7.4.3.

1 Nitrification
No consensus has been reached with regard to how much oxygen can be furnished to
the root zone in SSF wetlands or regarding the oxygen transfer efficiency of various
plant species. It is generally agreed that these emergent plants transmit enough
oxygen to their roots to stay alive under normal stress levels, but disagreement arises
(as discussed in Chapter 6) over how much oxygen is available at the root surfaces to
support biological activity. The oxygen demand from the wastewater BOD and other
naturally present organics may utilize most of this available oxygen, but based on the
ammonia removals observed at Santee (Table 7.5) there must still be significant
oxygen in the root zone to support nitrification. If the ammonia removals observed at
Santee are assumed to be due to biological nitrification, it is possible to calculate the
amount of oxygen that should have been available for that purpose, as it requires
about 5 g of oxygen to nitrify 1 g of ammonia. The results of these calculations are
shown in Table 7.6.
The oxygen available for nitrification per unit of wetland surface area ranged from 2.1
to 5.7 g/m2·d because the depth of root penetration varied with each plant species.
These oxygen values are in the published range (4 to 5 g O 2 per m2·d); however, the
available oxygen, when expressed in terms of the actual root zone of the various
plants, is about the same, regardless of the species (average 7.5 g O 2 per m3·d). This
suggests that, at least for these three species, the oxygen available for nitrification will
be about the same so the rate of nitrification is therefore dependent on the depth of
the root zone present in the SSF bed. Equation 7.16 defines this relationship:
KNH = 0.01854 + 0.3922(rz)2.6077 (7.16)
where KNH is the nitrification rate constant at 20°C (d –1) and rz is the fraction of SSF bed
depth occupied by the root zone (decimal).
The KNH value would be 0.4107 with a fully developed root zone and 0.01854 if there
were no vegetation on the bed. These values are consistent with performance results
observed at several SSF sites evaluated in the United States (Reed, 1993). Independent
confirmation of this rate constant is provided by the design model published by Bavor
et al. (1986). Bavor’s model takes the same form as Equation 7.17 with a rate constant
at 20°C of 0.107 d–1 in a gravel bed system where the plant root zone occupied
between 50 and 60% of the bed depth.
Having defined the basic rate constant KNH, it is possible to determine the ammonia
removal, via nitrification, in a SSF wetland with Equation 7.17 and Equation 7.18:
Ce/C0 = exp(–KTt) (7.17)
As = Q(lnC0 – lnCe)/KT(y)(n) (7.18)
where
Ce = Effluent ammonia concentration (mg/L).
C0 = Influent ammonia concentration (mg/L).
KT = Temperature-dependent rate constant (d–1).
t = Hydraulic residence time (d).
As = Surface area of wetland (ac; m2).
Q = Average flow through the wetland (ac-ft/d; m3/d).
y = Depth of water in the wetland (ft; m).
n = Porosity of the wetland (see Table 7.1).
The temperature dependence of the rate constant KT is given by:
At 0°C: k0 = 0 d–1 (7.19)
At 1°C: KT = KNH(0.4103) d–1 (7.20)
At 1°C+: KT = KNH(1.048)(T–20) d–1 (7.21)
For temperatures below 10°C, it is necessary to solve Equation 7.16 to determine the
KNH value. Interpolation can be used for temperatures between 0 and 1°C.
It is unacceptable to assume that the root zone will automatically occupy the entire bed
volume, except for relatively shallow (1 ft or 0.3 m) systems using small-sized gravel
(20 mm). Deep beds (2 ft or 0.6 m) require the special measures discussed previously
to induce and maintain full root penetration. If these special measures are not utilized
it would be conservative to assume that the root zone occupies not more than 50% of
the bed depth unless measurements show otherwise. It is also unlikely, based on
observations at numerous operational systems, that the plant roots will penetrate
deeply in the large void spaces occurring when large-size rock (>2 in. or >50 mm) is
selected as the bed media.
Equation 7.19 will typically require an HRT of between 6 to 8 d to meet stringent
ammonia limits under summer conditions with a fully developed root zone and an even
longer period at low winter temperatures. A cost-effective alternative to a large SSF
wetland designed for ammonia removal may be the use of a nitrification filter bed
(NFB). In that case, the SSF wetland can be designed for BOD removal only, and the
relatively compact NFB can be used for ammonia removal. The combination of the SSF
wetland and the NFB bed should require less than one half of the total area that would
be necessary for a SSF wetland designed for ammonia removal. The NFB bed can also
be used to retrofit existing wetland systems. Design details for the NFB concept are
presented in a later section of this chapter.
7.4.3.2 Denitrification
Equation 7.16 to Equation 7.21 only account for conversion of ammonia to nitrate and
predict the area required for a given level of conversion. When actual removal of
nitrogen is a project requirement, it is necessary to consider the denitrification
requirements and size the wetland accordingly. In the general case, most of the nitrate
produced in a SSF wetland will be denitrified and removed within the area provided for
nitrification and without supplemental carbon sources. FWS wetlands can be more
effective for nitrate removal than the SSF type because of the greater availability of
carbon from the plant detritus, at least during the first few years of operation. Even
though the SSF wetland has more surface area for biological responses, it is likely that
the availability of carbon in the system limits the denitrification rate so that SSF and
FWS wetlands perform in a comparable manner. The recommended design model for
estimating nitrate removal via denitrification is provided by Equation 7.22 and Equation
7.23:
Ce/C0 = exp(–KTt) (7.22)
As = Qln(Ce/C0)/KTyn (7.23)
where
As = Surface area of wetland (ac; m2).
Ce = Effluent nitrate-nitrogen concentration (mg/L).
C0 = Influent nitrate-nitrogen concentration (mg/L).
KT = Temperature-dependent rate constant (d –1) = 0 d–1 at 0°C, and 1.00(1.15)(T–20) d–1 at
1°C+.
n = Porosity of the wetland (see Table 7.1 for typical values).
t = Hydraulic residence time (d).
y = Depth of water in the wetland (ft; m).
Q = Average flow through the wetland (ac-ft/d; m3/d).
The influent nitrate concentration (C0) used in Equation 7.22 or Equation 7.23 is the
amount of ammonia oxidized, as calculated in Equation 7.17. Because Equation 7.17
determines the ammonia remaining after nitrification in the SSF wetland, it can be
conservatively assumed that the difference (C0 – Ce) is available as nitrate nitrogen. The
rate of denitrification between 0°C and 1°C can be determined by interpolation. For
practical purposes, denitrification is insignificant at these temperatures. It must be
remembered that Equation 7.22 and Equation 7.23 are only applicable for nitrate
nitrogen that is present in the wetland system.
Because the SSF wetland is generally anoxic but also has aerobic sites on the surfaces
of the roots and rhizomes, it is possible to obtain both nitrification and denitrification in
the same reactor volume. Equation 7.23 gives the wetland surface area required for
denitrification. This denitrification area is not in addition to the area required for
nitrification as determined with Equation 7.18; it is usually less than or equal to the
results from Equation 7.18, depending on the input level of nitrate in the untreated
wastewater and the water temperature.