Chapter One

Introduction to Real-time system and Embedded System

1.1. Definition, Characteristics, and examples of Real time and Embedded systems
About Real-time and Embedded Systems
System is a group of interacting or interrelated elements, which works, organizes or
performs one or many tasks according to a fixed set of rules, program or plan.
Real Time is the actual time during which something takes place
Embedded means something that is attached to another thing (Software with Hardware).
What is a real-time embedded system: A system which responds to real time situation with the
help of its embedded software and hardware, within the specified time constraint, or Real time
embedded system is a system composed of hardware, application software and real time
operating system.
Characteristics of Real-time and Embedded systems:
Real time embedded systems must have the following characteristics:
A. Constant Response: A real-time embedded system always responds in the same manner to a
certain situation, it is not allowed to deviate from its normal designated output. An air-
conditioner is not allowed to throw hot air in summer.
B. Deadline: respond to an event or request within a strictly defined time. It is crucial to the
working of an embedded system, a missed deadline can cost lives and finances.
C. Accuracy: the system should perform exact and accurate tasks. In case of any
malfunctioning, the system failure can cause destruction. What would happen if the heartbeat
regulator machine can't maintain the heartbeat?, patient would eventually die.
D. Quick Response: It is the most important characteristic of all; the real-time embedded
system must be swift enough to respond to the changing external environment with
immediate effect.
Examples of real-time and embedded systems (RTES):
Flight Control Systems
Traffic Light Systems
Missile Guidance Systems
Ultrasound scans

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 CT scans
ATM Machines. Etc.
1.2. Model of Real time system:
The basic model of a real-time system presents the overview of all the components involved in a
real-time system. Real-time system includes various hardware and software embedded in a way
that the specific tasks can be performed in the time constraints allowed. The accuracy and
correctness involved in real-time system makes the model complex. There are various models of
real-time system which are more complex and are hard to understand. Here we will discuss a
basic model of real-time system which has some commonly used terms and hardware. Following
diagram represents a basic model of Real-time System:

Sensor: Sensor is used for the conversion of some physical events or characteristics into the
electrical signals. These are hardware devices that take the input from environment and gives to
the system by converting it. For example, a thermometer takes the temperature as physical
characteristic and then converts it into electrical signals for the system.
Actuator: Actuator is the reverse device of sensor. Where sensor converts the physical events
into electrical signals, actuator does the reverse. It converts the electrical signals into the physical
events or characteristics. It takes the input from the output interface of the system. The output
from the actuator may be in any form of physical action. Some of the commonly used actuator
are motors and heaters.
Signal Conditioning Unit: When the sensor converts the physical actions into electrical signals,
then computer can’t used them directly. Hence, after the conversion of physical actions into
electrical signals, there is need of conditioning. Similarly while giving the output when electrical
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signals are sent to the actuator, then also conditioning is required. Therefore, Signal conditioning
is of two types:
Input Conditioning Unit: It is used for conditioning the electrical signals coming from sensor.
Output Conditioning Unit: It is used for conditioning the electrical signals coming from the
system.
Interface Unit: Interface units are basically used for the conversion of digital to analog and
vice-versa. Signals coming from the input conditioning unit are analog and the system does the
operations on digital signals only, then the interface unit is used to change the analog signals to
digital signals. Similarly, while transmitting the signals to output conditioning unit the interface
of signals is changed i.e. from digital to analog. On this basis, Interface unit is also of two types:
Input Interface: It is used for conversion of analog signals to digital.
Output Interface: It is used for conversion of digital signals to analog
1.3. Types of real time tasks
A task whose performance is judged based on deadlines is termed as real time tasks. And the
System that handles the real time tasks are called “Real Time Systems”.
There are three types of Real Time Tasks
1. Hard Real Time Tasks
2. Soft Real Time Tasks
3. Firm Real Time Tasks
Hard Real Time Tasks: In Hard Real Time tasks it is compulsory for a task to be
completed within the deadline. Failing to do so results in disastrous effect most of the time
and might lead to loss of human lives. If the Hard Real Time tasks misses the deadline that
is if C > D where “C” refers to completion time of a task and “D” refers to deadline then the
output generated is completely useless. In other words value of outcome is zero and the
output is rejected completely. The System fails if Hard Real Time tasks miss the deadline
Required Condition for Hard Real Time tasks: C <= D then Q=1 where C is completion time,
D is Deadline and Q is Quality or Significance. And is C > D then Q=0
Examples Air Traffic Control System, Air Bags Controls in Car, Anti Missile System
Soft Real Time Tasks: In Soft Real time tasks the deadline is followed but it is not mandatory.
This means that even if the deadline is missed the output is not rejected completely. The task that
misses the deadline is affected with some penalty or fine in the form of reduced quality of

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service. As the completion time crosses the deadline the value of the output reduces until it
reaches zero that is output is of no use.
Required Condition for Soft Real Time tasks: C <= D then Q=1 and if C > D then Q lowers
and move till Q=0.ExamplesOnline Gaming. Firm Real Time Tasks: Firm Real Time tasks are
treated as a combination of Hard Real Time Tasks and Soft Real Time Tasks. In Firm Real Time
Tasks if the deadline is missed the value of output is dropped to zero (as done in Hard Real Time
Tasks) but still the system is working without any catastrophic effects (as done in Soft Real time
Tasks).
The System allows the task to miss the deadline, but not regularly. If tasks miss the deadline
commonly or on regular basis the System Failure occur.
Examples: Video Processor – Consider a System that processes the video frame by frame and
shows continuous video playback. Missing two or three frames in between the complete
processing doesn’t cause any disruption in the video playback but missing too many frames leads
to interrupted video
1.4. Modeling timing constraints:
Timing constraints is a vital attribute in real-time systems. Timing constraints decides the total
correctness of the result in real-time systems. The correctness of results in real-time system does
not depends only on logical correctness but also the result should be obtained within the time
constraint. There might be several events happening in real time system and these events are
scheduled by schedulers using timing constraints
Classification of Timing Constraints:
Timing constraints associated with the real-time system is classified as
1. Performance Constraints:
The constraints enforced on the response of the system are known as Performance Constraints.
This basically describes the overall performance of the system. This shows how quickly and
accurately the system is responding. It ensures that the real-time system performs satisfactorily.
2. Behavioral Constraint:
The constraints enforced on the stimuli generated by the environment are known as Behavioral
Constraints. This basically describes the behavior of the environment. It ensures that the
environment of a system is well behaved. Further, both performance and behavioral constraints
are classified into three categories:

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 Delay Constraint, Deadline Constraint, and Duration Constraint. These are explained as
following below.
1. Delay Constraint
A delay constraint describes the minimum time interval between occurrences of two consecutive
events in the real-time system. If an event occurs before the delay constraint, then it is called a
delay violation. The time interval between occurrences of two events should be greater than or
equal to delay constraint. If D is the actual time interval between occurrence of two events and d
is the delay constraint, then D >= d

Deadline Constraint
A deadline constraint describes the maximum time interval between occurrence of two
consecutive
events in the real-time system. If an event occurs after the deadline constraint, then the result of
event is considered incorrect. The time interval between occurrence of two events should be less
than or equal to deadline constraint. If D is the actual time interval between occurrence of two
events and d is the deadline constraint, then D <= d

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Duration Constraint
Duration constraint describes the duration of an event in real-time system. It describes the
minimum and maximum time period of an event. On this basis it is further classified into two
types:
4. Minimum Duration Constraint: It describes that after the initiation of an event, it cannot
stop
before a certain minimum duration.
5. Maximum Duration Constraint: It describes that after the starting of an event, it must end
before a certain maximum duration elapses

1.5. Computer organization concepts and memory

Types of memory in embedded systems generally fall into two categories:1 Volatile and 2.Non-
volatile. Within those categories are various types of RAM and ROM memories. Here are details
on various types of memory within those categories
Volatile: RAM (SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM) are the types of RAM that an embedded system can
use:
SRAM: The fastest volatile memory, SRAM, is fast enough to operate close to the processor
speed. It also requires less power than DRAM, but it is also more expensive. Engineers use it in
more limited ways in embedded systems.
DRAM: This memory stores the information on capacitors and transistors. The setup inherently
leaks info, though the device loses all data unless it is continuously refreshed. DRAM is slower
than SRAM but also costs much less.
SDRAM: This type of DRAM is synchronous with the embedded system's bus. SDRAM uses
much less space on the chip than SRAM. But it uses more power, in part because it must
continually refresh.
2. Non-Volatile: ROM (Masked ROM, PROM, Flash, NVRAM):
Masked ROM: With this memory, the manufacturers write data onto the memory chip, which is
then impossible to change. Masked ROM is extremely low cost. Companies often use masked
ROM in mass-produced devices that last for years. The disadvantage of masked ROM is that no
one can change the data onthe chip.

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Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM): These are programmable chips that you
purchase
unprogrammed and program only one time. Companies use to store firmware and constants in
source code.
Flash: Developers use flash memory in embedded systems more often than any other non-
volatile or hybrid memory. The memory is fast for a device to read and low-cost. Devices use it
for storing large files.
NVRAM (Non Volatile Random Access Memory): This type of RAM doesn't lose data when
power islost but can store it permanently. It is expensive but fast. Engineers use this when startup
time is crucial.
Factors to be considering for embedded memory configuration:
Speed: Some embedded systems and devices must start-up fast or have other functions that must
execute quickly. Be sure the memory you choose for those operations is appropriately fast.
Different types of memory have different capacities for speed. SRAM, for example, is much
faster than DRAM.
Data storage size: Embedded systems often have limited capacity for storing data. Various
memory options offer different ways of storing, maintaining, and accessing data.
Latency: it is the time delay in data transmission as data moves between RAM and a device's.
The
memory or combination of memory you choose will affect your embedded system
Power consumption: Power is often limited in embedded systems and devices. You'll want to
choose options that allow the device to perform well while still using limited power
Cost: The cost of different types of memory can vary widely. Embedded systems manufacturers
must choose memory combinations that allow them to use more expensive memory only where
necessary for the system to work as well as possible.
Ease of development and debugging: you should think about development and debugging of
your embedded system when you choose memory. Flash memory that is slow to write can lead to
extra costs
and difficulty in running tests. Not having enough non-volatile memory can make it difficult to
debug issues. It should be taken into account when it is important to get the product to market in
time.

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1.6. Embedded System Design Process:
As discussed,
An Embedded System = Hardware (to perform the task) + Software (to process the task).
Depending on the needs, several interfaces and peripherals are interconnected to the system.

Processor
It is the heart of an embedded system that takes an input and produces an output after processing
data. It consists of two units:
1. Control Unit (CU) – It fetches instructions from the memory.
2. Execution Unit (EU): It has circuits that implement instructions for data transfer and
conversion instructions.
There are different types of processors-
1. General Purpose Processors (GPP) like Microprocessors, Microcontrollers, Embedded
Processors, Digital Signal Processors, and Media Processors
2. Application Specific System Processors (ASSP)
3. Application Specific Instruction Processors (ASIPs)
4. GPP core(s) or ASIP core(s) on either an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) or a
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit.
2. Interfaces
Every physical device uses an interface to connect with the outside world. It selects two
important boundaries:
1. Between CPU software and digital interface logic.
2. Between digital and analog sides of the interface.
This communication is established with peripherals and other microcontrollers as a part of the
whole ES. There are many interfaces like
1. Serial communication interface
2. Synchronous serial communication interface
3. USB
4. Networks like Wi-Fi
5. debugging like JTAG
6. Field buses like CAN

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Peripherals
The different peripheral devices establish communication between the embedded system and the
outside environment in combination with the microcontroller. The choice of peripherals depends
on:
Operational speed of the microcontroller.
Space and prototyping of end-product
Memory storage for data and programs. A number of input and output devices connected
Power consumption of the embedded system
There are various interfaces like-
1. Displays, e.g: Graphic LCD 4. Multimedia cards, e.g: SD Card 6. Timers, Counters
2. Analog to Digital Converters 5. Input devices, e.g: keypad7. Output devices, e.g: LED
3. Serial Communication Interface
Firmware
The flash memory chip in an embedded device is where the special software that controls the
device’s functions is stored or Firmware is a type of software that lives in hardware. It acts as a-
Bridge between hardware and software applications.
Channel of communication between human and machine
The services associated with firmware are-
System Architecture
Design and Development
RTOS/ OS/ Bare Metal Applications
Porting & Optimization
System Integration & Security
It enables direct control of circuits and hardware components that include the above services to
make execution seamless

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Embedded Software
This software is embedded inside the system that runs on top of firmware to provide unique
features. They control different parts of the mechanical system. There are different types of
embedded software like-
Embedded bare-metal software
Embedded Linux software
Embedded RTOS software
Embedded networking software
Designing Embedded Systems
All the parts mentioned above are integrated together in the following steps.
Defining system specifications
Defining system hardware and software requirements
Selecting mainframe and associated technologies
Defining the resources required and analyzing the budget
Selecting hardware and software components
Designing hardware, i.e., schematics, layout, PCB, and board
Developing firmware and testing
Entire system integration and testing

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