Interfacing and Communication:

I/O Fundamentals
Lecture 4
• Interfacing and communication are critical aspects of computer
systems, where Input/Output (I/O) fundamentals play a vital role in
facilitating data exchange between the processor, memory, and
peripheral devices.

• Below are key concepts related to I/O fundamentals:

1. Handshaking

• Handshaking is a method used to control the flow of data between

two devices in an I/O system.

• It ensures that both the sender and receiver are synchronized during
data transmission, preventing data loss or overflow.
• Two-Way Communication: Involves signals between the sender and
receiver to acknowledge data readiness and successful transmission.

• Synchronization: Ensures that the sender sends data only when the
receiver is ready to accept it.

• Signals: Typically involves control signals like "Ready," "Acknowledge,"

or "Busy."

• Example: In serial communication, the RTS (Request to Send) and CTS

(Clear to Send) signals are used for handshaking.
2. Buffering
• Buffering is a technique used to store data temporarily while it is
being transferred between devices or within different parts of a
system.

• A buffer acts as a holding area, smoothing out differences in data

transfer rates.

• Buffering is the name given to the technique of transferring data into

temporary storage prior to processing or output.

• This enable simultaneous operation of devices.

• A buffer maybe one of the following types.

• Internal Buffer area. This is an area of main store set aside to hold
data awaiting output or data recently input but not yet processed.

• Buffer Registers. These registers are located at various positions

along the data path between the I/O devices and the processor. They
hold characters or groups of characters in the process of being
transferred.
• Data Storage: Buffers store data until the receiving device is ready to
process it.

• Performance Improvement: Helps in handling speed mismatches

between different components, such as a fast processor and a slow
I/O device.

• Example: In a keyboard, keystrokes are buffered to allow the

processor to handle them at its own pace.
3. Programmed I/O
• Programmed I/O is a method where the CPU is responsible for
managing all aspects of data transfer between memory and I/O
devices.

• The CPU actively checks the status of an I/O device and initiates data
transfers.
• The simplest form of I/O is to have the CPU do all the work. This method is
called programmed I/O.
• In the simplest method, a user program issues a system call, which the
kernel then translates into a procedure call to the appropriate driver.
• The driver then starts the I/O and sits in a tight loop continuously polling
the device to see if it is done (usually there is some bit that indicates that
the device is still busy).
• When the I/O has completed, the driver puts the data where it is needed (if
any), and returns. The operating system then returns control to the caller.
This method is called busy waiting.
• CPU Control: The CPU polls the I/O device to check if it's ready for
data transfer.

• Busy-Waiting: The CPU waits for the I/O operation to complete,

which can lead to inefficiencies.

• Simple Implementation: Easier to implement but can result in poor

CPU utilization.

• Example: A simple printer interface where the CPU sends data to the
printer and waits for it to be printed before continuing.
4. Interrupt-Driven I/O
• Interrupt-driven I/O is a method where the CPU is alerted by an
interrupt signal from an I/O device when it is ready for data transfer.
The CPU can perform other tasks until it receives the interrupt.

• Interrupts: The I/O device sends an interrupt signal to the CPU,

indicating that it is ready for data transfer.

• Efficient Use of CPU: Allows the CPU to perform other tasks instead
of busy-waiting.

• Interrupt Handler: A special routine that processes the interrupt and

performs the necessary I/O operation.
• Example: A network card that sends an interrupt to the CPU when a
packet of data is received, allowing the CPU to process it immediately.

• These I/O fundamentals are essential in designing efficient computer

systems, ensuring smooth communication between the CPU, memory,
and peripheral devices. Understanding these concepts is crucial for
optimizing system performance and responsiveness.
Interrupt Structures
• 1. Vectored and Prioritized Interrupts

• Vectored Interrupts:

• A vectored interrupt is a type of interrupt where the interrupting device

sends a unique identifier (a vector) to the CPU. This identifier points to the
specific interrupt service routine (ISR) that should handle the interrupt.

• Mechanism: When an interrupt occurs, the CPU does not have to poll each
device to find out which one needs attention. Instead, the interrupting
device provides a vector, which is an address that directly points to its ISR.
• Advantages:
• Efficiency: Reduces the time the CPU spends identifying the
interrupting device.
• Specific Handling: Each device can have its own ISR, allowing for
more precise and efficient interrupt handling.
• Prioritized Interrupts:

• In prioritized interrupt systems, each interrupt source is assigned a

priority level. The CPU will handle higher-priority interrupts before
lower-priority ones.

• Mechanism: If multiple interrupts occur simultaneously, the CPU will

service the one with the highest priority.

• If a lower-priority interrupt is being serviced, it can be interrupted by

a higher-priority one.
• Advantages:
• Critical Task Management: Ensures that more critical tasks are
handled first, improving system reliability.
• Nested Interrupts: Allows for nested interrupt handling, where a
higher-priority interrupt can interrupt a lower-priority ISR.
2. Interrupt Acknowledgment

Interrupt acknowledgment is the process by which the CPU confirms

receipt of an interrupt signal from an I/O device.

• This acknowledgment can take several forms depending on the

system architecture.
• Mechanism:

• Polling: The CPU might poll devices in a non-vectored interrupt

system to identify the source and then acknowledge the interrupt.

• Direct Acknowledgment: In vectored systems, the acknowledgment

may involve sending a specific acknowledgment signal back to the
device or the interrupt controller.

• Clearing the Interrupt: In many systems, the acknowledgment

process also involves clearing the interrupt request, allowing the
system to return to normal operation.
• Importance:

• System Stability: Ensures that interrupt requests are not lost and that
devices are informed that their request is being handled.

• Efficient Processing: Allows the CPU to correctly sequence the

handling of multiple interrupt requests.
• External Storage

• 1. Physical Organization and Drives

• Physical Organization:

• Physical organization refers to how data is physically stored and

structured on storage media, including the layout of tracks, sectors,
and blocks on a disk.
• Tracks: Concentric circles on the disk where data is written.
• Sectors: Subdivisions of tracks, each containing a fixed amount of
data.
• Blocks: The smallest unit of data transfer, typically a group of
sectors.
• Cylinder: A set of tracks located in the same position on each disk
surface.
Types of Drives
• Hard Disk Drives (HDDs):
• Technology: Use spinning magnetic disks (platters) to read/write
data with a mechanical arm.
• Capacity and Speed: Typically offer large storage capacities but
slower access times compared to SSDs.
• Physical Layout: Data is organized into tracks and sectors on a
spinning disk.
• Solid State Drives (SSDs):
• Technology: Use NAND flash memory to store data, with no
moving parts, providing faster access times.
• Capacity and Speed: Generally faster than HDDs with lower
latency and higher read/write speeds.
• Physical Layout: Data is stored in memory cells, organized into
pages and blocks.
• Optical Drives:
• Technology: Use laser technology to read/write data on optical
discs like CDs, DVDs, or Blu-rays.
• Capacity and Speed: Lower storage capacities and slower speeds
compared to HDDs and SSDs.
• Physical Layout: Data is stored in a spiral track on the disc, starting
from the center and moving outward.
• Flash Drives:
• Technology: Use flash memory, similar to SSDs, but are more
portable and typically connect via USB.
• Capacity and Speed: Range in capacity and speed, generally
slower than internal SSDs.
• Considerations:

• Data Access Speed: SSDs are preferable for speed, while HDDs offer
more storage at a lower cost.

• Durability: SSDs, with no moving parts, are more durable and

resistant to physical shock.

• Use Cases: HDDs are often used for bulk storage, while SSDs are
favored for applications requiring fast data access, such as operating
systems and frequently used programs.
Buses
• 1. Bus Protocols

• Bus protocols are the rules and standards that govern data
transmission between components within a computer system, such
as the CPU, memory, and peripherals. They ensure orderly
communication and data transfer.
• Bus Types:
• Data Bus: Carries data between components.
• Address Bus: Carries memory addresses where data is to be read or
written.
• Control Bus: Carries control signals, such as read/write commands.
• Bus Width: The number of bits that can be transferred simultaneously,
affecting data transfer speed.
• Bus Timing: Refers to the synchronization of data transfers, often managed
by a clock signal.
• Examples:
• PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express): High-speed
serial bus used for connecting high-performance peripherals like
graphics cards and SSDs.
• USB (Universal Serial Bus): Widely used for connecting external
devices like keyboards, mice, and storage devices.
• I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit): A low-speed bus used for
communication between chips on a motherboard.
2. Arbitration
• Arbitration is the process by which a system determines which component
has control of the bus when multiple devices request access
simultaneously.
• Centralized Arbitration: A single arbiter (usually the CPU or a dedicated
arbitration circuit) decides which device gets bus access. Common methods
include:
• Priority-Based Arbitration: Devices are assigned priority levels; the
device with the highest priority wins.
• Round-Robin Arbitration: Access is granted in a rotating order to
ensure fair sharing.
• Decentralized Arbitration: Devices participate in deciding who gets
access without a central controller. An example is the daisy-chain
method, where the closest device to the CPU has the highest priority.

• Purpose: Arbitration prevents bus conflicts and ensures that data

transfers occur smoothly and efficiently.
3. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
• DMA is a technique that allows peripheral devices to access system
memory directly, without continuous involvement from the CPU,
enabling faster data transfers.

• DMA Controller: A dedicated hardware component that manages

DMA operations, freeing the CPU from the burden of managing each
data transfer.

• Operation:
• Burst Mode: DMA takes full control of the bus to transfer a block
of data all at once.
• Cycle Stealing: DMA takes control of the bus for a single data transfer,
allowing the CPU to use the bus in between these transfers

• Advantages:
• Efficiency: Reduces CPU workload by allowing it to perform other
tasks while data is being transferred.
• Speed: Increases data transfer rates, especially useful for high-
speed devices like disk drives and network cards.
Introduction to Networks
• A network is a collection of computers and devices interconnected by
communication channels that facilitate data exchange and resource
sharing.

• Network Types:
• LAN (Local Area Network): A network covering a small geographic
area, like a home or office.
• WAN (Wide Area Network): A network covering a broad
geographic area, such as the internet.
Networks………
• Network Topologies:
• Star: All devices are connected to a central hub.
• Bus: All devices share a common communication line.
• Ring: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
• Protocols
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The
foundational protocol suite for the internet, governing how data is
transmitted and received.
• Ethernet: A widely used LAN protocol that controls how data is
transmitted on wired networks.
• Wi-Fi: A wireless networking protocol based on IEEE 802.11
standards, enabling devices to connect to a network wirelessly.
Network applications:
• File Sharing: Networks enable the sharing of files and resources like
printers.

• Communication: Facilitate email, video conferencing, and other forms

of digital communication.

• Internet Access: Connects users to the global network of networks.

Multimedia Support
• Multimedia support refers to a computer system's ability to handle various
forms of media, including text, audio, video, graphics, and animation.

• Multimedia Hardware:
• Graphics Cards: Specialized hardware for rendering images and video,
essential for gaming and video editing.
• Sound Cards: Hardware that processes audio inputs and outputs,
improving sound quality.
• Video Capture Devices: Used to record video from external sources.
Multimedia Support applications:
• Software:
• Codecs: Software that encodes or decodes digital data streams,
crucial for compressing and playing audio and video files.
• Media Players: Software that allows users to play multimedia
content.
• Performance Requirements:
• Processor Speed: Fast processors are required to handle intensive
multimedia tasks like video rendering.
• Memory: Sufficient RAM is needed to manage large multimedia
files.
 • Storage: High-capacity storage devices are essential for storing
media files, especially in uncompressed formats.

• Streaming: Multimedia support is crucial for streaming services like

Netflix or YouTube.

• Gaming: High-quality multimedia support enhances the gaming

experience with better graphics and sound.

• Video Conferencing: Multimedia support is vital for smooth, real-time

video and audio communication.
RAID Architectures
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a technology that
combines multiple physical disk drives into a single logical unit to
improve performance, provide redundancy, or both.
RAID Levels:
• RAID 0 (Striping):
• Performance: Data is split across multiple disks, improving
read/write speeds.
• Drawback: No redundancy; if one disk fails, all data is lost.
• RAID 1 (Mirroring):
• Redundancy: Data is mirrored on two or more disks, providing
fault tolerance.
• Drawback: Requires double the storage capacity, as all data is
duplicated.
RAID Architectures….
• RAID 5 (Striping with Parity):
• Balance: Combines striping with parity (error-checking data), providing a good
balance between performance and redundancy.

• Drawback: Requires at least three disks; rebuilding data after a disk failure
can be time-consuming.
• RAID 6 (Striping with Dual Parity):
• Enhanced Redundancy: Similar to RAID 5 but with additional parity, allowing for the
failure of two disks without data loss.
• Drawback: Requires at least four disks; slightly reduced performance compared to
RAID 5 due to extra parity calculations.
• RAID 10 (Combination of RAID 0 and RAID 1):
• High Performance and Redundancy: Combines the striping of
RAID 0 with the mirroring of RAID 1, providing both speed and
fault tolerance.
• Drawback: Expensive, as it requires a minimum of four disks and
uses half the storage capacity for redundancy.
Applications
• RAID 0: Used in scenarios where performance is critical, and data loss
is acceptable, such as in gaming or video editing.

• RAID 1: Commonly used for critical systems where data redundancy is

essential, such as in small business servers.

• RAID 5 and 6: Ideal for enterprise environments where a balance of

performance, storage efficiency, and redundancy is needed.

• RAID 10: Used in high-performance environments like databases,

where both speed and data integrity are crucial