
under the leadership of Homi J. Bhabha (1909-1966). An early historic achievement
was the design and construction of the first nuclear reactor in India (named Apsara)

d
which went critical on August 4, 1956. It used enriched uranium as fuel and water as
moderator. Following this was another notable landmark: the construction of CIRUS
(Canada India Research U.S.) reactor in 1960. This 40 MW reactor used natural uranium

he
as fuel and heavy water as moderator. Apsara and CIRUS spurred research in a wide
range of areas of basic and applied nuclear science. An important milestone in the first
two decades of the programme was the indigenous design and construction of the
plutonium plant at Trombay, which ushered in the technology of fuel reprocessing

pu T
is
(separating useful fissile and fertile nuclear materials from the spent fuel of a reactor) in
India. Research reactors that have been subsequently commissioned include ZERLINA,
PURNIMA (I, II and III), DHRUVA and KAMINI. KAMINI is the country’s first large research
re R
reactor that uses U-233 as fuel. As the name suggests, the primary objective of a research

bl
reactor is not generation of power but to provide a facility for research on different aspects
of nuclear science and technology. Research reactors are also an excellent source for
E
production of a variety of radioactive isotopes that find application in diverse fields:
industry, medicine and agriculture.
The main objectives of the Indian Atomic Energy programme are to provide safe and
be C

reliable electric power for the country’s social and economic progress and to be self-
reliant in all aspects of nuclear technology. Exploration of atomic minerals in India
undertaken since the early fifties has indicated that India has limited reserves of uranium,
o N

but fairly abundant reserves of thorium. Accordingly, our country has adopted a three-
stage strategy of nuclear power generation. The first stage involves the use of natural
uranium as a fuel, with heavy water as moderator. The Plutonium-239 obtained from
reprocessing of the discharged fuel from the reactors then serves as a fuel for the second
tt ©

stage — the fast breeder reactors. They are so called because they use fast neutrons for
sustaining the chain reaction (hence no moderator is needed) and, besides generating
power, also breed more fissile species (plutonium) than they consume. The third stage,
most significant in the long term, involves using fast breeder reactors to produce fissile
Uranium-233 from Thorium-232 and to build power reactors based on them.
India is currently well into the second stage of the programme and considerable
work has also been done on the third — the thorium utilisation — stage. The country
has mastered the complex technologies of mineral exploration and mining, fuel
fabrication, heavy water production, reactor design, construction and operation, fuel
reprocessing, etc. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) built at different sites in
the country mark the accomplishment of the first stage of the programme. India is now
more than self-sufficient in heavy water production. Elaborate safety measures both in
no

the design and operation of reactors, as also adhering to stringent standards of

radiological protection are the hallmark of the Indian Atomic Energy Programme.

produced, in some 3, etc. The extra neutrons in turn can initiate fission
processes, producing still more neutrons, and so on. This leads to the
possibility of a chain reaction, as was first suggested by Enrico Fermi. If
the chain reaction is controlled suitably, we can get a steady energy 453
 Physics
output. This is what happens in a nuclear reactor. If the chain reaction is
uncontrolled, it leads to explosive energy output, as in a nuclear bomb.
There is, however, a hurdle in sustaining a chain reaction, as described
here. It is known experimentally that slow neutrons (thermal neutrons)
are much more likely to cause fission in 235 92 U
than fast neutrons. Also
fast neutrons liberated in fission would escape instead of causing another

d
fission reaction.
[Link]

The average energy of a neutron produced in fission of 235 92 U

is 2 MeV.

he
These neutrons unless slowed down will escape from the reactor without
interacting with the uranium nuclei, unless a very large amount of
fissionable material is used for sustaining the chain reaction. What one
needs to do is to slow down the fast neutrons by elastic scattering with

pu T
light nuclei. In fact, Chadwick’s experiments showed that in an elastic

is
collision with hydrogen the neutron almost comes to rest and proton
carries away the energy. This is the same situation as when a marble hits
re R head-on an identical marble at rest. Therefore, in reactors, light nuclei

bl
called moderators are provided along with the fissionable nuclei for slowing
down fast neutrons. The moderators commonly used are water, heavy
E
Nuclear power plants in India

water (D 2O) and graphite. The Apsara reactor at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, uses water as moderator. The other
Indian reactors, which are used for power production, use heavy water
be C

as moderator.
Because of the use of moderator, it is possible that the ratio, K, of
number of fission produced by a given generation of neutrons to the
o N

number of fission of the preceeding generation may be greater than one.

This ratio is called the multiplication factor; it is the measure of the growth
rate of the neutrons in the reactor. For K = 1, the operation of the reactor
is said to be critical, which is what we wish it to be for steady power
tt ©

operation. If K becomes greater than one, the reaction rate and the reactor
power increases exponentially. Unless the factor K is brought down very
close to unity, the reactor will become supercritical and can even explode.
The explosion of the Chernobyl reactor in Ukraine in 1986 is a sad
reminder that accidents in a nuclear reactor can be catastrophic.
The reaction rate is controlled through control-rods made out of
neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium. In addition to control rods,
reactors are provided with safety rods which, when required, can be
inserted into the reactor and K can be reduced rapidly to less than unity.
The more abundant isotope 238 92 U
in naturally occurring uranium is
non-fissionable. When it captures a neutron, it produces the highly
radioactive plutonium through these reactions

238
U + n → 239 239 –
no

92 92 U → 93 Np +e + ν

239
93 Np → 239 –
94 Pu+ e + ν
(13.29)

Plutonium undergoes fission with slow neutrons.

Figure 13.5 shows the schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor based
454 on thermal neutron fission. The core of the reactor is the site of nuclear
 Nuclei

d
he
pu T
is [Link]
A simplified online simulation of a nuclear reactor
re R FIGURE 13.5 Schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor based on

bl
thermal neutron fission.
E
fission. It contains the fuel elements in suitably fabricated form. The fuel
may be say enriched uranium (i.e., one that has greater abundance of
be C

235
92 U
than naturally occurring uranium). The core contains a moderator
to slow down the neutrons. The core is surrounded by a reflector to reduce
leakage. The energy (heat) released in fission is continuously removed by
o N

a suitable coolant. A containment vessel prevents the escape of radioactive

fission products. The whole assembly is shielded to check harmful
radiation from coming out. The reactor can be shut down by means of
rods (made of, for example, cadmium) that have high absorption of
neutrons. The coolant transfers heat to a working fluid which in turn
tt ©

may produce stream. The steam drives turbines and generates electricity.
Like any power reactor, nuclear reactors generate considerable waste
products. But nuclear wastes need special care for treatment since they
are radioactive and hazardous. Elaborate safety measures, both for reactor
operation as well as handling and reprocessing the spent fuel, are
required. These safety measures are a distinguishing feature of the Indian
Atomic Energy programme. An appropriate plan is being evolved to study
the possibility of converting radioactive waste into less active and short-
lived material.

13.7.3 Nuclear fusion – energy generation in stars

When two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus, energy is released,
no

since the larger nucleus is more tightly bound, as seen from the binding
energy curve in Fig.13.1. Some examples of such energy liberating nuclear
fusion reactions are :
1
1 H + 11 H → 21H + e + + ν + 0.42 MeV [13.29(a)]

2
1 H + 21 H → 32He + n + 3.27 MeV [13.29(b)]

2
1 H + 21H → 31H + 11H + 4.03 MeV [13.29(c)] 455
 Physics
In the first reaction, two protons combine to form a deuteron and
a positron with a release of 0.42 MeV energy. In reaction [13.29(b)], two
deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium. In reaction
(13.29c), two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton. For
fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough so that
attractive short-range nuclear force is able to affect them. However,

d
since they are both positively charged particles, they experience coulomb
repulsion. They, therefore, must have enough energy to overcome this
coulomb barrier. The height of the barrier depends on the charges and

he
radii of the two interacting nuclei. It can be shown, for example, that
the barrier height for two protons is ~ 400 keV, and is higher for nuclei
with higher charges. We can estimate the temperature at which two
protons in a proton gas would (averagely) have enough energy to
overcome the coulomb barrier:

pu T
is
(3/2)k T = K 400 keV, which gives T ~ 3 × 109 K.
When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system so
re R that particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome the coulomb

bl
repulsive behaviour, it is called thermonuclear fusion.
Thermonuclear fusion is the source of energy output in the interior
of stars. The interior of the sun has a temperature of 1.5×107 K, which
E
is considerably less than the estimated temperature required for fusion
of particles of average energy. Clearly, fusion in the sun involves protons
whose energies are much above the average energy.
be C

The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the

hydrogen is burned into helium. Thus, the fuel in the sun is the hydrogen
in its core. The proton-proton (p, p) cycle by which this occurs is
o N

represented by the following sets of reactions:

1 +
1 H + 11H → 21H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV (i)
tt ©

e + + e – → γ + γ + 1.02 MeV (ii)

2
1 H + 11H → 32 He + γ + 5.49 MeV (iii)

3
2 He + 32 He → 42 He + 11 H + 11 H + 12.86 MeV (iv) (13.30)

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur
twice, in which case two light helium nuclei unite to form ordinary helium
nucleus. If we consider the combination 2(i) + 2(ii) + 2(iii) +(iv), the net
effect is
4 11H + 2e − → 42 He + 2 ν + 6 γ + 26.7 MeV
no

or (4 11H + 4e − ) → ( 42 He + 2e − ) + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV (13.31)

4
Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an 2 He atom with a
release of 26.7 MeV of energy.
Helium is not the only element that can be synthesized in the interior
of a star. As the hydrogen in the core gets depleted and becomes helium,
456 the core starts to cool. The star begins to collapse under its own gravity
 Nuclei
which increases the temperature of the core. If this temperature increases
to about 108 K, fusion takes place again, this time of helium nuclei into
carbon. This kind of process can generate through fusion higher and
higher mass number elements. But elements more massive than those
near the peak of the binding energy curve in Fig. 13.1 cannot be so
produced.

d
The age of the sun is about 5×109 y and it is estimated that there is
enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for another 5 billion years.

he
After that, the hydrogen burning will stop and the sun will begin to cool
and will start to collapse under gravity, which will raise the core
temperature. The outer envelope of the sun will expand, turning it into
the so called red giant.

pu T
is
NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST
re R
bl
In a single uranium fission about 0.9×235 MeV (≈200 MeV) of energy is liberated. If
each nucleus of about 50 kg of 235U undergoes fission the amount of energy involved is
E
about 4 × 1015J. This energy is equivalent to about 20,000 tons of TNT, enough for a
superexplosion. Uncontrolled release of large nuclear energy is called an atomic explosion.
On August 6, 1945 an atomic device was used in warfare for the first time. The US
be C

dropped an atom bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. The explosion was equivalent to 20,000
tons of TNT. Instantly the radioactive products devastated 10 sq km of the city which
had 3,43,000 inhabitants. Of this number 66,000 were killed and 69,000 were injured;
o N

more than 67% of the city’s structures were destroyed.

High temperature conditions for fusion reactions can be created by exploding a fission
bomb. Super-explosions equivalent to 10 megatons of explosive power of TNT were tested
in 1954. Such bombs which involve fusion of isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium
tt ©

are called hydrogen bombs. It is estimated that a nuclear arsenal sufficient to destroy
every form of life on this planet several times over is in position to be triggered by the
press of a button. Such a nuclear holocaust will not only destroy the life that exists now
but its radioactive fallout will make this planet unfit for life for all times. Scenarios based
on theoretical calculations predict a long nuclear winter, as the radioactive waste will
hang like a cloud in the earth’s atmosphere and will absorb the sun’s radiation.

13.7.4 Controlled thermonuclear fusion

The natural thermonuclear fusion process in a star is replicated in a
no

thermonuclear fusion device. In controlled fusion reactors, the aim is to

generate steady power by heating the nuclear fuel to a temperature in the
range of 108 K. At these temperatures, the fuel is a mixture of positive
ions and electrons (plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, since
no container can stand such a high temperature. Several countries
around the world including India are developing techniques in this
connection. If successful, fusion reactors will hopefully supply almost
unlimited power to humanity.
457
 Physics
Example 13.7 Answer the following questions:
(a) Are the equations of nuclear reactions (such as those given in
Section 13.7) ‘balanced’ in the sense a chemical equation (e.g.,
2H2 + O2 → 2 H2 O) is? If not, in what sense are they balanced on
both sides ?

d
(b) If both the number of protons and the number of neutrons are
conserved in each nuclear reaction, in what way is mass converted
into energy (or vice-versa) in a nuclear reaction?

he
(c) A general impression exists that mass-energy interconversion
takes place only in nuclear reaction and never in chemical
reaction. This is strictly speaking, incorrect. Explain.
Solution

pu T
is
(a) A chemical equation is balanced in the sense that the number of
atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the equation.
A chemical reaction merely alters the original combinations of
re R atoms. In a nuclear reaction, elements may be transmuted. Thus,

bl
the number of atoms of each element is not necessarily conserved
in a nuclear r eaction. However, the number of protons and the
E
number of neutrons are both separately conserved in a nuclear
reaction. [Actually, even this is not strictly true in the realm of
very high energies – what is strictly conserved is the total charge
be C

and total ‘baryon number’. We need not pursue this matter here.]
In nuclear reactions (e.g., Eq. 13.26), the number of protons and
the number of neutrons are the same on the two sides of the equation.
o N

(b) We know that the binding energy of a nucleus gives a negative

contribution to the mass of the nucleus (mass defect). Now, since
proton number and neutron number are conserved in a nuclear
reaction, the total rest mass of neutrons and protons is the same
tt ©

on either side of a reaction. But the total binding energy of nuclei

on the left side need not be the same as that on the right hand
side. The difference in these binding energies appears as energy
released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction. Since binding energy
contributes to mass, we say that the difference in the total mass
of nuclei on the two sides get converted into energy or vice-versa.
It is in these sense that a nuclear reaction is an example of mass-
energy interconversion.
(c) From the point of view of mass-energy interconversion, a chemical
reaction is similar to a nuclear reaction in principle. The energy
released or absorbed in a chemical reaction can be traced to the
difference in chemical (not nuclear) binding energies of atoms and
molecules on the two sides of a reaction. Since, strictly speaking,
chemical binding energy also gives a negative contribution (mass
no

defect) to the total mass of an atom or molecule, we can equally

well say that the difference in the total mass of atoms or molecules,
EXAMPLE 13.7

on the two sides of the chemical reaction gets converted into energy
or vice-versa. However, the mass defects involved in a chemical
reaction are almost a million times smaller than those in a nuclear
[Link] is the reason for the general impression, (which is
incorrec t) that mass-energy interconversion does not take place
in a chemical reaction.
458
 Nuclei

SUMMARY

1. An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged. The radius

of the nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of
104. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

d
2. On the atomic scale, mass is measured in atomic mass units (u). By
definition, 1 atomic mass unit (1u) is 1/12th mass of one atom of 12 C;

he
1u = 1.660563 × 10–27 kg.
3. A nucleus contains a neutral particle called neutron. Its mass is almost
the same as that of proton
4. The atomic number Z is the number of protons in the atomic nucleus
of an element. The mass number A is the total number of protons and

pu T
is
neutrons in the atomic nucleus; A = Z+N; Here N denotes the number
of neutrons in the nucleus.
A
X , where X is the
re R
A nuclear species or a nuclide is represented as Z

bl
chemical symbol of the species.
Nuclides with the same atomic number Z, but different neutron number
N are called isotopes. Nuclides with the same A are isobars and those
E
with the same N are isotones.
Most elements are mixtures of two or more isotopes. The atomic mass
of an element is a weighted average of the masses of its isotopes. The
be C

masses are the relative abundances of the isotopes.

5. A nucleus can be considered to be spherical in shape and assigned a
radius. Electron scattering experiments allow determination of the
o N

nuclear radius; it is found that radii of nuclei fit the formula

R = R0 A1/3,
where R0 = a constant = 1.2 fm. This implies that the nuclear density
is independent of A. It is of the order of 1017 kg/m3 .
tt ©

6. Neutrons and protons are bound in a nucleus by the short-range strong

nuclear force. The nuclear force does not distinguish between neutron
and proton.
7. The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, Σm, of its
constituents. The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents
is called the mass defect,
∆M = (Z mp + (A – Z )mn ) – M
Using Einstein’s mass energy relation, we express this mass difference
in terms of energy as
∆Eb = ∆M c2
The energy ∆Eb represents the binding energy of the nucleus. In the
mass number range A = 30 to 170, the binding energy per nucleon is
nearly constant, about 8 MeV/nucleon.
8. Energies associated with nuclear processes are about a million times
no

larger than chemical process.

9. The Q-value of a nuclear process is
Q = final kinetic energy – initial kinetic energy.
Due to conservation of mass-energy, this is also,
Q = (sum of initial masses – sum of final masses)c2
10. Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which nuclei of a given species
transform by giving out α or β or γ rays; α-rays are helium nuclei;
459
 Physics
β-rays are electrons. γ -rays are electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths
shorter than X-rays;
11. Law of radioactive decay : N (t) = N(0) e–λt
where λ is the decay constant or disintegration constant.
The half-life T 1/2 of a radionuclide is the time in which N has been
reduced to one-half of its initial value. The mean life τ is the time at

d
which N has been reduced to e–1 of its initial value
ln2
T1/2 = = τ ln 2

he
λ
12. Energy is released when less tightly bound nuclei are transmuted into
235
more tightly bound nuclei. In fission, a heavy nucleus like 92 U breaks
23 5 1 13 3 99 1
into two smaller fragments, e.g., 92 U+ n →
0 51 Sb + 41 Nb + 4 0 n

pu T
is
13. The fact that more neutrons are produced in fission than are consumed
gives the possibility of a chain reaction with each neutron that is
produced triggering another fission. The chain reaction is uncontrolled
re R and rapid in a nuclear bomb explosion. It is controlled and steady in

bl
a nuclear reactor. In a reactor, the value of the neutron multiplication
factor k is maintained at 1.
E
14. In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus. Fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei is the source of energy of all stars
including our sun.
be C

Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions Units Remarks

o N

Atomic mass unit [M] u Unit of mass for

expressing atomic or
nuclear masses. One
atomic mass unit equals
th 12
1/12 of the mass of C
tt ©

atom.
Disintegration or λ [T –1 ] s–1
decay constant
Half-life T 1/2 [T] s Time taken for the decay
of one-half of the initial
number of nuclei present
in a radioactive sample.
Mean life τ [T] s Time at which number of
nuclei has been reduced to
–1
e of its initial value
Activity of a radio- R [ T–1 ] Bq Measure of the activity
active sample of a radioactive source.
no

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The density of nuclear matter is independent of the size of the nucleus.
The mass density of the atom does not follow this rule.
2. The radius of a nucleus determined by electron scattering is found to
460 be slightly different from that determined by alpha-particle scattering.
 Nuclei

This is because electron scattering senses the charge distribution of

the nucleus, whereas alpha and similar particles sense the nuclear
matter.
3. After Einstein showed the equivalence of mass and energy, E = mc 2 ,
we cannot any longer speak of separate laws of conservation of mass
and conservation of energy, but we have to speak of a unified law of

d
conservation of mass and energy. The most convincing evidence that
this principle operates in nature comes from nuclear physics. It is

he
central to our understanding of nuclear energy and harnessing it as a
source of power. Using the principle, Q of a nuclear process (decay or
reaction) can be expressed also in terms of initial and final masses.
4. The nature of the binding energy (per nucleon) curve shows that
exothermic nuclear reactions are possible, when two light nuclei fuse

pu T
is
or when a heavy nucleus undergoes fission into nuclei with intermediate
mass.
5. For fusion, the light nuclei must have sufficient initial energy to
re R
overcome the coulomb potential barrier. That is why fusion requires

bl
very high temperatures.
6. Although the binding energy (per nucleon) curve is smooth and slowly
E
varying, it shows peaks at nuclides like 4 He, 16O etc. This is considered
as evidence of atom-like shell structure in nuclei.
7. Electrons and positron are a particle-antiparticle pair. They are
be C

identical in mass; their charges are equal in magnitude and opposite.

(It is found that when an electr on and a positron come together, they
annihilate each other giving energy in the form of gamma-ray photons.)
o N

8. In â- -decay (electron emission), the particle emitted along with electron

is anti-neutrino ( ν ). On the other hand, the particle emitted in β+ -
decay (positron emission) is neutrino (ν). Neutrino and anti-neutrino
are a particle-antiparticle pair. There ar e anti particles associated
with every particle. What should be antiproton which is the anti
tt ©

particle of the proton?

9. A free neutron is unstable ( n → p + e – + ν ). But a similar free proton
decay is not possible, since a proton is (slightly) lighter than a neutron.
10. Gamma emission usually follows alpha or beta emission. A nucleus
in an excited (higher) state goes to a lower state by emitting a gamma
photon. A nucleus may be left in an excited state after alpha or beta
emission. Successive emission of gamma rays from the same nucleus
(as in case of 60Ni, Fig. 13.4) is a clear proof that nuclei also have
discrete energy levels as do the atoms.
11. Radioactivity is an indication of the instability of nuclei. Stability
requires the ratio of neutron to proton to be around 1:1 for light
nuclei. This ratio increases to about 3:2 for heavy nuclei. (More
neutrons are required to overcome the effect of repulsion among the
no

protons.) Nuclei which are away from the stability ratio, i.e., nuclei
which have an excess of neutrons or protons are unstable. In fact,
only about 10% of knon isotopes (of all elements), are stable. Others
have been either artificially produced in the laboratory by bombarding
α, p, d, n or other particles on targets of stable nuclear species or
identified in astronomical observations of matter in the universe.

461
 Physics
EXERCISES
You may find the following data useful in solving the exercises:
e = 1.6×10–19C N = 6.023×10 23 per mole
9 2 2 –23 0 –1
1/(4 πε0) = 9 × 10 N m /C k = 1.381×10 J K

d
1 MeV = 1.6×10–13J 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c 2
7
1 year = 3.154×10 s

he
mH = 1.007825 u mn = 1.008665 u
4
m( He ) = 4.002603 u
2
m e = 0.000548 u
13.1 (a) Two stable isotopes of lithium 63 Li and 73 Li have respective

pu T
is
abundances of 7.5% and 92.5%. These isotopes have masses
6.01512 u and 7.01600 u, respectively. Find the atomic mass
of lithium.
re R (b) Boron has two stable isotopes, 105 B and 115B . Their respective

bl
masses are 10.01294 u and 11.00931 u, and the atomic mass of
boron is 10.811 u. Find the abundances of 105 B and 11 B.
E
5
20 21 22
13.2 The three stable isotopes of neon: 10 Ne, 10 Ne and 10 Ne have
respective abundances of 90.51%, 0.27% and 9.22%. The atomic
be C

masses of the three isotopes are 19.99 u, 20.99 u and 21.99 u,

respectively. Obtain the average atomic mass of neon.
13.3 Obtain the binding energy (in MeV) of a nitrogen nucleus ( 14
7 )
N ,
o N

14
( )
given m 7 N =14.00307 u
56 209
13.4 Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei 26
Fe and 83
Bi in units of
MeV from the following data:
m ( 56 Fe ) = 55.934939 u m ( 209 Bi ) = 208.980388 u
tt ©

26 83
13.5 A given coin has a mass of 3.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that
would be required to separate all the neutrons and protons from
each other. For simplicity assume that the coin is entirely made of
63
29 Cu
atoms (of mass 62.92960 u).
13.6 Write nuclear reaction equations for
22 6 242
(i) α-decay of 88 Ra (ii) α -decay of 94 Pu
– 32 – 210
(iii) β -decay of 15
P (iv) β -decay of 83
Bi
+ 11 + 97
(v) β -decay of 6 C (vi) β -decay of 43 Tc
120
(vii) Electron capture of Xe 54
13.7 A radioactive isotope has a half-life of T years. How long will it take
the activity to reduce to a) 3.125%, b) 1% of its original value?
no

13.8 The normal activity of living carbon-containing matter is found to

be about 15 decays per minute for every gram of carbon. This activity
arises from the small proportion of radioactive 146 C present with the
stable carbon isotope 126 C . When the organism is dead, its interaction
with the atmosphere (which maintains the above equilibrium activity)
ceases and its activity begins to drop. From the known half-life (5730
years) of 146 C , and the measured activity, the age of the specimen
462 can be approximately estimated. This is the principle of 146 C dating
 Nuclei
used in archaeology. Suppose a specimen from Mohenjodaro gives
an activity of 9 decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the
approximate age of the Indus-Valley civilisation.
13.9 Obtain the amount of 60
27
Co necessary to provide a radioactive source
of 8.0 mCi strength. The half-life of 60
27
Co is 5.3 years.
13.10 The half-life of 90 Sr is 28 years. What is the disintegration rate of

d
38
15 mg of this isotope?
13.11 Obtain approximately the ratio of the nuclear radii of the gold isotope

he
197
79
Au and the silver isotope 107
47
Ag .
13.12 Find the Q-value and the kinetic energy of the emitted α-particle in
220
the α-decay of (a) 226
88
Ra and (b) 86 Rn .
Given m ( 226 Ra ) = 226.02540 u, m ( 222 Rn ) = 222.01750 u,

pu T
88 86

is
m ( 228 62 Rn ) = 220.01137 u, m ( 218 46 Po ) = 216.00189 u.
11
13.13 The radionuclide C decays according to
re R
bl
11
6 C →115 B + e + + ν : T1/2 =20.3 min
The maximum energy of the emitted positron is 0.960 MeV.
E
Given the mass values:
m ( 116 C ) = 11.011434 u and m ( 116 B ) = 11.009305 u,
be C

calculate Q and compare it with the maximum energy of the positron

emitted.
23 –
13.14 The nucleus 10 Ne decays by β emission. Write down the β -decay
equation and determine the maximum kinetic energy of the
o N

electrons emitted. Given that:

23
m ( 10 Ne ) = 22.994466 u
23
m ( 11 Na ) = 22.089770 u.
tt ©

13.15 The Q value of a nuclear reaction A + b → C + d is defined by

2
Q = [ mA + mb – mC – md]c
where the masses refer to the respective nuclei. Determine from the
given data the Q-value of the following reactions and state whether
the reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
(i) 11 H+31 H →12 H+12 H
12
(ii) 6
C+126 C →10
20
Ne+24 He
Atomic masses are given to be
m ( 12 H ) = 2.014102 u
m ( 13 H ) = 3.016049 u
m ( 126 C ) = 12.000000 u
no

m ( 1200 Ne ) = 19.992439 u
13.16 Suppose, we think of fission of a 56 26
Fe nucleus into two equal
28
fragments, 13 Al . Is the fission energetically possible? Argue by
56
working out Q of the process. Given m ( 26 Fe ) = 55.93494 u and
28
m ( 13 Al ) = 27.98191 u.
13.17 The fission properties of 239
94 Pu
are very similar to those of 239 25 U . The
average energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, 463
 Physics
in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure 239 49 Pu undergo
fission?
13.18 A 1000 MW fission reactor consumes half of its fuel in 5.00 y. How
much 235 92
U did it contain initially? Assume that the reactor operates
80% of the time, that all the energy generated arises from the fission
of 235 U and that this nuclide is consumed only by the fission process.

d
92
13.19 How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept glowing by fusion of
2.0 kg of deuterium? Take the fusion reaction as

he
2 2 3
1 H+ 1 H → 2 He +n+3.27 MeV
13.20 Calculate the height of the potential barrier for a head on collision
of two deuterons. (Hint: The height of the potential barrier is given
by the Coulomb repulsion between the two deuterons when they

pu T
is
just touch each other. Assume that they can be taken as hard
spheres of radius 2.0 fm.)
1/3
13.21 From the relation R = R 0A , where R 0 is a constant and A is the
re R mass number of a nucleus, show that the nuclear matter density is

bl
nearly constant (i.e. independent of A).
+
13.22 For the β (positron) emission from a nucleus, there is another
E
competing process known as electron capture (electron from an inner
orbit, say, the K–shell, is captured by the nucleus and a neutrino is
emitted).
be C

+ A A
e + Z X→ Z −1 Y+ν
Show that if β+ emission is energetically allowed, electron capture
is necessarily allowed but not vice–versa.
o N

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
13.23 In a periodic table the average atomic mass of magnesium is given
tt ©

as 24.312 u. The average value is based on their relative natural

abundance on earth. The three isotopes and their masses are 24 12 Mg
(23.98504u), 25
12 Mg (24.98584u) and 26
12 Mg (25.98259u). The natural
abundance of 24 12 Mg
is 78.99% by mass. Calculate the abundances
of other two isotopes.
13.24 The neutron separation energy is defined as the energy required to
remove a neutron from the nucleus. Obtain the neutron separation
energies of the nuclei 41 20 Ca
and 27
13 Al
from the following data:
m ( 40
20 Ca
) = 39.962591 u
m ( 41
20 Ca
) = 40.962278 u
m ( 26
13 Al
) = 25.986895 u
no

m ( 27
13 Al ) = 26.981541 u

13.25 A source contains two phosphorous radio nuclides 32 15 P

(T 1/2 = 14.3d)
and 33
15 P
(T1/2 = 25.3d). Initially, 10% of the decays come from 33
15 P
.
How long one must wait until 90% do so?
13.26 Under certain circumstances, a nucleus can decay by emitting a
particle more massive than an α-particle. Consider the following
decay processes:
464 22 3 2 09 14
88 Ra → 82 Pb + 6 C
 Nuclei
22 3 2 19 4
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He
Calculate the Q-values for these decays and determine that both
are energetically allowed.
13.27 Consider the fission of 239 28 U by fast neutrons. In one fission event,
no neutrons are emitted and the final end products, after the beta

d
decay of the primary fragments, are 140 99
58 Ce and 44 Ru . Calculate Q
for this fission process. The relevant atomic and particle masses
are

he
m( 238
92 U
) =238.05079 u
m( 140
58 Ce ) =139.90543 u

m( 99
44 Ru
) = 98.90594 u

pu T
13.28 Consider the D–T reaction (deuterium–tritium fusion)

is
2 3 4
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + n
re R
(a) Calculate the energy released in MeV in this reaction from the

bl
data:
m( 21 H )=2.014102 u
E
m( 31 H ) =3.016049 u
(b) Consider the radius of both deuterium and tritium to be
be C

approximately 2.0 fm. What is the kinetic energy needed to

overcome the coulomb repulsion between the two nuclei? To what
temperature must the gas be heated to initiate the reaction?
(Hint: Kinetic energy required for one fusion event =average
o N

thermal kinetic energy available with the interacting particles

= 2(3kT/2); k = Boltzman’s constant, T = absolute temperature.)
13.29 Obtain the maximum kinetic energy of β -particles, and the radiation
frequencies of γ decays in the decay scheme shown in Fig. 13.6. You
tt ©

are given that

m(198Au) = 197.968233 u
m(198Hg) =197.966760 u
no

FIGURE13.6 465
 Physics
13.30 Calculate and compare the energy released by a) fusion of 1.0 kg of
hydrogen deep within Sun and b) the fission of 1.0 kg of 235U in a
fission r eactor.
13.31 Suppose India had a target of producing by 2020 AD, 200,000 MW
of electric power, ten percent of which was to be obtained from nuclear
power plants. Suppose we are given that, on an average, the efficiency

d
of utilization (i.e. conversion to electric energy) of thermal energy
produced in a reactor was 25%. How much amount of fissionable
uranium would our country need per year by 2020? Take the heat

he
energy per fission of 235U to be about 200MeV.

pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
o N
tt ©
no

466
Chapter Fourteen

SEMICONDUCTOR

d
he
ELECTRONICS:
pu T
is
MATERIALS, DEVICES
re R
bl
AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
E
be C
o N

14.1 INTRODUCTION
tt ©

Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained are the

basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits. Before the discovery of
transistor in 1948, such devices were mostly vacuum tubes (also called
valves) like the vacuum diode which has two electrodes, viz., anode (often
called plate) and cathode; triode which has three electrodes – cathode,
plate and grid; tetrode and pentode (respectively with 4 and 5 electrodes).
In a vacuum tube, the electrons are supplied by a heated cathode and
the controlled flow of these electrons in vacuum is obtained by varying
the voltage between its different electrodes. Vacuum is required in the
inter-electrode space; otherwise the moving electrons may lose their
energy on collision with the air molecules in their path. In these devices
the electrons can flow only from the cathode to the anode (i.e., only in one
direction). Therefore, such devices are generally referred to as valves.
no

These vacuum tube devices are bulky, consume high power, operate
generally at high voltages (~100 V) and have limited life and low reliability.
The seed of the development of modern solid-state semiconductor
electronics goes back to 1930’s when it was realised that some solid-
state semiconductors and their junctions offer the possibility of controlling
the number and the direction of flow of charge carriers through them.
Simple excitations like light, heat or small applied voltage can change
the number of mobile charges in a semiconductor. Note that the supply
 Physics
and flow of charge carriers in the semiconductor devices are within the
solid itself, while in the earlier vacuum tubes/valves, the mobile electrons
were obtained from a heated cathode and they were made to flow in an
evacuated space or vacuum. No external heating or large evacuated space
is required by the semiconductor devices. They are small in size, consume
low power, operate at low voltages and have long life and high reliability.

d
Even the Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) used in television and computer
monitors which work on the principle of vacuum tubes are being replaced
by Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors with supporting solid state

he
electronics. Much before the full implications of the semiconductor devices
was formally understood, a naturally occurring crystal of galena (Lead
sulphide, PbS) with a metal point contact attached to it was used as
detector of radio waves.

pu T
is
In the following sections, we will introduce the basic concepts of
semiconductor physics and discuss some semiconductor devices like
re R junction diodes (a 2-electrode device) and bipolar junction transistor (a

bl
3-electrode device). A few circuits illustrating their applications will also
be described.
E
14.2 CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, C ONDUCTORS AND
SEMICONDUCTORS
be C

On the basis of conductivity

On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity ( σ ) or resistivity
o N

( ρ = 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as:

(i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ~ 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m
σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1
tt ©

(ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate

to metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m
σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1
(iii)Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ~ 10 11 – 1019 Ω m
σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
The values of ρ and σ given above are indicative of magnitude and
could well go outside the ranges as well. Relative values of the resistivity
are not the only criteria for distinguishing metals, insulators and
semiconductors from each other. There are some other differences, which
will become clear as we go along in this chapter.
Our interest in this chapter is in the study of semiconductors which
no

could be:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are:
• Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
• Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
• Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.
Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on
468 elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
semiconductors. However, after 1990, a few semiconductor devices using
organic semiconductors and semiconducting polymers have been
developed signalling the birth of a futuristic technology of polymer-
electronics and molecular-electronics. In this chapter, we will restrict
ourselves to the study of inorganic semiconductors, particularly
elemental semiconductors Si and Ge. The general concepts introduced
here for discussing the elemental semiconductors, by-and-large, apply

d
to most of the compound semiconductors as well.

he
On the basis of energy bands
According to the Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom the energy of
any of its electrons is decided by the orbit in which it revolves. But when
the atoms come together to form a solid they are close to each other. So

pu T
the outer orbits of electrons from neighbouring atoms would come very

is
close or could even overlap. This would make the nature of electron motion
in a solid very different from that in an isolated atom.
re R
Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two

bl
electrons see exactly the same pattern of surrounding charges. Because
of this, each electron will have a different energy level. These different
energy levels with continuous energy variation form what are called
E
energy bands. The energy band which includes the energy levels of the
valence electrons is called the valence band. The energy band above the
be C

valence band is called the conduction band. With no external energy, all
the valence electrons will reside in the valence band. If the lowest level in
the conduction band happens to be lower than the highest level of the
valence band, the electrons from the valence band can easily move into
o N

the conduction band. Normally the conduction band is empty. But when
it overlaps on the valence band electrons can move freely into it. This is
the case with metallic conductors.
If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence
tt ©

band, electrons in the valence band all remain bound and no free electrons
are available in the conduction band. This makes the material an
insulator. But some of the electrons from the valence band may gain
external energy to cross the gap between the conduction band and the
valence band. Then these electrons will move into the conduction band.
At the same time they will create vacant energy levels in the valence band
where other valence electrons can move. Thus the process creates the
possibility of conduction due to electrons in conduction band as well as
due to vacancies in the valence band.
Let us consider what happens in the case of Si or Ge crystal containing
N atoms. For Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit (n = 3), while for Ge
it is the fourth orbit (n = 4). The number of electrons in the outermost
orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence, the total number of outer electrons
in the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of electrons in the
no

outer orbit is 8 (2s + 6p electrons). So, for the 4N valence electrons there
are 8N available energy states. These 8N discrete energy levels can either
form a continuous band or they may be grouped in different bands
depending upon the distance between the atoms in the crystal (see box
on Band Theory of Solids).
At the distance between the atoms in the crystal lattices of Si and Ge,
the energy band of these 8N states is split apart into two which are
separated by an energy gap Eg (Fig. 14.1). The lower band which is 469
 Physics
completely occupied by the 4N valence electrons at temperature of absolute
zero is the valence band. The other band consisting of 4N energy states,
called the conduction band, is completely empty at absolute zero.

B AND THEORY OF SOLIDS

d
Consider that the Si or Ge crystal
contains N atoms. Electrons of each
atom will have discrete energies in

he
different orbits. The electron energy
will be same if all the atoms are
isolated, i.e., separated from each
other by a large distance. However,

pu T
in a crystal, the atoms are close to

is
each other (2 to 3 Å) and therefore
the electrons interact with each
re R other and also with the

bl
neighbouring atomic cores. The
overlap (or interaction) will be more
E
felt by the electrons in the
outermost orbit while the inner
orbit or core electron energies may
be C

remain unaffected. Therefore, for understanding electron energies in Si or Ge crystal, we

need to consider the changes in the energies of the electrons in the outermost orbit only.
For Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit (n = 3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit
(n = 4). The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence,
o N

the total number of outer electrons in the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of
outer electrons in the orbit is 8 (2s + 6p electrons). So, out of the 4N electrons, 2N electrons
are in the 2N s-states (orbital quantum number l = 0) and 2N electrons are in the available
6N p-states. Obviously, some p-electron states are empty as shown in the extreme right of
tt ©

Figure. This is the case of well separated or isolated atoms [region A of Figure].
Suppose these atoms start coming nearer to each other to form a solid. The energies
of these electrons in the outermost orbit may change (both increase and decrease) due to
the interaction between the electrons of different atoms. The 6N states for l = 1, which
originally had identical energies in the isolated atoms, spread out and form an energy
band [region B in Figure]. Similarly, the 2N states for l = 0, having identical energies in
the isolated atoms, split into a second band (carefully see the region B of Figure) separated
from the first one by an energy gap.
At still smaller spacing, however, there comes a region in which the bands merge with
each other. The lowest energy state that is a split from the upper atomic level appears to
drop below the upper state that has come from the lower atomic level. In this region (region
C in Figure), no energy gap exists where the upper and lower energy states get mixed.
Finally, if the distance between the atoms further decreases, the energy bands again
split apart and are separated by an energy gap Eg (region D in Figure). The total number
no

of available energy states 8N has been re-apportioned between the two bands (4N states
each in the lower and upper energy bands). Here the significant point is that there are
exactly as many states in the lower band (4N) as there are available valence electrons
from the atoms (4N ).
Therefore, this band ( called the valence band ) is completely filled while the upper
band is completely empty. The upper band is called the conduction band.

470
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
The lowest energy level in the
conduction band is shown as E C and
highest energy level in the valence band
is shown as EV . Above E C and below EV
there are a large number of closely spaced
energy levels, as shown in Fig. 14.1.

d
The gap between the top of the valence
band and bottom of the conduction band
is called the energy band gap (Energy gap

he
Eg ). It may be large, small, or zero,
depending upon the material. These
different situations, are depicted in Fig.
14.2 and discussed below:

pu T
Case I: This refers to a situation, as

is
shown in Fig. 14.2(a). One can have a
metal either when the conduction band
re R
is partially filled and the balanced band FIGURE 14.1 The energy band positions in a

bl
is partially empty or when the conduction semiconductor at 0 K. The upper band, called the
and valance bands overlap. When there conduction band, consists of infinitely large number
E
of closely spaced energy states. The lower band,
is overlap electrons from valence band can
called the valence band, consists of closely spaced
easily move into the conduction band.
completely filled energy states.
This situation makes a large number of
be C

electrons available for electrical conduction. When the valence band is

partially empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher level
making conduction possible. Therefore, the resistance of such materials
o N

is low or the conductivity is high.

tt ©
no

FIGURE 14.2 Difference between energy bands of (a) metals,

(b) insulators and (c) semiconductors. 471
 Physics
Case II: In this case, as shown in Fig. 14.2(b), a large band gap Eg exists
(Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the conduction band, and therefore
no electrical conduction is possible. Note that the energy gap is so large
that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction
band by thermal excitation. This is the case of insulators.
Case III: This situation is shown in Fig. 14.2(c). Here a finite but small

d
band gap (E g < 3 eV) exists. Because of the small band gap, at room
temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough

he
energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These
electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band.
Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high as that of the
insulators.
In this section we have made a broad classification of metals,

pu T
is
conductors and semiconductors. In the section which follows you will
learn the conduction process in semiconductors.
re R
bl
14.3 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
We shall take the most common case of Ge and Si whose lattice structure
E
is shown in Fig. 14.3. These structures are called the diamond-like
structures. Each atom is surrounded by four nearest neighbours. We
know that Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In its crystalline
be C

structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence

electrons with each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also to take
share of one electron from each such neighbour. These shared electron
o N

pairs are referred to as forming a covalent bond or simply a valence

bond. The two shared electrons can be assumed to shuttle back-and-
forth between the associated atoms holding them together strongly.
Figure 14.4 schematically shows the 2-dimensional representation of Si
tt ©

or Ge structure shown in Fig. 14.3 which overemphasises the covalent

bond. It shows an idealised picture in which no bonds are broken (all
bonds are intact). Such a situation arises at low
temperatures. As the temperature increases, more
thermal energy becomes available to these electrons
and some of these electrons may break–away
(becoming free electrons contributing to conduction).
The thermal energy effectively ionises only a few atoms
in the crystalline lattice and creates a vacancy in the
bond as shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The neighbourhood,
from which the free electron (with charge –q ) has come
out leaves a vacancy with an effective charge (+q ). This
vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is
no

called a hole. The hole behaves as an apparent free

particle with effective positive charge.
FIGURE 14.3 Three-dimensional dia-
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free
mond-like crystal structure for Carbon, electrons, ne is equal to the number of holes, n h. That is
Silicon or Germanium with n e
= n h
= ni (14.1)
respective lattice spacing a equal where n i is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
to 3.56, 5.43 and 5.66 Å. Semiconductors posses the unique property in
472 which, apart from electrons, the holes also move.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Suppose there is a hole at site 1 as shown in
Fig. 14.5(a). The movement of holes can be
visualised as shown in Fig. 14.5(b). An electron
from the covalent bond at site 2 may jump to
the vacant site 1 (hole). Thus, after such a jump,
the hole is at site 2 and the site 1 has now an

d
electron. Therefore, apparently, the hole has
moved from site 1 to site 2. Note that the electron
originally set free [Fig. 14.5(a)] is not involved

he
in this process of hole motion. The free electron
moves completely independently as conduction
electron and gives rise to an electron current, I e
under an applied electric field. Remember that

pu T
the motion of hole is only a convenient way of

is
FIGURE 14.4 Schematic two-dimensional
describing the actual motion of bound electrons, representation of Si or Ge structure showing
whenever there is an empty bond anywhere in covalent bonds at low temperature
re R
the crystal. Under the action of an electric field, (all bonds intact). +4 symbol

bl
these holes move towards negative potential indicates inner cores of Si or Ge.
giving the hole current, Ih. The total current, I is
E
thus the sum of the electron current I e and the
hole current Ih:
I = Ie + Ih (14.2)
be C

It may be noted that apart from the process of generation of conduction

electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of recombination occurs in
which the electrons recombine with the holes. At equilibrium, the rate of
o N

generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers. The

recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole.
tt ©
no

(a) (b)
FIGURE 14.5 (a) Schematic model of generation of hole at site 1 and conduction electron
due to thermal energy at moderate temperatures. (b) Simplified representation of
possible thermal motion of a hole. The electron from the lower left hand covalent bond
(site 2) goes to the earlier hole site1, leaving a hole at its site indicating an
apparent movement of the hole from site 1 to site 2. 473
 Physics
An intrinsic semiconductor
will behave like an insulator at
T = 0 K as shown in Fig. 14.6(a).
It is the thermal energy at
higher temperatures (T > 0K),
which excites some electrons
from the valence band to the

d
conduction band. These
thermally excited electrons at

he
T > 0 K, partially occupy the
conduction band. Therefore,
the energy-band diagram of an
intrinsic semiconductor will be
FIGURE 14.6 (a) An intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K as shown in Fig. 14.6(b). Here,

pu T
is
behaves like insulator. (b) At T > 0 K, four ther mally generated some electrons are shown in
electron-hole pairs. The filled circles ( ) represent electrons the conduction band. These
and empty fields ( ) represent holes. have come from the valence
re R band leaving equal number of

bl
holes there.
E
Example 14.1 C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure. Why is C
insulator while Si and Ge intrinsic semiconductors?
EXAMPLE 14.1

be C

Solution The 4 bonding electrons of C, Si or Ge lie, respectively, in

the second, third and fourth orbit. Hence, energy required to take
out an electron from these atoms (i.e., ionisation energy Eg ) will be
least for Ge, followed by Si and highest for C. Hence, number of free
o N

electrons for conduction in Ge and Si are significant but negligibly

small for C.
tt ©

14.4 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on its
temperature, but at room temperature its conductivity is very low. As
such, no important electronic devices can be developed using these
semiconductors. Hence there is a necessity of improving their
conductivity. This can be done by making use of impurities.
When a small amount, say, a few parts per million (ppm), of a suitable
impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the conductivity of the
semiconductor is increased manifold. Such materials are known as
extrinsic semiconductors or impurity semiconductors. The deliberate
addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms
are called dopants. Such a material is also called a doped semiconductor.
no

The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure
semiconductor lattice. It occupies only a very few of the original
semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary condition to attain
this is that the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should
be nearly the same.
There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si
or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous
474 (P), etc.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
(ii) Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In),
Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.
We shall now discuss how the doping
changes the number of charge carriers (and
hence the conductivity) of semiconductors.
Si or Ge belongs to the fourth group in the

d
Periodic table and, therefore, we choose the
dopant element from nearby fifth or third
group, expecting and taking care that the

he
size of the dopant atom is nearly the same as
that of Si or Ge. Interestingly, the pentavalent
and trivalent dopants in Si or Ge give two
entirely different types of semiconductors as

pu T
is
discussed below.
(i) n-type semiconductor
re R
bl
Suppose we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent
element as shown in Fig. 14.7. When an atom
of +5 valency element occupies the position
E
of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si, four of
its electrons bond with the four silicon
be C

neighbours while the fifth remains very

weakly bound to its parent atom. This is
because the four electrons participating in
o N

bonding are seen as part of the effective core FIGURE 14.7 (a) Pentavalent donor atom (As, Sb,
of the atom by the fifth electron. As a result P, etc.) doped for tetravalent Si or Ge giving n-
the ionisation energy required to set this type semiconductor, and (b) Commonly used
schematic representation of n-type material
electron free is very small and even at room
which shows only the fixed cores of the
temperature it will be free to move in the
tt ©

substituent donors with one additional effective

lattice of the semiconductor. For example, the positive charge and its associated extra electron.
energy required is ~ 0.01 eV for germanium,
and 0.05 eV for silicon, to separate this
electron from its atom. This is in contrast to the energy required to jump
the forbidden band (about 0.72 eV for germanium and about 1.1 eV for
silicon) at room temperature in the intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, the
pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and
hence is known as donor impurity. The number of electrons made
available for conduction by dopant atoms depends strongly upon the
doping level and is independent of any increase in ambient temperature.
On the other hand, the number of free electrons (with an equal number
of holes) generated by Si atoms, increases weakly with temperature.
no

In a doped semiconductor the total number of conduction electrons

ne is due to the electrons contributed by donors and those generated
intrinsically, while the total number of holes n h is only due to the holes
from the intrinsic source. But the rate of recombination of holes would
increase due to the increase in the number of electrons. As a result, the
number of holes would get reduced further.
Thus, with proper level of doping the number of conduction electrons
can be made much larger than the number of holes. Hence in an extrinsic 475
 Physics
semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity, electrons
become the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers.
These semiconductors are, therefore, known as n-type
semiconductors. For n-type semiconductors, we have,
ne >> nh (14.3)
(ii) p-type semiconductor

d
This is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity
like Al, B, In, etc. The dopant has one valence electron less than

he
Si or Ge and, therefore, this atom can form covalent bonds with
neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have any electron to
offer to the fourth Si atom. So the bond between the fourth
neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole as shown

pu T
in Fig. 14.8. Since the neighbouring Si atom in the lattice wants

is
an electron in place of a hole, an electron in the outer orbit of
an atom in the neighbourhood may jump to fill this vacancy,
re R leaving a vacancy or hole at its own site. Thus the hole is

bl
available for conduction. Note that the trivalent foreign atom
becomes effectively negatively charged when it shares fourth
E
electron with neighbouring Si atom. Therefore, the dopant atom
of p-type material can be treated as core of one negative charge
along with its associated hole as shown in Fig. 14.8(b). It is
be C

obvious that one acceptor atom gives one hole. These holes are
in addition to the intrinsically generated holes while the source
of conduction electrons is only intrinsic generation. Thus, for
o N

such a material, the holes are the majority carriers and electrons
FIGURE 14.8 (a) Trivalent are minority carriers. Therefore, extrinsic semiconductors doped
acceptor atom (In, Al, B etc.) with trivalent impurity are called p-type semiconductors. For
doped in tetravalent Si or Ge
p-type semiconductors, the recombination process will reduce
lattice giving p-type semicon-
tt ©

ductor. (b) Commonly used

the number (n i)of intrinsically generated electrons to ne . We
schematic representation of have, for p-type semiconductors
p-type material which shows nh >> ne (14.4)
only the fixed core of the Note that the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality
substituent acceptor with
as the charge of additional charge carriers is just equal and
one effective additional
negative charge and its
opposite to that of the ionised cores in the lattice.
associated hole. In extrinsic semiconductors, because of the abundance of
majority current carriers, the minority carriers produced
thermally have more chance of meeting majority carriers and
thus getting destroyed. Hence, the dopant, by adding a large number of
current carriers of one type, which become the majority carriers, indirectly
helps to reduce the intrinsic concentration of minority carriers.
The semiconductor’s energy band structure is affected by doping. In
no

the case of extrinsic semiconductors, additional energy states due to donor

impurities (ED ) and acceptor impurities (EA ) also exist. In the energy band
diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor energy level ED is slightly
below the bottom EC of the conduction band and electrons from this level
move into the conduction band with very small supply of energy. At room
temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionised but very few (~10–12)
atoms of Si get ionised. So the conduction band will have most electrons
476 coming from the donor impurities, as shown in Fig. 14.9(a). Similarly,
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
for p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above
the top EV of the valence band as shown in Fig. 14.9(b). With very small
supply of energy an electron from the valence band can jump to the level
EA and ionise the acceptor negatively. (Alternately, we can also say that
with very small supply of energy the hole from level EA sinks down into
the valence band. Electrons rise up and holes fall down when they gain

d
external energy.) At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get
ionised leaving holes in the valence band. Thus at room temperature the
density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to impurity in

he
the extrinsic semiconductor. The electron and hole concentration in a
semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by
ne nh = n i2 (14.5)

pu T
Though the above description is grossly approximate and

is
hypothetical, it helps in understanding the difference between metals,
insulators and semiconductors (extrinsic and intrinsic) in a simple
re R
manner. The difference in the resistivity of C, Si and Ge depends upon

bl
the energy gap between their conduction and valence bands. For C
(diamond), Si and Ge, the energy gaps are 5.4 eV, 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV,
E
respectively. Sn also is a group IV element but it is a metal because the
energy gap in its case is 0 eV.
be C
o N
tt ©

FIGURE 14.9 Energy bands of (a) n-type semiconductor at T > 0K, (b) p-type
semiconductor at T > 0K.

Example 14.2 Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m–3. It is

doped by 1 ppm concentration of pentavalent As. Calculate the
no

number of electrons and holes. Given that ni =1.5 × 10 16 m–3.

Solution Note that thermally generated electrons (ni ~10 16 m–3 ) are
EXAMPLE 14.2

negligibly small as compared to those produced by doping.

Therefore, ne ≈ ND .
2
Since nenh = ni , The number of holes
nh = (2.25 × 1032)/(5 ×1022)
~ 4.5 × 109 m–3
477
 Physics
14.5 p-n JUNCTION
A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices
like diodes, transistor, etc. A clear understanding of the junction behaviour
is important to analyse the working of other semiconductor devices.
We will now try to understand how a junction is formed and how the

d
junction behaves under the influence of external applied voltage (also
called bias).
[Link]

he
14.5.1 p-n junction formation
Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding
precisely a small quantity of pentavelent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer
can be converted into n-Si. There are several processes by which a

pu T
is
semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region and
Formation and working of p-n junction diode

n-region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region.

re R Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:

bl
diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type semiconductor, the
concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more
E
compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type
semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than the concentration
of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and due to the
be C

concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p-side
to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This
motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
o N

When an electron diffuses from n → p, it leaves behind an ionised

donor on n-side. This ionised donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is
bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the electrons continue to diffuse
from n → p, a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge region) on
tt ©

n-side of the junction is developed.

Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p → n due to the concentration
gradient, it leaves behind an ionised acceptor (negative charge) which is
immobile. As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or
negative space-charge region) on the p-side of the junction is developed.
This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known
as depletion region as the electrons and holes taking part in the initial
movement across the junction depleted the region of its
free charges (Fig. 14.10). The thickness of depletion region
is of the order of one-tenth of a micrometre. Due to the
positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and
no

negative space charge region on p-side of the junction,

an electric field directed from positive charge towards
negative charge develops. Due to this field, an electron on
p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-
side of the junction moves to p-side. The motion of charge
FIGURE 14.10 p-n junction carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Thus a
formation process. drift current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion
478 current (Fig. 14.10) starts.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small.
As the diffusion process continues, the space-charge regions
on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric
field strength and hence drift current. This process continues
until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus a p-n
junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there

d
is no net current.
The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of
electron by the p-region causes a difference of potential across

he
the junction of the two regions. The polarity of this potential is
such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of
equilibrium exists. Figure 14.11 shows the p-n junction at
equilibrium and the potential across the junction. The

pu T
is
n-material has lost electrons, and p material has acquired
electrons. The n material is thus positive relative to the p
re R
material. Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of FIGURE 14.11 (a) Diode under

bl
electron from the n region into the p region, it is often called a equilibrium (V = 0), (b) Barrier
barrier potential. potential under no bias.
E
Example 14.3 Can we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and

EXAMPLE 14.3
physically join it to another n-type semiconductor to get p-n junction?
be C

Solution No! Any slab, howsoever flat, will have roughness much
larger than the inter-atomic crystal spacing (~2 to 3 Å) and hence
continuous contact at the atomic level will not be possible. The junction
o N

will behave as a discontinuity for the flowing charge carriers.

14.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

tt ©

A semiconductor diode [Fig. 14.12(a)] is basically a

p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the
ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a
two terminal device. A p-n junction diode is
symbolically represented as shown in Fig. 14.12(b).
The direction of arrow indicates the conventional
direction of current (when the diode is under forward
bias). The equilibrium barrier potential can be altered
by applying an external voltage V across the diode.
The situation of p-n junction diode under equilibrium FIGURE 14.12 (a) Semiconductor diode,
(without bias) is shown in Fig. 14.11(a) and (b). (b) Symbol for p-n junction diode.

14.6.1 p-n junction diode under forward bias

no

When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such

that p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side
to the negative terminal [Fig. 14.13(a)], it is said to be forward biased.
The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region and the
voltage drop across the p-side and n-side of the junction is negligible.
(This is because the resistance of the depletion region – a region where
there are no charges – is very high compared to the resistance of n-side
and p-side.) The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is opposite to the 479
 Physics
built-in potential V0. As a result, the depletion layer width
decreases and the barrier height is reduced [Fig. 14.13(b)]. The
effective barrier height under forward bias is (V 0 – V ).
If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will be
reduced only slightly below the equilibrium value, and only a
small number of carriers in the material—those that happen to

d
be in the uppermost energy levels—will possess enough energy
to cross the junction. So the current will be small. If we increase
the applied voltage significantly, the barrier height will be reduced

he
and more number of carriers will have the required energy. Thus
the current increases.
Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the
depletion region and reach p-side (where they are minority

pu T
carries). Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach

is
the n-side (where they are minority carries). This process under
forward bias is known as minority carrier injection. At the
FIGURE 14.13 (a) p-n
re R
junction diode under forward
junction boundary, on each side, the minority carrier

bl
bias, (b) Barrier potential
concentration increases significantly compared to the locations
(1) without battery, (2) Low far from the junction.
E
battery voltage, and (3) High Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on
voltage battery. p-side diffuse from the junction edge of p-side to the other end
of p-side. Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse from the
be C

junction edge of n-side to the other end of n-side

(Fig. 14.14). This motion of charged carriers on either side
gives rise to current. The total diode forward current is sum
of hole diffusion current and conventional current due to
o N

electron diffusion. The magnitude of this current is usually

in mA.

14.6.2 p-n junction diode under reverse bias

tt ©

FIGURE 14.14 Forward bias When an external voltage (V ) is applied across the diode such
minority carrier injection. that n-side is positive and p-side is negative, it is said to be
reverse biased [Fig.14.15(a)]. The applied voltage mostly
drops across the depletion region. The direction of applied voltage is same
as the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the barrier height increases
and the depletion region widens due to the change in the electric field.
The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V ), [Fig. 14.15(b)].
This suppresses the flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n.
Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared to the diode
under forward bias.
The electric field direction of the junction is such that if electrons on
p-side or holes on n-side in their random motion come close to the
junction, they will be swept to its majority zone. This drift of carriers
no

gives rise to current. The drift current is of the order of a few µA. This is
quite low because it is due to the motion of carriers from their minority
side to their majority side across the junction. The drift current is also
there under forward bias but it is negligible (µA) when compared with
current due to injected carriers which is usually in mA.
The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied
voltage. Even a small voltage is sufficient to sweep the minority carriers
480 from one side of the junction to the other side of the junction. The current
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
is not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is
limited due to the concentration of the minority carrier on either
side of the junction.
The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage
independent upto a critical reverse bias voltage, known as
breakdown voltage (Vbr ). When V = Vbr, the diode reverse current

d
increases sharply. Even a slight increase in the bias voltage causes
large change in the current. If the reverse current is not limited by

he
an external circuit below the rated value (specified by the
manufacturer) the p-n junction will get destroyed. Once it exceeds
the rated value, the diode gets destroyed due to overheating. This
can happen even for the diode under forward bias, if the forward
current exceeds the rated value.

pu T
is
The circuit arrangement for studying the V-I characteristics
of a diode, (i.e., the variation of current as a function of applied FIGURE 14.15 (a) Diode
re R
voltage) are shown in Fig. 14.16(a) and (b). The battery is connected under reverse bias,

bl
to the diode through a potentiometer (or reheostat) so that the (b) Barrier potential under
applied voltage to the diode can be changed. For different values reverse bias.
E
of voltages, the value of the current is noted. A graph between V
and I is obtained as in Fig. 14.16(c). Note that in forward bias
measurement, we use a milliammeter since the expected current is large
be C

(as explained in the earlier section) while a micrometer is used in reverse

bias to measure the current. You can see in Fig. 14.16(c) that in forward
o N
tt ©
no

FIGURE 14.16 Experimental circuit arrangement for studying V-I characteristics of

a p-n junction diode (a) in forward bias , (b) in reverse bias. (c) Typical V-I
characteristics of a silicon diode. 481
 Physics
bias, the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the
voltage across the diode crosses a certain value. After the characteristic
voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for
a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the
threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (~0.2V for germanium diode and
~0.7 V for silicon diode).

d
For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~µA) and almost
remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation
current. However, for special cases, at very high reverse bias (break down

he
voltage), the current suddenly increases. This special action of the diode
is discussed later in Section 14.8. The general purpose diode are not
used beyond the reverse saturation current region.
The above discussion shows that the p-n junction diode primerly

pu T
is
allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward bias). The forward
bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance. This
re R property is used for rectification of ac voltages as discussed in the next

bl
section. For diodes, we define a quantity called dynamic resistance as
the ratio of small change in voltage ∆V to a small change in current ∆I:
E
∆V
rd = (14.6)
∆I
be C

Example 14.4 The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown in

the Fig. 14.17. Calculate the resistance of the diode at (a) I D = 15 mA
and (b) VD = –10 V.
o N
tt ©

FIGURE 14.17
no

Solution Considering the diode characteristics as a straight line

between I = 10 mA to I = 20 mA passing through the origin, we can
EXAMPLE 14.4

calculate the resistance using Ohm’s law.

(a) From the curve, at I = 20 mA, V = 0.8 V, I = 10 mA, V = 0.7 V
rf b = ∆V/∆I = 0.1V/10 mA = 10 Ω
(b) From the curve at V = –10 V, I = –1 µA,
Therefore,
rrb = 10 V/1µA= 1.0 × 107 Ω
482
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

14.7 APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

From the V-I characteristic of a junction diode we see that it allows current
to pass only when it is forward biased. So if an alternating voltage is
applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of the cycle
when the diode is forward biased. This property

d
is used to rectify alternating voltages and the
circuit used for this purpose is called a rectifier.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a

he
diode in series with a load, a pulsating voltage will
appear across the load only during the half cycles
of the ac input during which the diode is forward
biased. Such rectifier circuit, as shown in

pu T
is
Fig. 14.18, is called a half-wave rectifier. The
secondary of a transformer supplies the desired
ac voltage across terminals A and B. When the
re R
voltage at A is positive, the diode is forward biased

bl
and it conducts. When A is negative, the diode is
reverse-biased and it does not conduct. The reverse
E
saturation current of a diode is negligible and can
be considered equal to zero for practical purposes.
(The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode must
be C

be sufficiently higher than the peak ac voltage at

the secondary of the transformer to protect the
diode from reverse breakdown.)
o N

Therefore, in the positive half-cycle of ac there

is a current through the load resistor R L and we FIGURE 14.18 (a) Half-wave rectifier
circuit, (b) Input ac voltage and output
get an output voltage, as shown in Fig. 14.18(b),
voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.
whereas there is no current in the negative half-
tt ©

cycle. In the next positive half-cycle, again we get

the output voltage. Thus, the output voltage, though still varying, is
restricted to only one direction and is said to be rectified. Since the
rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave it is
called as half-wave rectifier.
The circuit using two diodes, shown in Fig. 14.19(a), gives output
rectified voltage corresponding to both the positive as well as negative
half of the ac cycle. Hence, it is known as full-wave rectifier. Here the
p-side of the two diodes are connected to the ends of the secondary of the
transformer. The n-side of the diodes are connected together and the
output is taken between this common point of diodes and the midpoint
of the secondary of the transformer. So for a full-wave rectifier the
no

secondary of the transformer is provided with a centre tapping and so it

is called centre-tap transformer. As can be seen from Fig.14.19(c) the
voltage rectified by each diode is only half the total secondary voltage.
Each diode rectifies only for half the cycle, but the two do so for alternate
cycles. Thus, the output between their common terminals and the centre-
tap of the transformer becomes a full-wave rectifier output. (Note that
there is another circuit of full wave rectifier which does not need a centre-
tap transformer but needs four diodes.) Suppose the input voltage to A 483
 Physics
with respect to the centre tap at any instant
is positive. It is clear that, at that instant,
voltage at B being out of phase will be
negative as shown in Fig.14.19(b). So, diode
D1 gets forward biased and conducts (while
D2 being reverse biased is not conducting).

d
Hence, during this positive half cycle we get
an output current (and a output voltage

he
across the load resistor R L) as shown in
Fig.14.19(c). In the course of the ac cycle
when the voltage at A becomes negative with
respect to centre tap, the voltage at B would
be positive. In this part of the cycle diode

pu T
is
D1 would not conduct but diode D2 would,
giving an output current and output
re R voltage (across RL ) during the negative half

bl
cycle of the input ac. Thus, we get output
voltage during both the positive as well as
E
the negative half of the cycle. Obviously,
this is a more efficient circuit for getting
rectified voltage or current than the half-
be C

wave rectifier
The rectified voltage is in the form of
pulses of the shape of half sinusoids.
o N

Though it is unidirectional it does not have

a steady value. To get steady dc output
from the pulsating voltage normally a
capacitor is connected across the output
tt ©

terminals (parallel to the load RL). One can

also use an inductor in series with RL for
FIGURE 14.19 (a) A Full-wave rectifier the same purpose. Since these additional
circuit; (b) Input wave forms given to the
circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple
diode D 1 at A and to the diode D2 at B;
(c) Output waveform across the
and give a pure dc voltage, so they are
load RL connected in the full-wave called filters.
rectifier circuit. Now we shall discuss the role of
capacitor in filtering. When the voltage
across the capacitor is rising, it gets
charged. If there is no external load, it remains charged to the peak voltage
of the rectified output. When there is a load, it gets discharged through
the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of
no

rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value (Fig. 14.20). The
rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse
product of capacitor C and the effective resistance R L used in the circuit
and is called the time constant. To make the time constant large value of
C should be large. So capacitor input filters use large capacitors. The
output voltage obtained by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the
peak voltage of the rectified voltage. This type of filter is most widely
484 used in power supplies.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

d
he
FIGURE 14.20 (a) A full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter, (b) Input and output
voltage of rectifier in (a).

pu T
14.8 SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES

is
In the section, we shall discuss some devices which are basically junction
re R
diodes but are developed for different applications.

bl
14.8.1 Zener diode
E
It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor
C. Zener. It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown
region and used as a voltage regulator. The symbol for Zener diode is
be C

shown in Fig. 14.21(a).

Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p-, and
n- sides of the junction. Due to this, depletion region formed
o N

is very thin (<10–6 m) and the electric field of the junction is

extremely high (~5×106 V/m) even for a small reverse bias
voltage of about 5V. The I-V characteristics of a Zener diode is
shown in Fig. 14.21(b). It is seen that when the applied reverse
tt ©

bias voltage(V) reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz ) of the Zener

diode, there is a large change in the current. Note that after
the breakdown voltage Vz, a large change in the current can
be produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias
voltage. In other words, Zener voltage remains constant, even
though current through the Zener diode varies over a wide
range. This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating
supply voltages so that they are constant.
Let us understand how reverse current suddenly increases
at the breakdown voltage. We know that reverse current is
due to the flow of electrons (minority carriers) from p → n and
holes from n → p. As the reverse bias voltage is increased, the
electric field at the junction becomes significant. When the
no

reverse bias voltage V = V z, then the electric field strength is

high enough to pull valence electrons from the host atoms on
the p-side which are accelerated to n-side. These electrons
account for high current observed at the breakdown. The
FIGURE 14.21 Zener diode,
emission of electrons from the host atoms due to the high
(a) symbol, (b) I-V
electric field is known as internal field emission or field characteristics.
ionisation. The electric field required for field ionisation is of
the order of 106 V/m. 485
 Physics
Zener diode as a voltage regulator
We know that when the ac input voltage of a rectifier fluctuates, its rectified
output also fluctuates. To get a constant dc voltage from the dc
unregulated output of a rectifier, we use a Zener diode. The circuit diagram
of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown in Fig. 14.22.
The unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a

d
rectifier) is connected to the Zener diode through a series
resistance R s such that the Zener diode is reverse biased.

he
If the input voltage increases, the current through R s
and Zener diode also increases. This increases the
voltage drop across R s without any change in the
voltage across the Zener diode. This is because in the

pu T
breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even

is
though the current through the Zener diode changes.
Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current
re R through Rs and Zener diode also decreases. The voltage

bl
drop across Rs decreases without any change in the
FIGURE 14.22 Zener diode as DC voltage across the Zener diode. Thus any increase/
E
voltage regulator decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/
decrease of the voltage drop across Rs without any
change in voltage across the Zener diode. Thus the Zener diode acts as a
be C

voltage regulator. We have to select the Zener diode according to the

required output voltage and accordingly the series resistance R s.
o N

Example 14.5 In a Zener regulated power supply a Zener diode with

V Z = 6.0 V is used for regulation. The load current is to be 4.0 mA and
the unr egulated input is 10.0 V. What should be the value of series
resistor R S?
tt ©

Solution
The value of RS should be such that the current through the Zener
diode is much larger than the load current. This is to have good load
regulation. Choose Zener current as five times the load current, i.e.,
EXAMPLE 14.5

I Z = 20 mA. The total current through R S is, therefore, 24 mA. The

voltage dr op acr oss R S is 10.0 – 6.0 = 4.0 V . This gives
–3
R S = 4.0V/(24 × 10 ) A = 167 Ω. The nearest value of carbon resistor
is 150 Ω. So, a series resistor of 150 Ω is appropriate. Note that slight
variation in the value of the resistor does not matter, what is important
is that the current IZ should be sufficiently larger than IL .

14.8.2 Optoelectronic junction devices

We have seen so far, how a semiconductor diode behaves under applied
no

electrical inputs. In this section, we learn about semiconductor diodes in

which carriers are generated by photons (photo-excitation). All these
devices are called optoelectronic devices. We shall study the functioning
of the following optoelectronic devices:
(i) Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal (photodetectors).
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into light.
(iii) Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into electricity
486 (solar cells).
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
(i) Photodiode
A Photodiode is again a special purpose p-n
junction diode fabricated with a transparent
window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is
operated under reverse bias. When the photodiode
is illuminated with light (photons) with energy (hν)

d
greater than the energy gap (E g) of the
semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are

he
generated due to the absorption of photons. The
diode is fabricated such that the generation of
e-h pairs takes place in or near the depletion region
of the diode. Due to electric field of the junction,
electrons and holes are separated before they

pu T
is
recombine. The direction of the electric field is such
that electrons reach n-side and holes reach p-side.
re R
Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are

bl
collected on p-side giving rise to an emf. When an
external load is connected, current flows. The
E
magnitude of the photocurrent depends on the
intensity of incident light (photocurrent is
proportional to incident light intensity).
be C

It is easier to observe the change in the current

with change in the light intensity, if a reverse bias
is applied. Thus photodiode can be used as a
o N

photodetector to detect optical signals. The circuit

diagram used for the measurement of I-V FIGURE 14.23 (a) An illuminated
characteristics of a photodiode is shown in photodiode under reverse bias , (b) I-V
Fig. 14.23(a) and a typical I-V characteristics in characteristics of a photodiode for different
Fig. 14.23(b). illumination intensity I4 > I3 > I2 > I1.
tt ©

Example 14.6 The current in the forward bias is known to be more

(~mA) than the current in the reverse bias (~µA). What is the reason
then to operate the photodiodes in reverse bias?
Solution Consider the case of an n-type semiconductor. Obviously,
the majority carrier density (n ) is considerably larger than the
minority hole density p (i.e., n >> p). On illumination, let the excess
electrons and holes generated be ∆n and ∆p, respectively:
EXAMPLE 14.6

n′ = n + ∆n
p ′ = p + ∆p
Here n′ and p ′ are the electron and hole concentrations* at any
no

particular illumination and n and p are carriers concentration when

there is no illumination. Remember ∆n = ∆p and n >> p. Hence, the

* Note that, to create an e-h pair, we spend some ener gy (photoexcitation, thermal
excitation, etc.). Therefore when an electron and hole recombine the energy is
released in the form of light (radiative recombination) or heat (non-radiative
recombination). It depends on semiconductor and the method of fabrication of
the p-n junction. For the fabrication of LEDs, semiconductors like GaAs, GaAs-
GaP are used in which radiative recombination dominates. 487
 Physics
EXAMPLE 14.6 fractional change in the majority carriers (i.e., ∆n/n ) would be much
less than that in the minority carriers (i.e., ∆p/p). In general, we can
state that the fractional change due to the photo-effects on the
minority carrier dominated reverse bias current is more easily
measurable than the fractional change in the forward bias current.
Hence, photodiodes are preferably used in the reverse bias condition

d
for measuring light intensity.

he
(ii) Light emitting diode
It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits
spontaneous radiation. The diode is encapsulated with a transparent
cover so that emitted light can come out.

pu T
is
When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p (where
they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p → n (where they are
re R minority carriers). At the junction boundary the concentration of minority

bl
carriers increases compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when
there is no bias). Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the
junction, excess minority carriers are there which recombine with majority
E
carriers near the junction. On recombination, the energy is released in
the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than
be C

the band gap are emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small,
the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases,
intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in
o N

the forward current results in decrease of light intensity. LEDs are biased
such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum.
The V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction
diode. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different
for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low,
tt ©

typically around 5V. So care should be taken that high reverse voltages
do not appear across them.
LEDs that can emit red, yellow, orange, green and blue light are
commercially available. The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible
LEDs must at least have a band gap of 1.8 eV (spectral range of visible
light is from about 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm, i.e., from about 3 eV to 1.8 eV). The
compound semiconductor Gallium Arsenide – Phosphide (GaAs 1–x P x ) is
used for making LEDs of different colours. GaAs0.6 P0.4 (Eg ~ 1.9 eV) is
used for red LED. GaAs (E g ~ 1.4 eV) is used for making infrared LED.
These LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar alarm systems,
optical communication, etc. Extensive research is being done for
developing white LEDs which can replace incandescent lamps.
no

LEDs have the following advantages over conventional incandescent

low power lamps:
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
(iii) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in other words it
is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
(iv) Long life and ruggedness.
488 (v) Fast on-off switching capability.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
(iii) Solar cell
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which
generates emf when solar radiation falls on the
p-n junction. It works on the same principle
(photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that
no external bias is applied and the junction area

d
is kept much larger for solar radiation to be
incident because we are interested in more power.
A simple p-n junction solar cell is shown in

he
Fig. 14.24.
A p-Si wafer of about 300 µm is taken over
which a thin layer (~0.3 µm) of n-Si is grown on
one-side by diffusion process. The other side of

pu T
p-Si is coated with a metal (back contact). On the

is
top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic
grid) is deposited. This acts as a front contact. The FIGURE 14.24 (a) Typical p-n junction
re R
metallic grid occupies only a very small fraction solar cell; (b) Cross-sectional view.

bl
of the cell area (<15%) so that light can be incident
on the cell from the top.
E
The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to
the following three basic processes: generation, separation and collection—
(i) generation of e-h pairs due to light (with h ν > Eg )
be C

close to the junction; (ii) separation of electrons and

holes due to electric field of the depletion region.
Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side;
(iii) the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by
o N

the front contact and holes reaching p-side are collected

by the back contact. Thus p-side becomes positive and
n-side becomes negative giving rise to photovoltage.
When an external load is connected as shown in
tt ©

the Fig. 14.25(a) a photocurrent IL flows through the

load. A typical I-V characteristics of a solar cell is shown
in the Fig. 14.25(b).
Note that the I – V characteristics of solar cell is
drawn in the fourth quadrant of the coordinate axes.
This is because a solar cell does not draw current but
supplies the same to the load.
Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are
ideal materials for solar cell fabrication. Solar cells are
made with semiconductors like Si (Eg = 1.1 eV), GaAs
(Eg = 1.43 eV), CdTe (Eg = 1.45 eV), CuInSe2 (Eg = 1.04
eV), etc. The important criteria for the selection of a
material for solar cell fabrication are (i) band gap (~1.0
to 1.8 eV), (ii) high optical absorption (~104 cm –1), (iii)
no

electrical conductivity, (iv) availability of the raw

material, and (v) cost. Note that sunlight is not always FIGURE 14.25 (a) A typical
required for a solar cell. Any light with photon energies illuminated p-n junction solar cell;
(b) I-V characteristics of a solar cell.
greater than the bandgap will do. Solar cells are used
to power electronic devices in satellites and space
vehicles and also as power supply to some calculators. Production of
low-cost photovoltaic cells for large-scale solar energy is a topic
for research. 489
 Physics
Example 14.7 Why are Si and GaAs are preferred materials for
solar cells?
Solution The solar radiation spectrum received by us is shown in
Fig. 14.26.

d
he
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C

FIGURE 14.26

The maxima is near 1.5 eV . For photo-excitation, hν > Eg . Hence,

o N

semiconductor with band gap ~1.5 eV or lower is likely to give better

solar conversion efficiency. Silicon has Eg ~ 1.1 eV while for GaAs it is
~1.53 eV. In fact, GaAs is better (in spite of its higher band gap) than
Si because of its relatively higher absorption coefficient. If we choose
materials like CdS or CdSe (E g ~ 2.4 eV), we can use only the high
tt ©

energy component of the solar energy for photo-conversion and a

significant part of energy will be of no use.
The question arises: why we do not use material like PbS (Eg ~ 0.4 eV)
EXAMPLE 14.7

which satisfy the condition hν > Eg for ν maxima corresponding to the

solar radiation spectra? If we do so, most of the solar radiation will be
absorbed on the top-layer of solar cell and will not reach in or near
the depletion region. For effective electron-hole separation, due to
the junction field, we want the photo-generation to occur in the
junction region only.

14.9 J UNCTION TRANSISTOR

The credit of inventing the transistor in the year 1947 goes to J. Bardeen
no

and W.H. Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories, U.S.A. That transistor

was a point-contact transistor. The first junction transistor consisting of
two back-to-back p-n junctions was invented by William Schockley
in 1951.
As long as only the junction transistor was known, it was known
simply as transistor. But over the years new types of transistors were
invented and to differentiate it from the new ones it is now called the
490 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). Even now, often the word transistor
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
is used to mean BJT when there is no confusion. Since our study is
limited to only BJT, we shall use the word transistor for BJT without
any ambiguity.

14.9.1 Transistor: structure and action

A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n junctions

d
between them. Obviously, there are two types of transistors, as shown
in Fig. 14.27.

he
(i) n-p-n transistor : Here two segments of n-type semiconductor
(emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of p-type
semiconductor (base).
(ii) p-n-p transistor: Here two segments of p-type semiconductor
(termed as emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of

pu T
is
n-type semiconductor (termed as base).
The schematic representations of an n-p-n and a p-n-p
re R
configuration are shown in Fig. 14.27(a). All the three segments of a

bl
transistor have different thickness and their doping levels are also
different. In the schematic symbols used for representing p-n-p and
E
n-p-n transistors [Fig. 14.27(b)] the arrowhead shows the direction of
conventional current in the transistor. A brief description of the three
segments of a transistor is given below:
be C

• Emitter: This is the segment on one side of the transistor shown in

Fig. 14.27(a). It is of moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies
a large number of majority carriers for the current flow through
o N

the transistor.
• Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.
• Collector: This segment collects a major portion of the majority
carriers supplied by the emitter. The collector side is moderately
doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter.
tt ©

We have seen earlier in the case of a p-n junction, that there is a

formation of depletion region acorss the junction. In case of a transistor
depletion regions are formed at the emitter base-junction and the base-
collector junction. For understanding the action of a transistor, we
have to consider the nature of depletion regions formed at these
junctions. The charge carriers move across different regions of the
transistor when proper voltages are applied across its terminals.
The biasing of the transistor is done differently for different uses.
The transistor can be used in two distinct ways. Basically, it was
invented to function as an amplifier, a device which produces a enlarged
copy of a signal. But later its use as a switch acquired equal
importance. We shall study both these functions and the ways the
no

transistor is biased to achieve these mutually exclusive functions. FIGURE 14.27

First we shall see what gives the transistor its amplifying capabilities. (a) Schematic
The transistor works as an amplifier, with its emitter -base junction representations of a
forward biased and the base-collector junction reverse biased. This n-p-n transistor and
situation is shown in Fig. 14.28, where VCC and VEE are used for creating p-n-p transistor, and
the respective biasing. When the transistor is biased in this way it is (b) Symbols for n-p-n
and p-n-p transistors.
said to be in active [Link] represent the voltage between emitter and
base as VEB and that between the collector and the base as VCB. In 491
 Physics
Fig. 14.28, base is a common terminal for the two
power supplies whose other terminals are
connected to emitter and collector, respectively. So
the two power supplies are represented as VEE, and
VCC, respectively. In circuits, where emitter is the
common terminal, the power supply between the

d
base and the emitter is represented as VBB and that
between collector and emitter as VCC.

he
Let us see now the paths of current carriers in
the transistor with emitter-base junction forward
biased and base-collector junction reverse biased.
The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration
of majority carriers, which will be holes in a p-n-p

pu T
is
transistor and electrons in an n-p-n transistor.
These majority carriers enter the base region in
re R large numbers. The base is thin and lightly doped.

bl
So the majority carriers there would be few. In a
p-n-p transistor the majority carriers in the base
E
are electrons since base is of n-type semiconductor.
The large number of holes entering the base from
the emitter swamps the small number of electrons
be C

there. As the base collector-junction is reverse-

biased, these holes, which appear as minority
carriers at the junction, can easily cross the
o N

junction and enter the collector. The holes in the

base could move either towards the base terminal
to combine with the electrons entering from outside
or cross the junction to enter into the collector and
reach the collector terminal. The base is made thin
tt ©

so that most of the holes find themselves near

the reverse-biased base-collector junction and so
cross the junction instead of moving to the base
FIGURE 14.28 Bias Voltage applied on: (a) terminal.
p-n-p transistor and (b) n-p-n transistor. It is interesting to note that due to forward
bias a large current enters the emitter-base
junction, but most of it is diverted to adjacent reverse-biased base-collector
junction and the current coming out of the base becomes a very small
fraction of the current that entered the junction. If we represent the hole
current and the electron current crossing the forward biased junction by
Ih and Ie respectively then the total current in a forward biased diode is
the sum Ih + I e. We see that the emitter current I E = I h + Ie but the base
no

current IB << I h + Ie , because a major part of IE goes to collector instead of

coming out of the base terminal. The base current is thus a small fraction
of the emitter current.
The current entering into the emitter from outside is equal to the
emitter current IE. Similarly the current emerging from the base terminal
is IB and that from collector terminal is IC. It is obvious from the above
description and also from a straight forward application of Kirchhoff’s
law to Fig. 14.28(a) that the emitter current is the sum of collector current
492 and base current:
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
IE = IC + I B (14.7)
We also see that IC ≈ IE .
Our description of the direction of motion of the holes is identical
with the direction of the conventional current. But the direction of motion
of electrons is just opposite to that of the current. Thus in a p-n-p
transistor the current enters from emitter into base whereas in a n-p-n

d
transistor it enters from the base into the emitter. The arrowhead in the
emitter shows the direction of the conventional current.

he
The description about the paths followed by the majority and minority
carriers in a n-p-n is exactly the same as that for the p-n-p transistor.
But the current paths are exactly opposite, as shown in Fig. 14.28. In
Fig. 14.28(b) the electrons are the majority carriers supplied by the

pu T
n-type emitter region. They cross the thin p-base region and are able to

is
reach the collector to give the collector current, IC . From the above
description we can conclude that in the active state of the transistor the
re R
emitter-base junction acts as a low resistance while the base collector

bl
acts as a high resistance.
E
14.9.2 Basic transistor circuit configurations and transistor
characteristics
In a transistor, only three terminals are available, viz., Emitter (E), Base
be C

(B) and Collector (C). Therefore, in a circuit the input/output connections

have to be such that one of these (E, B or C) is common to both the input
and the output. Accordingly, the transistor can be connected in either of
o N

the following three configurations:

Common Emitter (CE), Common Base (CB), Common Collector (CC)
The transistor is most widely used in the CE configuration and we
shall restrict our discussion to only this configuration. Since more
tt ©

commonly used transistors are n-p-n Si transistors, we shall confine

our discussion to such transistors only. With p-n-p transistors the
polarities of the external power supplies are to be inverted.

Common emitter transistor characteristics

When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the input
is between the base and the emitter and the output is
between the collector and the emitter. The variation of
the base current IB with the base-emitter voltage VBE is
called the input characteristic. Similarly, the variation
of the collector current I C with the collector-emitter
voltage VCE is called the output characteristic. You will
see that the output characteristics are controlled by
no

the input characteristics. This implies that the collector

current changes with the base current.
The input and the output characteristics of an
n-p-n transistors can be studied by using the circuit FIGURE 14.29 Circuit arrangement
shown in Fig. 14.29. for studying the input and output
characteristics of n-p-n transistor in
To study the input characteristics of the transistor
CE configuration.
in CE configuration, a curve is plotted between the base
current IB against the base-emitter voltage VBE. The 493
 Physics
collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept fixed while
studying the dependence of I B on VBE. We are
interested to obtain the input characteristic
when the transistor is in active state. So the
collector -emitter voltage V CE is kept large
enough to make the base collector junction

d
reverse biased. Since VCE = VCB + VBE and for Si
transistor VBE is 0.6 to 0.7 V, VCE must be

he
sufficiently larger than 0.7 V. Since the
transistor is operated as an amplifier over large
range of VCE, the reverse bias across the base-
collector junction is high most of the time.

pu T
Therefore, the input characteristics may be

is
obtained for VCE somewhere in the range of 3 V
to 20 V. Since the increase in VCE appears as
re R increase in VCB, its effect on IB is negligible. As

bl
a consequence, input characteristics for various
values of VCE will give almost identical curves.
E
Hence, it is enough to determine only one input
characteristics. The input characteristics of a
be C

transistor is as shown in Fig. 14.30(a).

The output characteristic is obtained by
observing the variation of IC as VCE is varied
o N

keeping I B constant. It is obvious that if V BE is

increased by a small amount, both hole current
from the emitter region and the electron current
from the base region will increase. As a
tt ©

consequence both I B and I C will increase

FIGURE 14.30 (a) Typical input proportionately. This shows that when I B
characteristics, and (b) Typical output
increases IC also increases. The plot of IC versus
characteristics.
VCE for different fixed values of I B gives one
output characteristic. So there will be different output characteristics
corresponding to different values of IB as shown in Fig. 14.30(b).
The linear segments of both the input and output characteristics can
be used to calculate some important ac parameters of transistors as
shown below.
(i) Input resistance (ri ): This is defined as the ratio of change in base-
emitter voltage (∆VBE) to the resulting change in base current (∆IB ) at
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE ). This is dynamic (ac resistance)
no

and as can be seen from the input characteristic, its value varies with
the operating current in the transistor:

∆ VBE
ri = (14.8)
∆I B VCE

The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand

494 ohms.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
(ii) Output resistance (ro ): This is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE ) to the change in collector current (∆IC)
at a constant base current IB.
∆VCE
ro = (14.9)
∆IC IB

d
The output characteristics show that initially for very small values of
VCE , IC increases almost linearly. This happens because the base-collector
junction is not reverse biased and the transistor is not in active state. In

he
fact, the transistor is in the saturation state and the current is controlled
by the supply voltage VCC (=VCE) in this part of the characteristic. When
VCE is more than that required to reverse bias the base-collector junction,
IC increases very little with VCE. The reciprocal of the slope of the linear

pu T
is
part of the output characteristic gives the values of ro. The output
resistance of the transistor is mainly controlled by the bias of the base-
re R
collector junction. The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the

bl
order of 100 kΩ) is due to the reverse-biased state of this diode. This
also explains why the resistance at the initial part of the characteristic,
when the transistor is in saturation state, is very low.
E
(iii) Current amplification factor ( β ): This is defined as the ratio of
the change in collector current to the change in base current at a
be C

constant collector-emitter voltage (V CE) when the transistor is in

active state.

∆I C
o N

βac = (14.10)
∆I B VCE

This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very
large.
tt ©

If we simply find the ratio of IC and IB we get what is called dc β of the

transistor. Hence,
IC
βdc = (14.11)
IB
Since I C increases with IB almost linearly and I C = 0 when IB = 0, the values
of both βdc and βac are nearly equal. So, for most calculations βdc can be
used. Both βac and βdc vary with VCE and IB (or I C) slightly.

Example 14.8 From the output characteristics shown in Fig. 14.30(b),

calculate the values of βac and β dc of the transistor when V CE is
10 V and IC = 4.0 mA.
Solution
no

∆ IC IC
βac = , βdc =
∆I B IB
EXAMPLE 14.8

V CE

For determining βac and βdc at the stated values of VCE and IC one can
proceed as follows. Consider any two characteristics for two values
of IB which lie above and below the given value of I C . Here IC = 4.0 mA.
(Choose characteristics for IB = 30 and 20 µA.) At VCE = 10 V we read
the two values of IC from the graph. Then 495
 Physics
∆IB = (30 – 20) µA = 10 µA, ∆IC = (4.5 – 3.0) mA = 1.5 mA
Therefore, β ac = 1.5 mA/ 10 µA = 150
For determining βdc, either estimate the value of IB corresponding to
I C = 4.0 mA at V CE = 10 V or calculate the two values of βdc for the two
characteristics chosen and find their mean.
EXAMPLE 14.8

Therefore, for I C = 4.5 mA and IB = 30 µA,

d
β dc = 4.5 mA/ 30 µA = 150
and for IC = 3.0 mA and IB = 20 µA

he
β dc =3.0 mA / 20 µA = 150
Hence, βdc =(150 + 150) /2 = 150

14.9.3 Transistor as a device

pu T
is
The transistor can be used as a device application depending on the
configuration used (namely CB, CC and CE), the biasing of the E-B and
re R B-C junction and the operation region namely cutoff, active region and

bl
saturation. As mentioned earlier we have confined only to the CE
configuration and will be concentrating on the biasing and the operation
E
region to understand the working of a device.
When the transistor is used in the cutoff
or saturation state it acts as a switch. On
be C

the other hand for using the transistor as

an amplifier, it has to operate in the active
region.
o N

(i) Transistor as a switch

We shall try to understand the operation of
the transistor as a switch by analysing the
behaviour of the base-biased transistor in
tt ©

CE configuration as shown in Fig. 14.31(a).

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to the
input and output sides of this circuit, we
get
V BB = IBRB + VBE (14.12)
and
V CE = VCC – ICRC. (14.13)
We shall treat VBB as the dc input
voltage Vi and VCE as the dc output voltage
V O. So, we have
V i = I BRB + VBE and
V o = V CC – I CRC.
no

Let us see how V o changes as V i

increases from zero onwards. In the case
of Si transistor, as long as input Vi is less
FIGURE 14.31 (a) Base-biased transistor in CE than 0.6 V, the transistor will be in cut off
configuration, (b) Transfer characteristic. state and current I C will be zero.
Hence V o = VCC
When V i becomes greater than 0.6 V the transistor is in active state with
496 some current IC in the output path and the output Vo decrease as the
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
term I CR C increases. With increase of Vi , I C increases almost linearly
and so V o decreases linearly till its value becomes less than
about 1.0 V.
Beyond this, the change becomes non linear and transistor goes into
saturation state. With further increase in Vi the output voltage is found to
decrease further towards zero though it may never become zero. If we plot

d
the Vo vs Vi curve, [also called the transfer characteristics of the base-biased
transistor (Fig. 14.31(b)], we see that between cut off state and active state
and also between active state and saturation state there are regions of

he
non-linearity showing that the transition from cutoff state to active state
and from active state to saturation state are not sharply defined.
Let us see now how the transistor is operated as a switch. As long as
Vi is low and unable to forward-bias the transistor, Vo is high (at VCC ). If

pu T
Vi is high enough to drive the transistor into saturation, then Vo is low,

is
very near to zero. When the transistor is not conducting it is said to be
switched off and when it is driven into saturation it is said to be switched
re R
on. This shows that if we define low and high states as below and above

bl
certain voltage levels corresponding to cutoff and saturation of the
transistor, then we can say that a low input switches the transistor off
E
and a high input switches it on. Alternatively, we can say that a low
input to the transistor gives a high output and a high input gives a low
output. The switching circuits are designed in such a way that the
be C

transistor does not remain in active state.

(ii) Transistor as an amplifier

o N

For using the transistor as an amplifier we will use the active region of
the Vo versus V i curve. The slope of the linear part of the curve represents
the rate of change of the output with the input. It is negative because the
output is VCC – ICR C and not ICR C. That is why as input voltage of the CE
tt ©

amplifier increases its output voltage decreases and the output is said to
be out of phase with the input. If we consider ∆Vo and ∆Vi as small
changes in the output and input voltages then ∆Vo /∆Vi is called the small
signal voltage gain AV of the amplifier.
If the VBB voltage has a fixed value corresponding to the mid point of
the active region, the circuit will behave as a CE amplifier with voltage
gain ∆Vo / ∆Vi . We can express the voltage gain AV in terms of the resistors
in the circuit and the current gain of the transistor as follows.
We have, Vo = VCC – ICRC
Therefore, ∆V o = 0 – RC ∆ IC
Similarly, from Vi = IBR B + VBE
∆Vi = RB ∆I B + ∆V BE
no

But ∆VBE is negligibly small in comparison to ∆I BRB in this circuit.

So, the voltage gain of this CE amplifier (Fig. 14.32) is given by
AV = – RC ∆ IC / R B ∆IB
= –βac(R C /RB ) (14.14)
where βac is equal to ∆ I C/∆I B from Eq. (14.10). Thus the linear
portion of the active region of the transistor can be exploited for the use
in amplifiers. Transistor as an amplifier (CE configuration) is discussed
in detail in the next section. 497
 Physics
14.9.4 Transistor as an Amplifier (CE-Configuration)
To operate the transistor as an amplifier it is necessary to fix its operating
point somewhere in the middle of its active region. If we fix the value of
V BB corresponding to a point in the middle of the linear part of the transfer
curve then the dc base current IB would be constant and corresponding
collector current IC will also be constant. The dc voltage VCE = VCC - ICR C

d
would also remain constant. The operating values of VCE and IB determine
the operating point, of the amplifier.

he
If a small sinusoidal voltage with amplitude v s is superposed on
the dc base bias by connecting the source of that signal in series with the
V BB supply, then the base current will have sinusoidal variations
superimposed on the value of I B. As a consequence the collector current

pu T
also will have sinusoidal variations

is
superimposed on the value of I C, producing
in turn corresponding change in the value
re R of V O. We can measure the ac variations

bl
across the input and output terminals by
blocking the dc voltages by large capacitors.
E
In the discription of the amplifier given
above we have not considered any ac signal.
In general, amplifiers are used to amplify
be C

alternating signals. Now let us superimpose

FIGURE 14.32 A simple circuit of a an ac input signal v i (to be amplified) on the
CE-transistor amplifier. bias VBB (dc) as shown in Fig. 14.32. The
o N

output is taken between the collector and

the ground.
The working of an amplifier can be easily understood, if we first
assume that v i = 0. Then applying Kirchhoff’s law to the output loop,
tt ©

we get
V cc = VCE + Ic RL (14.15)
Likewise, the input loop gives
V BB = VBE + IB R B (14.16)
When v i is not zero, we get
V BE + vi = VBE + I B RB + ∆IB (R B + r i)
The change in VBE can be related to the input resistance ri [see
Eq. (14.8)] and the change in IB. Hence
v i = ∆IB (R B + ri )
= r ∆IB
no

The change in I B causes a change in I c. We define a parameter βac,

which is similar to the βdc defined in Eq. (14.11), as
∆I i
βac = c = c (14.17)
∆I B ib
which is also known as the ac current gain A i. Usually βac is close to βdc
in the linear region of the output characteristics.
The change in I c due to a change in IB causes a change in VCE and the
498 voltage drop across the resistor RL because VCC is fixed.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
These changes can be given by Eq. (14.15) as
∆VCC = ∆V CE + R L ∆IC = 0
or ∆V CE = –R L ∆IC
The change in VCE is the output voltage v 0. From Eq. (14.10), we get
v0 = ∆V CE = –βac RL ∆IB

d
The voltage gain of the amplifier is
v0 ∆VCE

he
Av = =
vi r ∆I B

βac RL
=– (14.18)
r

pu T
is
The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite with phase
with the input voltage.
From the discussion of the transistor characteristics you have seen
re R
bl
that there is a current gain βac in the CE configuration. Here we have also
seen the voltage gain Av . Therefore the power gain Ap can be expressed
as the product of the current gain and voltage gain. Mathematically
E
Ap = βac × A v (14.19)
Since βac and A v are greater than 1, we get ac power gain. However it
be C

should be realised that transistor is not a power generating device. The

energy for the higher ac power at the output is supplied by the battery.
o N

Example 14.9 In Fig. 14.31(a), the VBB supply can be varied from 0V
to 5.0 V. The Si transistor has β dc = 250 and RB = 100 kΩ, RC = 1 KΩ,
VCC = 5.0V. Assume that when the transistor is saturated, V CE = 0V
and VBE = 0.8V. Calculate (a) the minimum base current, for which
tt ©

the transistor will reach saturation. Hence, (b) determine V1 when

the transistor is ‘switched on’. (c) find the ranges of V1 for which the
transistor is ‘switched off’ and ‘switched on’.
Solution
Given at saturation VCE = 0V, VBE = 0.8V
VCE = VCC – ICR C
IC = VCC/RC = 5.0V/1.0kΩ = 5.0 mA
Therefore IB = IC/β = 5.0 mA/250 = 20 µA
The input voltage at which the transistor will go into saturation is
given by
VIH = V BB = IBR B +V BE
= 20µA × 100 kΩ + 0.8V = 2.8V
no

The value of input voltage below which the transistor remains cutoff
is given by
VIL = 0.6V, V IH = 2.8V
EXAMPLE 14.9

Between 0.0V and 0.6V, the transistor will be in the ‘switched off’
state. Between 2.8V and 5.0V, it will be in ‘switched on’ state.
Note that the transistor is in active state when I B varies from 0.0mA
to 20mA. In this range, IC = βIB is valid. In the saturation range,
IC ≤ βIB.
499
 Physics
Example 14.10 For a CE transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage
across the collector resistance of 2.0 k Ω is 2.0 V. Suppose the current
amplification factor of the transistor is 100, What should be the value
of R B in series with VBB supply of 2.0 V if the dc base current has to be
10 times the signal current. Also calculate the dc drop across the
collector resistance. (Refer to Fig. 14.33).

d
Solution The output ac voltage is 2.0 V. So, the ac collector curr ent
EXAMPLE 14.10

i C = 2.0/2000 = 1.0 mA. The signal current through the base is,

he
therefore given by i B = i C /β = 1.0 mA/100 = 0.010 mA. The dc base
current has to be 10× 0.010 = 0.10 mA.
From Eq.14.16, RB = (V BB - V BE ) /IB. Assuming VBE = 0.6 V,
R B = (2.0 – 0.6 )/0.10 = 14 kΩ.
The dc collector current IC = 100×0.10 = 10 mA.

pu T
is
14.9.5 Feedback amplifier and transistor oscillator
re R
bl
In an amplifier, we have seen that a sinusoidal input is given which appears
as an amplified signal in the output. This means that an external input is
E
necessary to sustain ac signal in the
output for an amplifier. In an oscillator, we
get ac output without any external input
be C

signal. In other words, the output in an

oscillator is self-sustained. To attain this,
an amplifier is taken. A portion of the
o N

output power is returned back (feedback)

to the input in phase with the starting
power (this process is termed positive
feedback) as shown in Fig. 14.33(a). The
feedback can be achieved by inductive
tt ©

coupling (through mutual inductance) or

LC or RC networks. Different types of
oscillators essentially use different methods
of coupling the output to the input
(feedback network), apart from the resonant
circuit for obtaining oscillation at a
particular frequency. For understanding
the oscillator action, we consider the circuit
shown in Fig. 14.33(b) in which the
feedback is accomplished by inductive
coupling from one coil winding (T 1) to
another coil winding (T2). Note that the coils
T 2 and T1 are wound on the same core and
no

hence are inductively coupled through their

mutual inductance. As in an amplifier, the
base-emitter junction is forward biased
FIGURE 14.33 (a) Principle of a transistor while the base-collector junction is reverse
amplifier with positive feedback working as an
biased. Detailed biasing circuits actually
oscillator and (b) Tuned collector oscillator, (c) Rise
used have been omitted for simplicity.
and fall (or built up) of current Ic and Ie due to the
inductive coupling.
Let us try to understand how oscillations
500 are built. Suppose switch S1 is put on to
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
apply proper bias for the first time. Obviously, a surge of collector current
flows in the transistor. This current flows through the coil T2 where
terminals are numbered 3 and 4 [Fig. 14.33(b)]. This current does not
reach full amplitude instantaneously but increases from X to Y, as shown
in Fig. [14.33(c)(i)]. The inductive coupling between coil T2 and coil T 1
now causes a current to flow in the emitter circuit (note that this actually

d
is the ‘feedback’ from input to output). As a result of this positive feedback,
this current (in T1; emitter current) also increases from X´ to Y´ [Fig.
14.33(c)(ii)]. The current in T2 (collector current) connected in the collector

he
circuit acquires the value Y when the transistor becomes saturated. This
means that maximum collector current is flowing and can increase no
further. Since there is no further change in collector current, the magnetic
field around T2 ceases to grow. As soon as the field becomes static, there

pu T
will be no further feedback from T2 to T1. Without continued feedback,

is
the emitter current begins to fall. Consequently, collector current decreases
from Y towards Z [Fig. 14.33(c)(i)]. However, a decrease of collector current
re R
causes the magnetic field to decay around the coil T2 . Thus, T1 is now

bl
seeing a decaying field in T2 (opposite from what it saw when the field was
growing at the initial start operation). This causes a further decrease in
E
the emitter current till it reaches Z′ when the transistor is cut-off. This
means that both IE and IC cease to flow. Therefore, the transistor has
reverted back to its original state (when the power was first switched on).
be C

The whole process now repeats itself. That is, the transistor is driven to
saturation, then to cut-off, and then back to saturation. The time for
change from saturation to cut-off and back is determined by the constants
o N

of the tank circuit or tuned circuit (inductance L of coil T2 and C connected

in parallel to it). The resonance frequency (ν ) of this tuned circuit
determines the frequency at which the oscillator will oscillate.
1
tt ©

ν = (14.20)
2 π LC
In the circuit of Fig. 14.33(b), the tank or tuned circuit is connected
in the collector side. Hence, it is known as tuned collector oscillator. If the
tuned circuit is on the base side, it will be known as tuned base oscillator.
There are many other types of tank circuits (say RC) or feedback circuits
giving different types of oscillators like Colpitt’s oscillator, Hartley
oscillator, RC-oscillator.

14.10 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND LOGIC GATES

In electronics circuits like amplifiers, oscillators, introduced to you in
earlier sections, the signal (current or voltage) has been in the form of
continuous, time-varying voltage or current. Such signals are called
no

continuous or analogue signals. A typical analogue signal is shown in

Figure. 14.34(a). Fig. 14.34(b) shows a pulse waveform in which only
discrete values of voltages are possible. It is convenient to use binary
numbers to represent such signals. A binary number has only two digits
‘0’ (say, 0V) and ‘1’ (say, 5V). In digital electronics we use only these two
levels of voltage as shown in Fig. 14.34(b). Such signals are called Digital
Signals. In digital circuits only two values (represented by 0 or 1) of the
input and output voltage are permissible. 501
 Physics
This section is intended to provide the first step in our understanding
of digital electronics. We shall restrict our study to some basic building
blocks of digital electronics (called Logic Gates) which process the digital
signals in a specific manner. Logic gates are used in calculators, digital
watches, computers, robots, industrial control systems, and in
telecommunications.

d
A light switch in your house can be used as an example of a digital
circuit. The light is either ON or OFF depending on the switch position.
When the light is ON, the output value is ‘1’. When the light is OFF the

he
output value is ‘0’. The inputs are the position of the light switch. The
switch is placed either in the ON or OFF position to activate the light.

pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
o N

FIGURE 14.34 (a) Analogue signal, (b) Digital signal.

14.10.1 Logic gates

tt ©

A gate is a digital circuit that follows curtain logical relationship

between the input and output voltages. Therefore, they are generally
known as logic gates — gates because they control the flow of
Input Output information. The five common logic gates used are NOT, AND, OR,
NAND, NOR. Each logic gate is indicated by a symbol and its function
A Y is defined by a truth table that shows all the possible input logic level
combinations with their respective output logic levels. Truth tables
0 1 help understand the behaviour of logic gates. These logic gates can
be realised using semiconductor devices.
1 0 (i) NOT gate
(b) This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It produces
FIGURE 14.35 a ‘1’ output if the input is ‘0’ and vice-versa. That is, it produces an
no

(a) Logic symbol, inverted version of the input at its output. This is why it is also known
(b) Truth table of as an inverter. The commonly used symbol together with the truth
NOT gate. table for this gate is given in Fig. 14.35.
(ii) OR Gate
An OR gate has two or more inputs with one output. The logic symbol
and truth table are shown in Fig. 14.36. The output Y is 1 when either
input A or input B or both are 1s, that is, if any of the input is high, the
502 output is high.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1

d
1 1 1

he
(b)

FIGURE 14.36 (a) Logic symbol (b) Truth table of OR gate.

Apart from carrying out the above mathematical logic operation, this

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gate can be used for modifying the pulse waveform as explained in the

is
following example.
re R
Example 14.11 Justify the output waveform (Y) of the OR gate for

bl
the following inputs A and B given in Fig. 14.37.
Solution Note the following:
E
• At t < t1; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
• For t 1 to t2; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
• For t 2 to t3; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
be C

• For t 3 to t4; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1

• For t 4 to t5; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
• For t 5 to t6; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
o N

• For t > t6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1

Therefore the waveform Y will be as shown in the Fig. 14.37.
tt ©

EXAMPLE 14.11

FIGURE 14.37

(iii) AND Gate Input Output

An AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output Y of
no

AND gate is 1 only when input A and input B are both 1. The logic A B Y
symbol and truth table for this gate are given in Fig. 14.38 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
(b)
FIGURE 14.38 (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of AND gate. 503
 Physics
Example 14.12 Take A and B input waveforms similar to that in
Example 14.11. Sketch the output waveform obtained from AND gate.
Solution
• For t ≤ t 1; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
• For t1 to t2; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
• For t2 to t3; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 1

d
• For t3 to t4; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 0
• For t4 to t5; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0

he
• For t5 to t6; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
• For t > t 6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 0
Based on the above, the output waveform for AND gate can be drawn
as given below.

pu T
is
re R
EXAMPLE 14.12

bl
E
FIGURE 14.39
be C

(iv) NAND Gate

o N

This is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. If inputs A and B are both
‘1’, the output Y is not ‘1’. The gate gets its name from this NOT AND
behaviour. Figure 14.40 shows the symbol and truth table of NAND gate.
NAND gates are also called Universal Gates since by using these
gates you can realise other basic gates like OR, AND and NOT (Exercises
tt ©

14.16 and 14.17).

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(b)

FIGURE 14.40 (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of NAND gate.
no

Example 14.13 Sketch the output Y from a NAND gate having inputs
A and B given below:
EXAMPLE 14.13

Solution
• For t < t 1; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 0
• For t 1 to t2; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
• For t 2 to t3; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
• For t 3 to t4; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
504
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

• For t4 to t5; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 0

• For t5 to t6; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
• For t > t 6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1

d
he
EXAMPLE 14.13
pu T
is
re R
bl
FIGURE 14.41
E
(v) NOR Gate
It has two or more inputs and one output. A NOT- operation applied
after OR gate gives a NOT-OR gate (or simply NOR gate). Its output Y is
be C

‘1’ only when both inputs A and B are ‘0’, i.e., neither one input nor the
other is ‘1’. The symbol and truth table for NOR gate is given in
Fig. 14.42.
Input Output
o N

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
tt ©

1 0 0
1 1 0
(b)
FIGURE 14.42 (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of NOR gate.
NOR gates are considered as universal gates because you can obtain
all the gates like AND, OR, NOT by using only NOR gates (Exercises 14.18
and 14.19).

14.11 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The conventional method of making circuits is to choose components
no

like diodes, transistor, R, L, C etc., and connect them by soldering wires

in the desired manner. Inspite of the miniaturisation introduced by the
discovery of transistors, such circuits were still bulky. Apart from this,
such circuits were less reliable and less shock proof. The concept of
fabricating an entire circuit (consisting of many passive components like
R and C and active devices like diode and transistor) on a small single
block (or chip) of a semiconductor has revolutionised the electronics
technology. Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC). The most
widely used technology is the Monolithic Integrated Circuit. The word 505
 Physics
monolithic is a combination of two greek words, monos
means single and lithos means stone. This, in effect,
means that the entire circuit is formed on a single
silicon crystal (or chip). The chip dimensions are as
small as 1mm × 1mm or it could even be smaller. Figure
14.43 shows a chip in its protective plastic case, partly
removed to reveal the connections coming out from the

d
‘chip’ to the pins that enable it to make external
connections.
FIGURE 14.43 The casing and

he
Depending on nature of input signals, IC’s can be
connection of a ‘chip’.
grouped in two categories: (a) linear or analogue IC’s
and (b) digital IC’s. The linear IC’s process analogue
signals which change smoothly and continuously over a range of values
between a maximum and a minimum. The output is more or less directly

pu T
is
proportional to the input, i.e., it varies linearly with the input. One of the
most useful linear IC’s is the operational amplifier.
re R The digital IC’s process signals that have only two values. They

bl
contain circuits such as logic gates. Depending upon the level of
integration (i.e., the number of circuit components or logic gates), the ICs
are termed as Small Scale Integration, SSI (logic gates < 10); Medium
E
Scale Integration, MSI (logic gates < 100); Large Scale Integration, LSI
(logic gates < 1000); and Very Large Scale Integration, VLSI (logic gates >
1000). The technology of fabrication is very involved but large scale
be C

industrial production has made them very inexpensive.

FASTER AND SMALLER: THE FUTURE OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

o N

The Integrated Chip (IC) is at the heart of all computer systems. In fact ICs are found in
almost all electrical devices like cars, televisions, CD players, cell phones etc. The
miniaturisation that made the modern personal computer possible could never have
tt ©

happened without the IC. ICs are electronic devices that contain many transistors, resistors,
capacitors, connecting wires – all in one package. You must have heard of the
microprocessor. The microprocessor is an IC that processes all information in a computer,
like keeping track of what keys are pressed, running programmes, games etc. The IC was
first invented by Jack Kilky at Texas Instruments in 1958 and he was awarded Nobel Prize
for this in 2000. ICs are produced on a piece of semiconductor crystal (or chip) by a process
called photolithography. Thus, the entire Information Technology (IT) industry hinges on
semiconductors. Over the years, the complexity of ICs has increased while the size of its
features continued to shrink. In the past five decades, a dramatic miniaturisation in
computer technology has made modern day computers faster and smaller. In the 1970s,
Gordon Moore, co-founder of INTEL, pointed out that the memory capacity of a chip (IC)
approximately doubled every one and a half years. This is popularly known as Moore’s
law. The number of transistors per chip has risen exponentially and each year computers
no

are becoming more powerful, yet cheaper than the year before. It is intimated from current
trends that the computers available in 2020 will operate at 40 GHz (40,000 MHz) and
would be much smaller, more efficient and less expensive than present day computers.
The explosive growth in the semiconductor industry and computer technology is best
expressed by a famous quote from Gordon Moore: “If the auto industry advanced as rapidly
as the semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get half a million miles per gallon, and
it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it”.

506
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

SUMMARY

1. Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state
electronic devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc.
2. Lattice structure and the atomic structure of constituent elements

d
decide whether a particular material will be insulator, metal or
semiconductor.
3. Metals have low resistivity (10–2 to 10–8 Ω m), insulators have very high

he
resistivity (>108 Ω m–1), while semiconductors have intermediate values
of resistivity.
4. Semiconductors are elemental (Si, Ge) as well as compound (GaAs,
CdS, etc.).

pu T
5. Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. The presence

is
of charge carriers (electrons and holes) is an ‘intrinsic’ property of the
material and these are obtained as a result of thermal excitation. The
number of electrons (ne ) is equal to the number of holes (n h ) in intrinsic
re R
conductors. Holes are essentially electron vacancies with an effective

bl
positive charge.
6. The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ of a suitable
E
impurity in pure semiconductors. Such semiconductors are known as
extrinsic semiconductors. These are of two types (n-type and p-type).
7. In n-type semiconductors, n e >> nh while in p-type semiconductors n h >> ne.
be C

8. n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with pentavalent

atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type Si or Ge can be obtained
by doping with trivalent atom (acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
o N

9. n enh = n i2 in all cases. Further, the material possesses an overall charge

neutrality.
10. There are two distinct band of energies (called valence band and
conduction band) in which the electr ons in a material lie. Valence
band energies are low as compared to conduction band energies. All
tt ©

energy levels in the valence band are filled while energy levels in the
conduction band may be fully empty or partially filled. The electrons in
the conduction band are free to move in a solid and are responsible for
the conductivity. The extent of conductivity depends upon the energy
gap (Eg ) between the top of valence band (EV ) and the bottom of the
conduction band EC. The electrons from valence band can be excited by
heat, light or electrical energy to the conduction band and thus, produce
a change in the current flowing in a semiconductor.
11. For insulators E g > 3 eV, for semiconductors Eg is 0.2 eV to 3 eV, while
for metals Eg ≈ 0.
12. p-n junction is the ‘key’ to all semiconductor devices. When such a
junction is made, a ‘depletion layer’ is formed consisting of immobile
ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This is responsible for a
junction potential barrier.
13. By changing the external applied voltage, junction barriers can be
no

changed. In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of the

battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier is decreased
while the barrier increases in reverse bias. Hence, forward bias current
is more (mA) while it is very small (µA) in a p-n junction diode.
14. Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting the ac voltage
to one direction). With the help of a capacitor or a suitable filter, a dc
voltage can be obtained.
15. There are some special purpose diodes.
507
 Physics
16. Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse bias, after a
certain voltage, the current suddenly increases (breakdown voltage) in
a Zener diode. This property has been used to obtain voltage regulation.
17. p-n junctions have also been used to obtain many photonic or
optoelectronic devices where one of the participating entity is ‘photon’:
(a) Photodiodes in which photon excitation results in a change of reverse

d
saturation current which helps us to measure light intensity; (b) Solar
cells which convert photon energy into electricity; (c) Light Emitting
Diode and Diode Laser in which electron excitation by a bias voltage

he
results in the generation of light.
18. Transistor is an n-p-n or p-n-p junction device. The central block
(thin and lightly doped) is called ‘Base’ while the other electrodes are
‘Emitter’ and ‘Collectors’. The emitter -base junction is forwar d biased
while collector -base junction is r everse biased.

pu T
is
19. The transistors can be connected in such a manner that either C or E
or B is common to both the input and output. This gives the three
configurations in which a transistor is used: Common Emitter (CE),
re R Common Collector (CC) and Common Base (CB). The plot between IC

bl
and VCE for fixed IB is called output characteristics while the plot between
IB and VBE with fixed VCE is called input characteristics. The important
transistor parameters for CE-configuration are:
E
∆V BE
input resistance, ri =
∆I B V
be C

CE

∆V CE
output resistance, ro =
∆IC I
B

∆IC
o N

current amplification factor, β =

∆IB VCE
20. T ransistor can be used as an amplifier and oscillator. In fact, an
oscillator can also be considered as a self-sustained amplifier in which
a part of output is fed-back to the input in the same phase (positive
tt ©

feed back). The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier in common emitter

vo R
configuration is: A v = = β C , where RC and RB are respectively
vi RB
the resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.
21. When the transistor is used in the cutoff or saturation state, it acts as
a switch.
22. There are some special circuits which handle the digital data consisting
of 0 and 1 levels. This forms the subject of Digital Electronics.
23. The important digital circuits performing special logic operations are
called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates.
24. In modern day circuit, many logical gates or circuits are integrated in
one single ‘Chip’. These are known as Intgrated circuits (IC).
no

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The energy bands ( EC or EV) in the semiconductors are space delocalised
which means that these are not located in any specific place inside the
solid. The energies are the overall averages. When you see a picture in
which EC or EV are drawn as straight lines, then they should be
respectively taken simply as the bottom of conduction band energy levels
508 and top of valence band energy levels.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

2. In elemental semiconductors (Si or Ge), the n-type or p-type

semiconductors are obtained by introducing ‘dopants’ as defects. In
compound semiconductors, the change in relative stoichiometric ratio
can also change the type of semiconductor. For example, in ideal GaAs
the ratio of Ga:As is 1:1 but in Ga-rich or As-rich GaAs it could
respectively be Ga1.1 As0.9 or Ga 0.9 As1.1. In general, the presence of
defects control the properties of semiconductors in many ways.

d
3. In transistors, the base region is both narrow and lightly doped,
otherwise the electrons or holes coming from the input side (say, emitter

he
in CE-configuration) will not be able to r each the collector.
4. We have described an oscillator as a positive feedback amplifier. For
stable oscillations, the voltage feedback (Vfb) from the output voltage
(Vo) should be such that after amplification (A) it should again become
Vo. If a fraction β′ is feedback, then Vfb = Vo . β′ and after amplification

pu T
is
its value A(vo.β′) should be equal to Vo. This means that the criteria for
stable oscillations to be sustained is A β′ = 1. This is known as
Barkhausen's Criteria.
5.
re R
In an oscillator, the feedback is in the same phase (positive feedback).

bl
If the feedback voltage is in opposite phase (negative feedback), the
gain is less than 1 and it can never work as oscillator. It will be an
E
amplifier with reduced gain. However, the negative feedback also reduces
noise and distortion in an amplifier which is an advantageous feature.
be C

EXERCISES
o N

14.1 In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is true:

(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the
dopants.
tt ©

(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the
dopants.
(c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the
dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
14.2 Which of the statements given in Exercise 14.1 is true for p-type
semiconductos.
14.3 Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each.
These are characterised by valence and conduction bands separated
by energy band gap respectively equal to (Eg)C , (Eg )Si and (E g)Ge. Which
of the following statements is true?
(a) (Eg )Si < (Eg )Ge < (E g)C
(b) (Eg )C < ( Eg )Ge > (Eg )Si
no

(c) (Eg )C > ( Eg )Si > ( Eg )Ge

(d) (Eg )C = ( Eg )Si = ( Eg )Ge
14.4 In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to
n-region because
(a) free electrons in the n-region attract them.
(b) they move across the junction by the potential difference.
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
(d) All the above. 509
 Physics
14.5 When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it
(a) raises the potential barrier.
(b) reduces the majority carrier current to zero.
(c) lowers the potential barrier.
(d) None of the above.
14.6 For transistor action, which of the following statements are correct:

d
(a) Base, emitter and collector regions should have similar size and
doping concentrations.

he
(b) The base region must be very thin and lightly doped.
(c) The emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is
reverse biased.
(d) Both the emitter junction as well as the collector junction are
forward biased.

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is
14.7 For a transistor amplifier, the voltage gain
(a) remains constant for all frequencies.
re R (b) is high at high and low frequencies and constant in the middle

bl
frequency range.
(c) is low at high and low frequencies and constant at mid
frequencies.
E
(d) None of the above.
14.8 In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input
be C

frequency is 50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier

for the same input frequency.
14.9 For a CE-transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage across the
collected resistance of 2 kΩ is 2 V. Suppose the current amplification
o N

factor of the transistor is 100, find the input signal voltage and base
current, if the base r esistance is 1 kΩ.
14.10 Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series (cascaded).
The first amplifier has a voltage gain of 10 and the second has a
tt ©

voltage gain of 20. If the input signal is 0.01 volt, calculate the output
ac signal.
14.11 A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with band gap
of 2.8 eV. Can it detect a wavelength of 6000 nm?

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
14.12 The number of silicon atoms per m 3 is 5 × 1028. This is doped
22 3 20
simultaneously with 5 × 10 atoms per m of Arsenic and 5 × 10
3
per m atoms of Indium. Calculate the number of electrons and holes.
Given that ni = 1.5 × 10 16 m–3. Is the material n-type or p-type?
no

14.13 In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap Eg is 1.2eV. Its hole

mobility is much smaller than electron mobility and independent of
temperature. What is the ratio between conductivity at 600K and
that at 300K? Assume that the temperature dependence of intrinsic
carrier concentration ni is given by
Eg
ni = n 0 exp –
2k B T
510 where n0 is a constant.
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
14.14 In a p-n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as

eV
I = I 0 exp –1
2k B T
where I0 is called the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage
across the diode and is positive for forward bias and negative for

d
reverse bias, and I is the current through the diode, k B is the
Boltzmann constant (8.6×10 –5 eV/K) and T is the absolute
–12
temperature. If for a given diode I0 = 5 × 10 A and T = 300 K, then

he
(a) What will be the forward current at a forward voltage of 0.6 V?
(b) What will be the increase in the current if the voltage across the
diode is increased to 0.7 V?
(c) What is the dynamic resistance?

pu T
is
(d) What will be the current if reverse bias voltage changes from 1 V
to 2 V?
re R
14.15 You are given the two cir cuits as shown in Fig. 14.44. Show that

bl
circuit (a) acts as OR gate while the circuit (b) acts as AND gate.
E
be C

FIGURE 14.44
o N

14.16 Write the truth table for a NAND gate connected as given in
Fig. 14.45.
tt ©

FIGURE 14.45

Hence identify the exact logic operation carried out by this circuit.
14.17 You are given two circuits as shown in Fig. 14.46, which consist
of NAND gates. Identify the logic operation carried out by the two
circuits.
no

FIGURE 14.46

14.18 Write the truth table for circuit given in Fig. 14.47 below consisting
of NOR gates and identify the logic operation (OR, AND, NOT) which
this circuit is performing. 511
 Physics

FIGURE 14.47

d
(Hint: A = 0, B = 1 then A and B inputs of second NOR gate will be 0
and hence Y=1. Similarly work out the values of Y for other

he
combinations of A and B. Compare with the truth table of OR, AND,
NOT gates and find the correct one.)
14.19 Write the truth table for the cir cuits given in Fig. 14.48 consisting of
NOR gates only. Identify the logic operations (OR, AND, NOT) performed

pu T
by the two circuits.

is
re R
bl
E
be C
o N

FIGURE 14.48
tt ©
no

512