SKAA 1713

SOIL MECHANICS

 Laboratory Testing
 Total & Effective Stress Analysis

Prepared by:
Dr. Hetty
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress

   1'   3'    1'   3' 

c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 '
1   
  3'   1'   3' Sin '2c' Cos '
 1  Sin '   1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
'
1
'
3

 
' ' 1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
1 3
1  Sin ' 1  Sin '

 '   ' 
   Tan  45    2c' Tan 45  
'
1
'
3
2

 2  2
 Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c,  or c’, ’

Laboratory tests Field tests

Most common laboratory tests to 1. Vane shear test

determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test
5. Pressuremeter
2.Unconfined Compressive Strength test
3.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
vc vc + D

hc hc hc hc

vc vc + D

Before construction After and during

construction
 vc + D
Simulating field conditions in the laboratory

hc hc

0 vc vc + D

vc
0 0 hc hc
t

0 vc t

Representative Step 1 vc

soil sample Step 2
taken from the Set the specimen in
site the apparatus and Apply the
apply the initial corresponding field
stress condition stress conditions
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus
Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface Specimen preparation

of specimen completed
Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to

apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement
Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

t  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

displacement
Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and 
Shear stress, t

Normal stress = 3
Normal stress = 2
Normal stress = 1
tf2
tf1
tf3
Shear displacement
Shear stress at failure, tf

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope



Normal stress, 
Direct shear tests
Stress-strain relationship

Shear stress, t
Dense sand/
OC clay
tf
Loose sand/
tf NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Compression

Loose sand/NC Clay

Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and  of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore water
hence c = 0 pressures are
dissipated, hence u = 0

Therefore,
’ =  and c’ = c = 0
Direct shear tests on clays
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Shear stress at failure, tf

Overconsolidated clay (c’ ≠ 0)

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

’

Normal force, 
Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil
S

Foundation material

t f  ca   ' tan 
Where,
ca = adhesion,
 = angle of internal friction
Advantages of direct shear apparatus

 Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can

be achieved

 Can be used to determine interface strength parameters

 Clay samples can be oriented along the plane of weakness or

an identified failure plane

Disadvantages of direct shear apparatus

 Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane

 Area of the sliding surface changes as the test progresses

 Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface

Example

A direct shear test when conducted on a remolded sample of

sand, gave the following observations at the time of failure;
Normal force = 288 N; shear force = 173 N. The cross sectional
area of the sample = 36cm2.
Determine the angle of frictional. Solved in 2 ways, namely
graphically and analytically

(31 degrees)
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS) TEST
Unconfined Compression Test (UCS Test)

1 = VC + D

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UCS test

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + Df

Shear stress, t
𝒒𝒖
𝝉= = cu
𝟐

3 = 0

Cu

Normal stress, 

Note: Theoritically qu = cu , However in the actual case

qu < cu due to premature failure of the sample
TRIAXIAL TEST
Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
membrane and sealed filled with water
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

In some tests
 Consists of 3 stages:
1. Saturation
2. Consolidation
Main stages
3. Shearing
Saturation & use of back pressure

1. Reason for saturation

2. Principle of saturation
3. Maintaining saturation
4. Advantages of saturation
Typical values for parameter B
Triaxial Shear Test
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
c
(D = q)
Step 1 Step 2

c c
c c

c  c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC =
Drainage
hC
Step 2: During axial stress increase
VC + D ’V = VC + D =
’1
hC 0 ’h = hC = ’3
Drainage

Step 3: At failure
VC + Df ’Vf = VC + Df = ’1f

hC 0 ’hf = hC = ’3f

Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC + D

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or Dd) = 1 – 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, Dd

Dense sand
or OC clay
Dd)f
Loose sand
Dd)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
Expansion
Volume change

Dense sand
of the sample

or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression

Loose sand
or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
Dd)fc
1 = 3 + (Dd)f
Deviator stress, Dd

Confining stress = 3c

Confining stress = 3b

Dd)fb Confining stress = 3a 3

Dd)fa

Axial strain

Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

 or ’
3a 3b 3c 1a 1b 1c
(Dd)fa (Dd)fb
CD tests
Strength parameters c and  obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests,  = ’ and  = ’

cd and d are used

to denote them
CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

 or ’
3a 1a
(Dd)fa

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d

of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

t OC NC


c  or ’
3 1 c
(Dd)f
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

t t = in situ drained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage

t
Core

t = drained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

t = In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.

Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils
 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC =
Drainage
hC
Step 2: During axial stress increase
VC + D ’V = VC + D ± Du = ’1

No
drainage hC ±Du ’h = hC ± Du = ’3

Step 3: At failure
VC + Df ’Vf = VC + Df ± Duf = ’1f

No
drainage hC ±Duf 
’hf = hC ± Duf = ’3f
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, Dd

Dense sand
or OC clay
Dd)f
Loose sand
Dd)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
+

Loose sand
/NC Clay
Du

Axial strain
-

Dense sand
or OC clay
 CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
Deviator stress, Dd Dd)fb 1 = 3 + (Dd)f
Confining stress = 3b
Confining stress = 3a
3
Dd)fa
Total stresses at failure
Axial strain
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb cu

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

ccu
 or ’
3a 3b 1a 1b
(Dd)fa
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
’1 = 3 + (Dd)f - uf

’3 = 3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb ’
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
cu

ufb
C’ ’3b ufa
ccu ’1b  or ’
’3a 3a 3b ’1a 1a 1b
(Dd)fa
CU tests
Strength parameters c and  obtained from CD tests

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and ’
ccu and cu
c’ = cd and ’ = d
CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb ’ cu

Shear stress, t

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

 or ’
3a 3a 1a 1a
(Dd)fa

Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine

cu and ’= d) of sand or NC clay
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

t t = in situ undrained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam

t
Core

t = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

t = In situ undrained shear strength

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and cu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
C = 3
No 3 + Dd
No
drainage C = 3 drainage 3

Initial volume of the sample = A0 × H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A × H

Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,

A × H = A0 × H0
A0
A ×(H0 – DH) = A0 × H0 A
A ×(1 – DH/H0) = A0
1  z
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

C = 3 ’3 = 3 - Duc
No
C = 3 Duc ’3 = 3 - Duc
drainage
= +

Duc = B D3
Increase of cell pressure
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, B
Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, Duc = D3)
Typical values for parameter A
1 – 3 1 – 3

u
u
Axial strain Axial strain

OC Clay (Lightly overconsolidated) OC Clay (Heavily overconsolidated)

(A = 0.0 – 0.5) (A = -0.5 - 0.0)

During the increase of major principal stress pore water

pressure can become negative in heavily overconsolidated
clays due to dilation of specimen
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: Immediately after sampling ’V0 = ur
0
0 -ur ’h0 = ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure ’VC = C + ur - C = ur

C
No
-ur  Duc = -ur  c
drainage C ’h = ur
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load ’V = C + D + ur - c Du

C + D
No
drainage C ’h = C + ur - c
-ur  c ± Du  Du
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + Df + ur - c Duf = ’1f
C + Df
No
drainage C -ur  c ± Duf
’hf = C + ur - c  Duf
= ’3f
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + Df + ur - c Duf = ’1f
C + Df
No
drainage C -ur  c ± Duf
’hf = C + ur - c  Duf
= ’3f

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell

pressure.

Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures

’
’3 Df ’1
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + Df + ur - c Duf = ’1f
C + Df
No
drainage C -ur  c ± Duf
’hf = C + ur - c  Duf
= ’3f

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0
t

cu
ub ua

’
3a
3b3 Df 
’1a
1b
1  or ’
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

t S < 100% S > 100%

3c 3b 1c 3a 1b 1a  or ’

Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

t t = in situ undrained
shear strength
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay

t
Core

t = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

t = In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus, cu can be used to analyze the short term
behavior of soils