Sanju 9681634157

MAGNETOSTATICS
3. The Magnetostatic Field
(a) Biot-Savart's law. Force on a moving point charge due to a magnetic field: Lorentz force law.
Application of Biot-Savart's law to determine the magnetic field of a straight conductor, circular coil.
Force between two straight current carrying wires.
(b) Divergence of the magnetic field - its solenoidal nature. Magnetic vector potential. (c) Curl of
the magnetic field. Ampere's circuital law. Its application to (1) Infinite straight wire, (2) In planar
surface current, and (3) Solenoid.

4. Magnetic properties of matter.

(a) Potential and field due to a magnetic dipole. Magnetic dipole moment. Force and torque on a
magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field
(b) Magnetization. Bound currents. The magnetic intensity - H. Relation between B, H and M.
Linear media. Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability. Brief introduction of dia-, para- and ferro-
magnetic materials. B-H curve and hysteresis.

5. Electro-magnetic induction
(a) Ohms law and definition of E.M.F. Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, Lenz's law. Self-
Inductance and Mutual Inductance. Reciprocity Theorem. Introduction to Maxwell's Equations.
Charge conservation. Displacement current and resurrection of Equation of Continuity.
(b) Energy stored in magnetic field.

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THE MAGNETOSTATIC FIELD

Magnetic force: The force on charge moving with velocity 𝑣⃗ in a magnetic field ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ is,
𝐹⃗𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)……….(1)

If in addition there is an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ then total electromagnetic

force, on the charge will be, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗)………..(2)

This is called Lorentz force.

Magnetic force 𝐹⃗𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵

⃗⃗) does not exert any force on the charge at rest (𝑣⃗ = 0);
Magnetic force always normal to the velocity and hence does work on the charge.

Dimension and unit of 𝑩⃗⃗⃗:

⃗⃗has a dimension, as,
𝐵
[𝐹] 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑀𝑇 −2
= =
[𝑄] × [𝑣⃗] 𝐼𝑇 × 𝐿 𝐼
𝑇
⃗⃗ has unit of N.S/C.m or 𝑉.𝑆2
𝐵
𝑚
In S.I unit it is called Weber/𝑚2 or Tesla.
In C.G.S unit it is called gauss; [1𝑇 = 104 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠]

Magnetic force on current carrying conductor:- We consider an

element 𝑑𝑙⃗ of a current carrying conductor, having cross sectional
area A and number of charge carrier n. Thus number of carrier
inside 𝑑𝑙⃗ is 𝑛𝐴 𝑑𝑙. When the conductor carrying a current I, placed
under magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗ each carrier experiences a magnetic force
⃗⃗) is the drift velocity of the carriers. Thus total force on the
𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
element 𝑑𝑙⃗,

𝑑𝐹⃗ = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙. 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗)

= 𝑛⃗⃗𝐴𝑣𝑞. 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ [∵ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙]
= 𝐼 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗
∴ For a conductor of finite length, total force on it is given by,

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𝐹⃗ = 𝐼 ∮ 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
For a wire of finite length 𝑙,
𝐹⃗ = 𝐼 𝑙⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
For a circular wire under uniform field,
𝐹⃗ = 𝐼 ∮ 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0

Motion of a charged particle under magnetic field:- If a particle enters a magnetic field
⃗⃗(𝑧̂ ) with velocity 𝑣⃗, we resolve its velocity in 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑝 𝜌̂ in xy plane and 𝑣𝑧 𝑘 in 𝑧
𝐵
direction as shown in fig.

Since magnetic force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗𝜌 × 𝐵 ⃗⃗) always normal to 𝑣𝜌 it will describe a circular
path,
(𝑎𝑠 𝜌̂ × 𝑧̂ = 𝜃̂). The radius of the path will be such that centripetal force is balance by
magnetic force,
𝑚𝜌2 𝑞𝑣𝜌
= 𝑞𝑣𝜌 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 =
𝑟 𝑞𝐵
[note → momentum p= 𝑚𝑣𝜌 = 𝑞𝑟𝐵]
Time period of revolution,
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚
𝑇= =
𝑣𝜌 𝑞𝐵
Due to 𝑣𝑧 velocity, the particle moves parallel to 𝐵 ⃗⃗ with uniform speed.
Thus the particle moves in helix with 𝐵 ⃗⃗ as axis.

1. Prove that kinetic energy of a charge particle under the action of magnetic force
remain unchanged.

2 i) Describe the motion when a charged particle of charge q and mass m enters a
region of transverse magnetic field. Calculate the frequency of rotation and the time
period, frequency.
ii) Describe the motion when a charged particle of charge q and mass m enters a
region of transverse magnetic field making initial angle 𝜃. Calculate the screw-pitch
iii) Describe the motion when a charged particle of charge q and mass m enters a
region of transverse electric and magnetic field.

Current element: Current elements can be described as,

i) Volume current element 𝐽⃗ 𝑑𝑉; 𝐽⃗ is current per unit area ; called volume current
density.

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ii) Surface current element 𝐾 ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉; 𝐾

⃗⃗ is current per unit length ; called surface current
density.
iii)line current element 𝐼⃗ 𝑑𝑙; (= 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗); I is the current.

Q: (a)Consider I is the current through the wire of radius 𝑎; where current density is
proportional to distance from the axis. Calculate total current.

Q: (a) A disc carries a uniform density of "static electricity" (J. If it rotates at angular
velocity 𝜔, what is the surface current density K at a distance r from the center?
(b) A uniformly charged solid sphere, of radius R and total charge Q, is centred at
the origin and spinning at a constant angular velocity 𝜔 about the z axis. Find the
current density J at any point (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) within the sphere.

Equation of continuity of charge and KCL.

We consider V volume enclosed by surface S. Let 𝜌 is the charge density at elementary
volume 𝑑𝑉. Let 𝐽⃗ is the current density at elementary surface 𝑑𝑆; then the total charge
flowing out of the volume closed by surface S per second,
𝑑𝑄
∯ 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗ = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝜕𝜌
∭∇ ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = − ∭ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 = − ∭ 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Hence,
𝜕𝜌
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = −
∇
𝜕𝑡
This is continuity equation of charge.

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = 0
[If 𝜌 is the constant, then ∇
Integrating over total surface we have total current is zero. (KCL)]

Biot Savart’s law:- According to Biot-Savart law J magnetic field at any point
due to a current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ is given as,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = … … … (1)
4𝜋 𝑅3
Where 𝑅⃗⃗ is the vector from the current element to the point of observation; 𝜇0 is the
free space permeability.

➢ For surface current, Biot-Savart law takes the form,

𝜇 𝐾⃗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
𝐵⃗⃗ = 0 ⃗⃗ → 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑠 𝐾
4𝜋 𝑅3
➢ For volume current it can be stated as,

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𝜇0 𝑗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 𝑑𝑉 𝐽⃗ → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
4𝜋 𝑅3
[Note Idl is replaced by kds and JdV ]

➢ According to the principle of super position total field due to entire line, surface
or volume can be given as,
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 0 ∫
𝐵
4𝜋 𝑅3
𝜇0 𝐾 ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝐵= ∫
4𝜋 𝑅3
𝜇 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉 × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 0 ∫
𝐵
4𝜋 𝑅3

➢ In general the source point (where the current exists) is defined by (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ); field
point (where the observations taken) is defined as (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧); w.r.t origin (0,0,0)
Application of Biot- Savart law:-

1) Long straight current carrying wires:- We consider long straight current carrying
⃗⃗ at a distance
wire with current I as shown in fig. We want to calculate magnetic field 𝐵
“a” from it.
Total magnetic field at P due to the wire,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝐵= ∫ 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔.
4𝜋 𝑅3
Here |𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗| = 𝑟𝑑𝑙 sin ∅ = 𝑅𝑑𝑙 sin(90° + 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 = atan 𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃, 𝑅 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃
∴ |𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗| = 𝑎 sec 𝜃. 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃. cos 𝜃
= 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜃2
∴ |𝐵 ⃗⃗| = ∫ cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝑎 −𝜃1
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜃
= [sin 𝜃] 2
4𝜋𝑎 −𝜃1
𝜇0 𝐼
= [sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 ]
4𝜋𝑎
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⃗⃗ or magnetic line force points towards the plane of paper.

𝐵
𝜋
For infinitely long wire 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = ;
2
𝜇0 𝐼
∴𝐵=
4𝜋𝑎
Q: What will be the magnetic field ,
a) At the centre of a square of side 𝒂,
b) At a height z from the centre of the square.
c) At the centre of a hexagon of side 𝒂;
d) At the centre of a polygon (n -side) of side 𝒂;
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
e)With the approximation 𝒏 → ∞; show that solution of (d) reduces to 𝟐𝒂

Circular loop:- We now consider a circular loop of radius a carrying a current 𝐼. We

want to calculate the magnetic field at an axial point, 𝑧 distance away from the centre
to the loop.

Magnetic field at a point P due to an element 𝑑𝑙⃗ according to Biot-Savart law,

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = … … … (1)
4𝜋 𝑅3
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑑𝑙⃗ and 𝑅⃗⃗.
The field 𝑑𝐵
When equation (1) is integrated over the coil, the vector 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗ describes a cone with OP
as axis. Hence the component normal to the axis cancels out leaving a resultant
magnetic field along the axis,

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑅 sin 90°
⃗⃗ = 𝑧̂
𝐵 ∮ sin 𝜃
4𝜋 𝑖̇̂ 𝑅3
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑅 sin 𝜃
= 𝑧̂ . 2𝜋𝑎
4𝜋 𝑅3
𝜇0 𝐼 sin 𝜃
= 𝑧̂ 𝑎
2 𝑅2
𝑎 𝑎
𝑁𝑜𝑤, sin 𝜃 = =
𝑅 √𝑧 2 + 𝑎2
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎2
∴𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝑍̂
2 (𝑎2 + 𝑧 2 )3⁄2
If here is n number of turns,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑛 𝑎2
⃗⃗ = 𝑧̂
𝐵
2 (𝑎2 + 𝑧 2 )3⁄2
At the centre of the loop, (Z= 0)
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𝜇0 𝐼𝑛
⃗⃗ = 𝑧̂
𝐵
2
4. i)In the cases what will be the magnetic field at the point P ?
a) b)

c) d)

ii) A charge particle of charge +q, is rotating in a circular orbit of radius 𝑎, liner
velocity 𝑣.Calculate magnetic field produce at the centre.

Solenoid:- We consider a solenoid of length 𝑙, radius 𝑎, having 𝑛 number of turns

per unit length and carrying a current 𝐼.
Let an element of length 𝑑𝑥, having 𝑛𝑑𝑥 number of turns is taken at a distance
from an axial point P. Magnetic field at P due to this element,

𝜇0 (𝑛𝑑𝑥)𝐼𝑎2
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 𝑥̂
3
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ) ⁄2
Here 𝑥 = 𝑎 cot 𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑎2
𝑑𝐵⃗⃗ = −
2 2 3⁄ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥̂
2(𝑎 + 𝑥 ) 2

𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑎2 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
=− 𝑑𝜃 𝑥̂
2 ∙ 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
=− sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑥̂
2
If the end points corresponds to 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 ,

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𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝜃2
∴𝐵 ⃗⃗ = − ∫ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑥̂
2𝑎 𝜃1
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝜃
=− [cos 𝜃] 2 𝑥̂
2 𝜃1
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
=− [cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ] 𝑥̂
2
For long solenoid 𝜃1 = 𝜋, 𝜃2 = 0,
𝜇 𝑛𝐼
⃗⃗ = − 0 [cos 0 − cos 𝜋] 𝑥̂
𝐵
2
= 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝑥̂

Helmholtz coil:- Helmholtz coil consists of two identical coaxial coils, kept parallel to
each other separated by a distance equal to their radius. Same current flows through
them in series and the coils are wound on the same direction, so that magnetic fields
half way between the coils add up.

For the configuration, as shown in the figure, magnetic field at the axial point P will be,

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 1 1
𝐵= [ 3⁄ + 3⁄ ]
2 2 2
(𝑧 + 𝑎 ) 2 2 2
[(2𝑑 − 𝑧) + 𝑎 ] 2
𝑑𝐵 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 3 2𝑧 3 (2𝑑 − 𝑧)
= [− ∙ + ]
𝑑𝑧 2 2 (𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 )5⁄2 2 [(2𝑑 − 𝑧)2 + 𝑎2 ]5⁄2
𝑑𝐵
∴ = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑑𝑧
The 2nd derivative,
𝑑2𝐵 3 2
𝑑 𝑧 (2𝑑 − 𝑧)
= − 𝜇 𝑁𝐼𝑎 [ + ]
𝑑𝑍 2 2 0 𝑑𝑍 (𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 )5⁄2 [(2𝑑 − 𝑧)2 + 𝑎2 ]5⁄2

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3 2
1 5 2𝑍 2 1 5
= − 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎 [ 5 − ∙ 7 + 3 −
2 (𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2 2 (𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2 [(2𝑑 − 𝑧)2 + 𝑎2 ] ⁄2 2
2(2𝑑 − 𝑧)2
∙ 7 ]
[(2𝑑 − 𝑧)2 + 𝑎2 ] ⁄2

𝑑2𝐵 3 2
2 10𝑑 2
𝐴𝑡 𝑍 = 𝑑, | = − 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎 [ 5 − 7 ]
𝑑𝑍 2 𝑍 = 𝑑 2 (𝑑2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2 (𝑑2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
2
𝑑 2 + 𝑎2 − 5𝑑 2
= −3𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎 [ 7 ]
(𝑑2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
3𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 (𝑎2 − 4𝑑 2 )
= 7⁄
(𝑑 2 + 𝑎2 ) 2
𝑑2𝐵
| = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 2
𝑑𝑍 2 𝑍 = 𝑑

It shows that magnetic field is uniform half way between the coil when they are
separated by a distance equal to their radius.

⃗⃗
Divergence and curl of 𝐵
The divergence of magnetic field:- According Biot-Savart’s law, magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗ at
′ ′ ′
any point 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) due to a volume distribution of current 𝑗⃗ (𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) is,

𝜇0 𝑗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑉 𝑅3

Here integration is taken w.r.t. source point co-ordinates (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ); we take

divergence w.r.t. field point co-ordinate,
𝜇 𝑗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
∇ ⃗⃗ = 0 ∇
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ ∫ 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅 3
𝑣
𝜇0 𝑗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
= ∫ ∇ ⃗⃗ ∙ ( 𝑑𝑉)
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅3

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𝜇0 𝑅⃗⃗ 𝑅⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
∫ [ ∙ (∇ × 𝐽) − 𝐽 ∙ (∇ × 3 )] 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅3 𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐽⃗ = 𝐽⃗(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ );
∇⃗⃗ × 𝐽⃗ = 0
𝑅⃗⃗ 1 1
⃗⃗ × ( ) =
∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗) + ∇
(∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑅3
3 𝑅⃗⃗
= 0 − 3 × 𝑅⃗⃗ = 0
𝑅 𝑅
𝜌
It is known as Gauss’s law in magnetostatics. [Compare 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜖0
since there is no
magnetic mono polo 𝜌𝑚 magnetic polo density is zero]

The curl of magnetic field: According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field 𝐵⃗⃗ at any
point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) due to volume distribution of current 𝐽⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is given as,

𝜇0 𝑗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑉 𝑅3
Here 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥′𝑑𝑦′𝑑𝑧′ i.e. integration is taken over the whole volume of the source,
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗ ′ = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑖̇̂ + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ )𝑗̇̂ + (𝑧 − 𝑧′)𝑘̂
𝜇 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 0 ∫ 𝑗⃗ ×
𝐵 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅3
𝜇0 1
= ⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉
∫ 𝑗⃗ × (−∇
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅
𝜇0 1
=− ⃗⃗ ( ) 𝑑𝑉
∫ 𝑗⃗ × ∇
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅
𝐽⃗ 1 1 1
⃗⃗ × ( ) = ∇
𝑁𝑜𝑤 ∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝐽⃗ + ∇
⃗⃗ ( ) × 𝐽⃗ = −𝐽⃗ × ∇
⃗⃗ ( )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝜇0 𝐽⃗
⃗⃗ =
∴ 𝐵 ⃗⃗
∫ ∇ × 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐽⃗ 𝜇0 𝐽⃗
= ⃗⃗ × ∫
∇ 𝑑𝑉 = ∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗; 𝐴⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅
Taking curl on both sides,
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
∇ ⃗⃗ = ∇
⃗⃗ × (∇⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)

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 Sanju 9681634157

𝜇0 𝜇
= ⃗⃗( ⃗∇⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗) − 0 ∇2 𝐴⃗
∇
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝜇0 1 𝜇 1
= ⃗⃗ ∫ 𝐽⃗ ∙ ∇
∇ ⃗⃗ ( ) 𝑑𝑉 − 0 ∫ 𝐽⃗ ∇2 ( ) 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅

1 1
⃗⃗ ( ) = −∇
𝑁𝑜𝑤, ∇ ⃗⃗′ ( )
𝑅 𝑅
1
∇2 ( ) = −4𝜋𝛿(𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗ ′ )
𝑅

𝜇0 1 𝜇0
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
∇ ⃗⃗ = − ∇⃗⃗ ∫ 𝐽⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇′ ( ) 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝐽⃗ 4𝜋𝛿 (𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗ ′ )𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋
𝜇0 𝐽⃗ ∇ ⃗⃗′ ∙ 𝐽⃗
=− ∇⃗⃗ ∫ [∇⃗⃗′ ∙ − ] 𝑑𝑉 + 𝜇0 𝐽⃗(𝑟⃗)
4𝜋 𝑅 𝑅
𝜇0 1
= 𝜇0 𝐽⃗(𝑟⃗) − ⃗⃗ ∫ ∇
∇ ⃗⃗′ ∙ 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅
⃗⃗′ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = 0
As for steady current ∇
Applying divergence theorem,
𝜇 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
∇ ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗(𝑟⃗) − 0 ∇ ⃗⃗ ∫
4𝜋 𝑠 𝑅

the surface is chosen large enough,𝑅 → ∞ on the boundary, the current is zero, as all
current is inside region, contribution from 2nd term is zero.
∴∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗

Ampere’s circuital law:- It states that in S.I unit, the line integration of the magnetic
⃗⃗ ) around a closed path is the total current enclosed by the path,
induction (𝐵
multiplied by the free space permeability.
In mathematical form,
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐵
𝑐
Here the close path taken in (+)ve sense.

Differential form:- Ampere’s circuital law states,

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 … … … … … . . (1)
∮ 𝐵
𝑐

Consider volume distribution of current,

𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∫ 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ 𝑠
11
 Sanju 9681634157

Applying stokes theorem,

∫ ∇⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝜇0 ∫ 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
∇ ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗

Application of Ampere’s Circuital law:- Lets us consider an infinitely long straight

wire carrying a current 𝐼. We have to calculate magnetic field at any point, at “r”
distance from the wire.
We draw a circle of radius r, passing through P, with centre on the axis of the wire.
By symmetry, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is uniform on the circle directed tangentially.
∴ From Amperes circuital law,
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮𝐵

𝑜𝑟, ∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝜇0 𝐼
∴𝐵 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝐼
In case of a thick wire, (long cylinder having radius R) with current density 𝐽 = 2
𝜋𝑅
let P be any interior point,
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮𝐵
𝐼
= 𝜇0 ∙ 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑅2
𝐼
𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 2 ∙ 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼𝑟
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑅2

Long solenoid:- Let us consider a long solenoid containing n turns per unit length,
radius a carrying steady current I. Magnetic field presents only inside the solenoid
and directed along the axis.

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 Sanju 9681634157

Outside the cylinder:- We consider an Amperian loop abcd outside the cylinder, as
shown in fig.

From Ampere’s circuital law,

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑑 𝑑𝑎
𝑜𝑟 𝐵(𝑟2 ) − 𝐵(𝑟1 ) = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝐵⃗⃗ 𝑖𝑠 ⊥ 𝑙𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑐
𝑜𝑟 𝐵(𝑟2 ) = 𝐵(𝑟1 )
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵 → 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 → ∞ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝐵(𝑟2 ) = 𝐵(𝑟1 ) = 0
i.e. the field is zero every where outside the cylinder.

Inside the cylinder:- We consider another Amperian loop PQRS half inside and half
outside of the cylinder; with 𝑄𝑅1 𝑆𝑃 ⊥ 𝑙𝑟 𝑡𝑜 the axis.
∴ From Ampere’s circuital law,
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑙
∮𝐵

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
𝑜𝑟, ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑙
𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑅𝑆 𝑆𝑃

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑙; ∮ 𝐵
𝑁𝑜𝑤, ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0 [∴ 𝐵 = 0, 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒]
𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑄 𝑅𝑆

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵
∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑄𝑅, 𝑆𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝑄𝑅 𝑆𝑃
∴ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑙
∴ 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼

A toroid:- A long wire wound around a circular ring from a toroid. The magnetic
lines of force also circle, lie entirely inside the toroid.

We consider on Amperian loop, with radius R through the toroid. Magnetic field
hence will be uniform and directed along the tangent to the loop, at every point.
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 Sanju 9681634157

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼; N is the total number of terms and 𝐼 is the current through the
Thus ∮ 𝐵
wire.
Hence consider,
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
2𝜋𝑅

𝑁
The uniform wounding 𝑛 = is number of turns per unit length.
2𝜋𝑅
For the loop 2, chosen outside the toroid, the total endorsed current is 𝑁𝐼 − 𝑁𝐼 = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 0
Clearly ∮ 𝐵

Infinite sheet of current:- We consider an infinite plane 𝑧 = 0 having uniform surface

current density 𝐾 ⃗⃗ 𝑖̇̂, flowing as shown in fig.
⃗⃗ = 𝐾

Dividing the current sheet into pairs of current filaments at +𝑦 and −𝑦 we find
⃗⃗ will be directed along – 𝑦 for 𝑧 > 0 and along y for 𝑧 < 0.
that magnetic field 𝐵
We now consider a rectangular Amperean loop PQRS and applying amperes law,
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐾𝑙
∮𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝐵(−𝑦̂) ∙ 𝑑𝑙(−𝑦̂) = ∮ 𝐵
𝑜𝑟, ∮𝑃𝑄 𝐵(𝑦̂) ∙ 𝑑𝑙(𝑦̂) = ∮𝑄𝑅 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐾𝑙
𝑅𝑆 𝑆𝑃
𝑜𝑟, 2 𝐵𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐾𝑙
𝜇0 𝐾
∴𝐵=
2
𝜇0 𝐾
∴𝐵 ⃗⃗ = − (𝑦̂) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 0
2
𝜇0 𝐾
= (𝑦̂) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 0
2

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵
Magnetic vector potential: We know that, ∇ ⃗⃗ = 0 As the divergence of the curl of
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇
any vector is always zero i.e. (∇ ⃗⃗ × ∇
⃗⃗) = 0,
Hence 𝐵⃗⃗ can be written as 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ∇⃗⃗ × A⃗⃗; A
⃗⃗ is called magnetic vector potential.
⃗⃗ : From Biot-Savart’s law,
Expression for 𝐀
𝜇0 𝑗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅3
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 Sanju 9681634157

1 ⃗⃗
−𝑅 ⃗
⃗⃗ =
Since ∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝐽 = ∇
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ ⃗⃗ ( 1 ) × 𝐽⃗ + 1 ∇
⃗⃗ × 𝐽⃗
𝑅 𝑅3 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1
=∇ ⃗⃗ ( ) × 𝐽⃗
𝑅
∴ 𝐽⃗ = 𝐽⃗(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ )𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝜇 1
∴𝐵 ⃗⃗ = − 0 ∫ 𝑗⃗ × ∇ ⃗⃗ ( ) 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 1
= ∫ ⃗⃗ ( ) × 𝑗⃗𝑑𝑉
∇
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐽⃗
= ⃗⃗
∫ ∇ × 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
=∇⃗⃗ × 0 ∫
4𝜋 𝑅
⃗⃗ is taken w.r.t. filed point co-ordinate and integration is taken on source point
[Since ∇
co-ordinate]
⃗⃗ = ∇
Since 𝐵 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × A
𝜇0 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
∴ 𝐴⃗ = ∫ [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡]
4𝜋 𝑅
Similarly,
𝜇0 ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝐾
∴ 𝐴⃗ = ∫ [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡]
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗
∴ 𝐴⃗ = ∫ [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡]
4𝜋 𝑅

Derivation of Biot - Savart law from magnetic vector potential:- Magnetic vector
potential 𝐴(𝑟⃗) at a point (x,y,z) due to a volume distribution of current
𝐽⃗(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) is given as,
𝜇0 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
𝐴⃗ = ∫
4𝜋 𝑅
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗′
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥′𝑑𝑦′𝑑𝑧′
𝜇 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
∴𝐵=∇ ⃗⃗ × ⃗A⃗ = 0 ∇ ⃗⃗ × ∫
4𝜋 𝑅
Since ∇ ⃗⃗ is with rest to field point co-ordinate, while integration is w.r.t. source point
co-ordinates

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 Sanju 9681634157

𝜇0 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
𝐵= ⃗⃗
∫ ∇×
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 1 1
= ∫ [∇⃗⃗ ( ) × 𝐽⃗ + ∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝐽⃗] 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅 𝑅
𝜇0 𝑅⃗⃗
= ∫ [(− 3 × 𝐽⃗) + 0] 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐽⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
= ∫ 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅3

The volume element 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉 contributes,

𝜇0 𝐽⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅
Similarly for line distribution,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑅3
It is called Biot-Savart’s Law.

Derivation of Ampere’s circuital law: We consider magnetic vector potential 𝐴⃗(𝑟) at a

point (x,y,z) due to a volume distribution of current 𝐽⃗(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) is given as,
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = ∇
⃗⃗ × (∇
Taking ∇ ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗) − ∇2 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗(∇
From concept of Coulomb Gauge ∇ ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ = 0
∴ ∇⃗⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = −∇2 𝐴⃗
𝜇0 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐴⃗(𝑟̂ ) = ∫ ;
4𝜋 𝑅
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗0 ; 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥′𝑑𝑦′𝑑𝑧′
∇2 𝐴⃗ = −𝜇0 𝐽⃗
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗
Which is differential form of Amperes circuital law. Using stokes theorem under
proper condition, we can have,
∫ 𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∫ 𝜇0 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮𝐵
Calculation of A in few cases:-

16
 Sanju 9681634157

A straight current carrying conductor:- We consider a long straight wire AB carrying

current 𝐼 . Magnetic vector potential at a point P, r distance, from the wire to be
calculated. We consider 𝑑𝑙 element, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑧 at a distance z from, 0, foot of the normal
from P.
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴⃗ = ∫
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑙2 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑧̂ ∫
4𝜋 −𝑙1 √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑙
= 𝑧̂ ln [𝑧 + √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 ] 2
4𝜋 −𝑙1

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑙2 + √ 𝑟 2 + 𝑙2 2
= 𝑧̂ ln
4𝜋
−𝑙1 + √𝑟 2 + 𝑙1 2
If we consider the wire has a length 2L and P is taken on the midpoint,
𝜇0 𝐼 𝐿 + √𝑟 2 + 𝐿2
𝐴⃗ = 𝑧̂ ln [ ]
4𝜋 −𝐿 + √𝑟 2 + 𝐿2
If 𝑟 ≪ 𝐿 then we can simplify by the expressions as,
1
2 2
𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼 1 + (1 + 2 )
𝐿
𝐴⃗ = 𝑧̂ ln 1
4𝜋 2
𝑟 2
−1 + (1 + 2 )
[ 𝐿 ]
2
𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼 2+ 2
≈ 𝑧̂ ln [ 2𝐿 ]
4𝜋 𝑟 2

2𝐿2
𝜇0 𝐼 4𝐿2
= 𝑧̂ ln [1 + 2 ]
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼 4𝐿2
≈ 𝑧̂ ln [ 2 ]
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼 2𝐿
= 𝑧̂ ln ( )
4𝜋 𝑟
Note:
1. Magnetic field B under this approximation,
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑧̂
1 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜇0 𝐼
⃗⃗ = ∇
𝐵 ⃗⃗ = | 𝜕
⃗⃗ × A 𝜕 𝜕
| = −θ̂ = 𝜃̂
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
0 0 𝐴𝑧
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 Sanju 9681634157

2. Let we have two long parallel wires each of length 2L carrying same current 𝐼 in
opposite direction S.

𝜇0 𝐼 2𝐿 𝜇0 𝐼 2𝐿
∴ 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 𝑧̂ ln ( ) − 𝑧̂ ln ( )
4𝜋 𝑟1 4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑟2
= 𝑧̂ ln ( )
4𝜋 𝑟1

Infinite sheet of current: For infinite bcurrent sheet, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ can be calculated as,
𝜇 𝐾
𝐵⃗⃗ = ± 𝑜 𝐽̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 0
2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 0
K being surface current density
As the current is along x axis, 𝐴⃗ will be also along x axis
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑧̂
1 𝜇𝑜 𝐾
⃗⃗ = ∇
𝐵 ⃗⃗ × ⃗A⃗ = | 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
|=± 𝐽̂
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
𝐴 0 0
𝜕𝐴 𝜇𝑜 𝐾
∴ =± 𝐽̂
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜇𝑜 𝐾
∴𝐴=± 𝑧 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2

Long solenoid: - We consider a long solenoid having n turns per unit length, radius 𝑎,
carrying current 𝐼.
∴𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑧̂ ; 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑧 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Inside the solenoid,(𝑟 < 𝑎)

∮ 𝐴𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ ∇
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∫ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 ∙ 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
𝐴= 𝑟𝜃̂
2
Outside the solenoid,(𝑟 < 𝑎)
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 ∙ 𝜋𝑎2
∫𝐵
𝐴 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 ∙ 𝜋𝑎2
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 Sanju 9681634157

𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑎2
𝐴⃗ = 𝜃̂
2𝑟

6. a) Calculate 𝐴⃗ at a large distance from a small current carrying loop. Hence prove
that
𝜇0 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗
𝐴⃗ =
4𝜋𝑟 3
b) Hence find the expression for 𝐵 ⃗⃗ 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ .

Magnetic vector potential as shown in the diagram can be determined as,

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴⃗ = ∮
4𝜋 𝑅

Now,
1
−
′ 2 ′ 2 𝑛
1 1 1 𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑟′
= (𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 − 2𝑟 ∙ 𝑟 ′ )− 2 = [1 + ( ) − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = ∑ ( ) 𝑃𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑛
Hence,
𝑛
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑟′
𝐴⃗ = ∮ = ∮ ∑ ( ) 𝑃𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝑙⃗
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝑛
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0;

The monopole contribution

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐴⃗0 = ∮ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
4𝜋𝑟
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2;
The dipole contribution;

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 Sanju 9681634157

𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐴⃗0 = 2
∮ 𝑟 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 2
∮(𝑟⃗ ′ ∙ 𝑟̂ ) 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 2
∬ 𝑑𝑆⃗ × ∇(𝑟⃗ ′ ∙ 𝑟̂ )
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
𝑆

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∬ 𝑑𝑆⃗ × ∇
𝐴𝑠 ∮ 𝜓𝐷 ⃗⃗𝜓; ∇
⃗⃗(𝑟⃗ ′ ∙ 𝑟̂ ) = 𝑟̂ , ⃗⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
∇

𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝜇0
𝐴⃗1 = 2
∬ 𝑑𝑆⃗ × 𝑟̂ = 2
∬ 𝐼𝑑𝑆⃗ × 𝑟̂ = 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑆 𝑆

⃗⃗⃗ = ∬𝑆 𝐼𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝐼𝑠 is the magnetic dipole moment.

Here 𝑚

Calculation of magnetic field:

Putting the magnetic dipole pointed towards z-axis,
We can have,

𝜇0
𝐴⃗1 = 𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂
4𝜋𝑟 2
Hence taking curl;
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗⃗ = | |
𝐵
𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 |𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙 |
𝜇0
0 0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ( 𝑚 sin 𝜃 )
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂
𝜇0 𝑚 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
| |
= 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
4𝜋𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 | |
1
0 0 sin2 𝜃
𝑟
𝜇0 𝑚
= (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟̂ + sin 𝜃 𝜃̂)
4𝜋𝑟 3

Note: Alternately;
𝜇0
Taking curl to𝐴⃗1 = 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ ,
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜇 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗
𝐵 ⃗⃗ × ( 0
⃗⃗ = ∇ )
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 (𝑚⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
= ⃗⃗ ×
∇
4𝜋 𝑟3
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 Sanju 9681634157

𝜇0 1 1
= ⃗⃗ ( ) × (𝑚
[∇ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟
⃗) + ⃗⃗ × (𝑚
∇ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)]
4𝜋 𝑟3 𝑟3
𝜇0 −3 1
= [( 5 ) 𝑟⃗ × (𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗) + 3 ∇ ⃗⃗ × (𝑚⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝜇0 −3 2𝑚⃗⃗⃗
= [( 5 ) (𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 2 − 𝑟⃗(𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)) + 3 ]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝜇0 3(𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)
= [ −𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ ]
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝑟2

5. Consider a square loop of side 𝑎, having current I placed in uniform magnetic field
B . Find the force and torque acting on it.(Note : magnetic moment = current X area)
b) Calculate magnetic field,(𝐵⃗⃗); moment (𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗) due to
i) rotating circular plate with uniform charge density 𝜎.
ii) rotating spherical shell with uniform charge density 𝜎.
iii) rotating sphere with uniform charge density 𝜌.

Magnetic Scalar Potential:- In absence of the current density Amperes law

for steady current reads,
⃗⃗ × B
∇ ⃗⃗ = 0
Hence we define B ⃗⃗ = −𝜇0 ∇
⃗⃗∅
∅ the scalar is called magnetic scalar potential.
Note :
⃗⃗ ∙ B
∇ ⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇
∇ ⃗⃗∅ = 0
𝑜𝑟, ∇2 ∅ = 0
i.e. ∅ satisfies Laplace equation.
Expression for Scalar potential: - Using the expression
𝜇 3(𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)
⃗⃗ = 0 [
𝐵 −𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ ]
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝑟2
We can have
𝜇 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗
⃗⃗ = − 0 ∇
𝐵 ⃗⃗
4𝜋 𝑟 3
Hence ;
𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗
∅=
4𝜋𝑟 3
21
 Sanju 9681634157

Note: It can be compared with the expression with the potential due to an electric
dipole (𝑝⃗);
𝐼 𝑝⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗
∅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Let us now find the magnetic scalar potential due to a large current loop c of
arbitrary shape. The large current loop may be imagined to be divided into many
small loops around each of which there flows the same current I. Due to the
cancellation of currents in the common branch of adjacent loops the net effect
would be the same as that due to the current flow in the original loop C.

Now for any loop the magnetic potential at P is determined from

𝑑𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗ 𝐼 𝑑𝑎⃗′ ∙ 𝑟⃗ 𝐼
𝑑∅ = = = 𝑑Ω
4𝜋𝑟 3 4𝜋 𝑟 3 4𝜋

𝐼
=
𝑑Ω
4𝜋
𝑑Ω represent the elementary or change in solid angle subtended by the loop due to
the displacement.
𝐼 𝐼Ω
𝜙= ∫ 𝑑Ω =
4𝜋 4𝜋

Here Ω is the solid angle subtended at P by a surface with periphery C.

Hence total potential,

𝐼 𝑑𝑎⃗′ ∙ 𝑟⃗ 𝐼 ′
𝑟⃗ 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗
∅= ∫ = (∫ 𝑑𝑎
⃗ ) ∙ =
4𝜋 𝑟3 4𝜋 𝑟 3 4𝜋𝑟 3

Here magnetic moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼 ∫ 𝑑𝑎⃗′ = 𝐼𝑠⃗;

S being the area closed by the simple curve C.

Note:The unit of scalar potential is Ampere ;The value

of the scalar potential at a point due to a current
carrying loop depends on (i) current through it, (ii)
the boundary of the loop, but not on the shape of the
loop, and (iii) relative distance of the loop from the field point, i.e., the magnetic

22
 Sanju 9681634157

scalar potential is independent of the origin of the coordinate system (the vector
potential does not have this property).

i.Calculate magnetic scalar potential at a point on the axis of a circular loop. Hence
calculate 𝐵⃗⃗.
ii.Calculate magnetic scalar potential due to a long straight wire.

Magnetic shell:- A thin sheet of magnetic material, which is magnetized everywhere at

right angles to its surface is called a magnetic shell.

The strength of magnetic shell is defines as its magnetic moment per unit facialarea. If
M be the magnetization of a shell of thickness 𝑡 then strength of the shell,
𝜏 = 𝑀𝑡

Ampere’s Equivalent theorem:- A current carrying loop produces the same magnetic
field as it produced by a magnetic shell whose boundary coincides with the
boundary of the loop and whose strength is equal to the current flowing in the loop.

It can be shown very easily.

From definition, magnetic strength,
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜏= = = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
i.e. 𝜏 =

-: Magnetic field in Magnetic material:-

1. Consider an electron circulating in a circulating orbit. Find the ratio of angular
momentum to magnetic moment (called gyromagnetic ratio). Using Bohr
condition of quantized angular moment prove that magnetic moment is also
𝑒ℏ 𝑒ℏ
quantized in the unit of Bohr magneton (2𝑚) (𝜇𝐵 = 2𝑚 = 9.27 ×
10−24 𝑎𝑚𝑝. 𝑚2 )

23
 Sanju 9681634157

Magnetization: - When an electron circulates in a tiny orbit of atomic dimension, the

corresponding current produces a magnetic dipole moment.

⃗⃗⃗ at a point is
𝑚𝑖 be the magnetic dipole moment of 𝑖 𝑡ℎ atom, the magnetization 𝑀
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
defined as the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖
𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ = let ∑
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑀
∆𝑉→0 ∆𝑉
𝑚𝑖 s are randomly oriented making ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
When the material is unmagnetized, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑚𝑖 = 0. At
⃗⃗⃗ exists.
the presence of external magnetic field the randomness is perturbed and 𝑀

Bound current: - For uniform magnetisation the atomic current in various loops tends
to cancel each other and there is no effective current inside the matter.

For non-uniform magnetic field or for non-uniform magnetisation the cancellation is

not complete and the resultant current is called bound current corresponding current
density is called bound current density.(𝐽⃗𝑚 )

Unlikely conduction current, it neither transport charge nor produce joule heating. It
is current in the sense that it can produce magnetic field.

24
 Sanju 9681634157

Relationship between ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑱⃗𝒎 :- We consider two small volume elements within
magnetized material, each having

volume ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, ∆𝑧.

Let two elements are adjacent to each other along 𝑦

axis.

We consider 𝑀𝑥 (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑥 (2) be 𝑥 components of

magnetisation in the 1st and 2nd elements.

∴ 𝑥 − component of magnetic moment in the

volume elements are,

𝑀𝑥 (1) ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 & 𝑀𝑥 (2)∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧

If corresponding circulating elements be, 𝐼1 , 𝐼2

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑥 (1)∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 = 𝐼1 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 … … … … (1)

𝑀𝑥 (2)∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 = 𝐼2 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 … … … … (2)

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑀𝑥 (1) = 𝑀𝑥 … … … … . (3)

𝜕𝑀𝑥
& 𝑀𝑥 (2) = 𝑀𝑥 + ∆𝑦 … … … … . . (4)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑀𝑥
is gradient of 𝑀𝑥 along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝜕𝑦

Subtracting (2) from (1)

[𝑀𝑥 (1) − 𝑀𝑥 (2)]∆𝑥 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )

Using (3) and (4)

𝜕𝑀𝑥
− ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 = 𝐼𝑧1 … … … … (5)
𝜕𝑦

𝐼𝑧1 denotes net upward current (along z axis) in the middle region of the two
elements.

Next if we consider two adjacent volume elements along x- direction, then it can be
shown

25
 Sanju 9681634157

𝜕𝑀𝑥
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 = 𝐼𝑧2 … … … … … … (6)
𝜕𝑦

Where 𝐼𝑧2 is the net upward current in the middle region of the two elements.

∴ 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑧1 + 𝐼𝑧2 gives the net upward current in z- direction.

∴ Corresponding magnetic current density,

𝐼𝑧
𝐽𝑚𝑧 = = 𝐼𝑧 … … … … . . (7)
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦

∴From equation (5) and (6),

𝜕𝑀𝑦 𝜕𝑀𝑥
( − ) ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 = 𝐼𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑀𝑦 𝜕𝑀𝑥 𝐼𝑧
𝑂𝑟, − = = 𝐽𝑚𝑧 … … … … . (8)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦

Similarly we have,
𝜕𝑀𝑥 𝜕𝑀𝑧
− = 𝐽𝑚𝑦 … … … … … . (9) &
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀𝑥 𝜕𝑀𝑦
− = 𝐽𝑚𝑧 … … … … . . (10)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Combining,

⃗⃗ × 𝑀
∇ ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐽⃗𝑚 … … … … … . . (11)

⃗⃗⃗ and magnetic current density 𝐽⃗𝑚 .

This gives the relation between magnetisation 𝑀

It can be noted that,

⃗⃗. 𝐽⃗𝑚 = ∇
∇ ⃗⃗. (∇
⃗⃗ × 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗) = 0 i.e. magnetisation current will not affect the continuity
equation or the charge conservation law.

26
 Sanju 9681634157

Volume and surface density of bound current: - Let us consider a piece of magnetic
material with magnetisation 𝑀⃗⃗⃗.

Vector potential due to a single current loop of

magnetic moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗,

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗
𝜇0 𝑚
𝐴⃗ =
4𝜋 𝑅2
∴ Total magnetic vector potential for the body,

𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑉 × 𝑅⃗⃗
𝑀
𝐴⃗(𝑟⃗) = ∫
4𝜋 𝑅3
𝑣

𝜇0 1 1 𝑅⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑀 ∇′. 𝑑𝑉 [∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇′. = 3 ]
4𝜋 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑣

⃗⃗⃗
𝑀 1 1
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, ∇′ × ( ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ + ∇
∇′ ( ) × 𝑀 ⃗⃗ × 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∇′ × 𝑀 𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑀⃗⃗⃗
∴ 𝐴⃗(𝑟⃗) = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 − ∫ ∇′ × 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅
𝑣 𝑣

Further from vector identity,

⃗⃗⃗
𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑀
⃗⃗′ ×
∫∇ 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫
𝑅 𝑅
𝑣 𝑠

𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∇′ × 𝑀 𝜇0 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴⃗(𝑟⃗) = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅
𝑣 𝑠

This expression suggests that a distribution of atomic currents inside magnetized

matter produces the same magnetic potential as produced by a volume density of
current

𝐽⃗𝑚 = ∇
⃗⃗ × 𝑀 ⃗⃗𝑚 = 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗; and surface current density 𝑘 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑛̂; 𝑛̂ unit normal to the surface 𝑑𝑠⃗

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 Sanju 9681634157

Ampere’s law in terms of free current density and introduction of H:-

The differential form of Ampere’s circuital law in term of conduction current density

𝐽⃗𝑓 .

⃗⃗ × 𝐵
∇ ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗

In presence of magnetic media both the conduction current density 𝐽⃗𝑓 and
magnetization or bound current density 𝐽⃗𝑚 must be taken into account.

Hence,

⃗⃗ × 𝐵
∇ ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐽⃗𝑓 + 𝐽⃗𝑚 )
= 𝜇0 (𝐽⃗𝑓 + ∇⃗⃗ × 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗)

⃗⃗
𝐵
⃗⃗ × ( − 𝑀
𝑂𝑟, ∇ ⃗⃗⃗) = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗𝑓
𝜇0
⃗⃗
𝐵
The quantity ⃗⃗⃗ whose curl is related to the flow of conduction current only is
−𝑀
𝜇0
used to define a new magnetic vector,

⃗⃗
𝐵
⃗⃗ = ( − 𝑀
𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗) , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜇0

Hence Ampere circuital law reach,

⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∇ ⃗⃗ = 𝐽⃗𝑓

In the integral form,

⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 ,

∮𝐻
where 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the total free current passing the loop C. The dimension of H is 𝐼𝐿−1 ; its
S.I unit is 𝑎𝑚𝑝/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟.

⟹ Magnetic induction 𝐵 ⃗⃗ originates from both bound and free currents where 𝐻
⃗⃗
originates from free current only.

The constitutive relation: The functional relationship between the magnetization and
the magnetic intensity 𝐻⃗⃗ is known as magnetic constitutive relation.

For an isotropic linear magnetic material,

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 Sanju 9681634157

⃗⃗⃗∞𝐻
𝑀 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻
𝑂𝑟, 𝑀 ⃗⃗

𝜒𝑚 is a dimensionless quantity, called the magnetic susupectibility of the medium.

⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐻
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝑋𝑚 𝐻
⃗⃗ )
= 𝜇0 (1 + 𝑋𝑚 )𝐻⃗⃗
⃗⃗
= 𝜇𝐻

Where 𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝑋𝑚 ) is called permeability of the material. For free space 𝑋𝑚 = 0, ∴

𝜇 = 𝜇0 ,
𝜇
The quantity 𝜇𝑟 = = 1 + 𝑋𝑚 is called relative permeability of the medium.
𝜇0

Ampere's law for 𝐻⃗⃗ tells us that the curl of 𝐻

⃗⃗ is equal to the free current density.
However, a knowledge of the free current density is not sufficient to determine 𝐻 ⃗⃗ .
The Helmholtz theorem shows that besides knowing the curl of a vector function, we
also need to know the divergence of that vector function before it is uniquely defined.
Although the divergence of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is zero for any magnetic field (and therefore Ampere's
⃗⃗ defines 𝐵
law for 𝐵 ⃗⃗uniquely) the divergence of is not necessarily zero:

1 1
⃗⃗. 𝐻
∇ ⃗⃗ = ∇
⃗⃗. ( ⃗⃗ − 𝑀
𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗) = ∇ ⃗⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ − ∇
⃗⃗. 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗ = −∇
⃗⃗. 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗
𝜇0 𝜇0

Therefore, only for those systems where ∇ ⃗⃗. 𝑀

⃗⃗⃗ = 0 can we use Ampere's law for 𝐻
⃗⃗
directly to calculate 𝐻⃗⃗. The divergence of 𝐻 ⃗⃗will be zero only for systems with
cylindrical, plane, solenoidal, or toroidal symmetry.

ii) The 𝐻⃗⃗field is a quantity that is used in the laboratory more often that the field.
This is a result of the dependence of 𝐻 ⃗⃗ on only the free currents (which are easy to
control). The 𝐵 ⃗⃗ field depends both on the free and on the bound currents, and thus
requires a detailed knowledge of the magnetic properties of the materials used. In
electrostatics, the electric field can be obtained immediately from the potential
difference (which is easy to control). The electric displacement 𝐷 ⃗⃗ depends only on
the free charge distribution, but in most cases a direct measurement of the free charge
distribution is very difficult to carry out. Therefore, in electrostatics the electric field
is in most cases a more useful parameter than the electric displacement 𝐷 ⃗⃗.

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 Sanju 9681634157

1. Let a long cylindrical wire of radius a carries magnetization 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑘𝑟 2 𝜃̂; where K
is a constant , r is the distance from axis and 𝜃̂ is the usual unit vector in (r,𝜃,z)
cylindrical coordinate system. Show total magnetization current vanishes.
Calculate 𝐵⃗⃗ , inside and outside the cylinder.
2. A cylinder of permeability 𝜇 carries a steady current I of uniform density. If the
radius of the wire be a, find 𝐵 ⃗⃗, 𝑀⃗⃗⃗, 𝐻
⃗⃗ inside the wire.
3. Magnetisation 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗ is given by 𝑀⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑋𝑚 𝐻 ⃗⃗ where 𝑋𝑚 is the magnetic susceptibility
of a linear material. A long copper rod of radius carries a uniformly distributed
free current 𝐼𝑓 . Show that ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝑏 = 𝑋𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐽𝑓 , where 𝐽𝑏 , 𝐽𝑓 have their usual meanings.
Show the direction 𝐽⃗𝑏 , 𝑘⃗⃗𝑏 - the surface current density for a given directions of 𝐼⃗
Find the directions of 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗, 𝐻
⃗⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗. Also show net bound current flowing down wire
is zero.

Magnetic circuit: The magnetic line of force or magnetic flux form close loops. if the
entire magnetic flux (or almost of it) is confined to well defined paths, then such
closed paths, form the analogy of electric circuit are called magnetic circuit.

Let us consider a toroidal iron ring having a magnitude path l, area of cross section A,
and a coil of N terms carrying I current wound anywhere on it as shown in the fig.

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 Sanju 9681634157

∴ Applying Ampere circuital law,

⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑁𝐼 … … … . . (1)

⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
Since 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and 𝜙, the flux linked,

⃗⃗. 𝑛̂𝐴
𝜙=𝐵

𝑂𝑟, 𝐵𝐴 = 𝜇𝐴𝐻

Hence we can write,

𝜙
𝐻=
𝜇𝐴

∴ from eqn.(1) we can write,

𝜙𝑑𝑙
∮ = 𝑁𝐼 … … … . . (2)
𝜇𝐴

As we are dealing with magnetic circuit, we expect to be essentially the same over
any crossection of the circuit.

𝑁𝐼 ∮𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙
∴𝜙= = … … … … . . (3)
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝜇𝐴 ∮ 𝜇𝐴

The numerator ‘NI’ which process magnetisation in magnetic current is known as

m.m.f or magnetomotive force. its unit is ampere turn (AT). It’s analogous to e.m.f in
an electric circuit.
𝑑𝑙
The denominator ∮ is called reluctance of the circuit and analogous to resisitance
𝜇𝐴

in electric circuit.
𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝐹
∴ 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝜙 = … … … … . . (4)
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆
Since it is similar to the expression,
𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
So the eq (4) is called ohm’s law of magnetic circuit.

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 Sanju 9681634157

If a magnetic circuit is made from several homogeneous pieces of various material as

𝑙𝑖
shown in the fig then, 𝜙 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 = 𝑁𝐼 .
𝜇 𝑖 𝐴𝑖

Composite series Magnetic circuit: - Let us consider a magnetic circuit consist of

different material of different perm abilities (𝜇𝑖 𝑠) and different lengths (l) and
crossectional areas (𝐴𝑖 ) .

∴From Ampere’s circuital law,

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻1 𝐿1 + 𝐻1 𝐿2 + ⋯ . . = 𝑁𝐼 … … … (1)

If 𝜇𝑖 , 𝛼𝑖 are respectively the permeability and the cross-

sectional area of the ith material then from (1),
𝜙 𝑖 𝑙𝑖
∑ = 𝑁𝐼
𝜇𝑖 𝐴𝑖

Considering leakage of flux to be zero so,

𝑙𝑖
𝜙∑ = 𝑁𝐼
𝜇𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑁𝐼
∴𝜙=
𝑙
∑ 𝑖
𝜇𝑖 𝐴𝑖

∴ equivalent reluctance,
𝑙𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ∑
𝜇𝑖 𝐴𝑖

Composite parallel Magnetic circuit: - In the fig. We see parallel magnetic circuit
consisting two parallel magnetic paths ACB, ADB, acted upon by same m.m.f. Let 𝑙1 , 𝑙2
be the are path lengths in two branches.

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 Sanju 9681634157

The m.m.f . NI sets up total magnetic flux 𝜙 in the circuit which encounters two paths
ADB, ACB respectively . Let 𝜙1 & 𝜙2 are the fluxes through the paths respectively,

∴ 𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
𝑂𝑟, = =
𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚1 𝑅𝑚2

Where 𝑅𝑚 is the equivalent reluctance and 𝑅𝑚1 , 𝑅𝑚2

are the reluctance of paths 1&2.
1 1 1
∴ = =
𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚1 𝑅𝑚2

Magnetic circuit with a small air gap :- Let us consider an iron ring of mean radius a ,
area of crossection A and a small air gap of length ∆𝑙 as shown in fig.

Reluctance of iron path of the circuit (2𝜋𝑎 − ∆𝑙)/𝜇𝐴, 𝜇, is

permeability of iron . The reluctance of the small air gap is
∆𝑙
.
𝜇0 𝐴

We consider ∆𝑙 ≪ 𝑎 , so that spreading of magnetic flux is

negligible and air gap may be taken of uniform crossection
of A.

∴Total reluctance
2𝜋𝑎 − ∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
𝑅𝑚 = +
𝜇𝐴 𝜇0 𝐴
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝐼
∴𝜙= =
𝑅𝑚 2𝜋𝑎 − ∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
+
𝜇𝐴 𝜇0 𝐴

I is the current through the winding Having N turns.

For small air gap ,

𝜙 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= =
𝐴 2𝜋𝑎 − ∆𝑙 + ∆𝑙
𝜇𝐴 𝜇0 𝐴

It is same in iron and air gap .

33
 Sanju 9681634157

⃗⃗ within the material and in the air gap will be different and can be given as
However 𝐻
𝐵 𝐵
and .
𝜇 𝜇0

5 .An iron ring of radius 10 cm and cross - sectional area 12 cm 2 is evenly wounded
with 1200 turns
of insulated wire. There is an air gap in the ring of length 1mm. The permeability of
the iron is 700;
and assumed independent of field.
6.Calculate the current require to produce a magnetic field of 1T in the gap. Given 𝜇 =
1000𝜇0 ; cross - sectional area in all brunches 10c𝑚2 .

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 Sanju 9681634157

⃗⃗⃗ &𝑯
Boundary conditions for 𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ :- The boundary conditions dictate how 𝐵
⃗⃗ &𝐻
⃗⃗ behave
in going from one medium to another.

B.C. for B :- Let us consider two different magnetic media 1 and 2. In contact as shown
in figure. We construct a small pillbox intersecting the interface, the height of the
pillbox is negligible compare to the radius.

⃗⃗. 𝐵
Integrating the relation ∇ ⃗⃗ = 0 over the volume v of the pillbox we can write,

⃗⃗. 𝐵
∫∇ ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝑣

Applying divergence theorem,

⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0
∮𝐵
𝑠

𝑠 is the surface of the pillbox.

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 Sanju 9681634157

Since contribution from vertical sides is negligible when height of the pillbox tends to
zero we can write,

⃗⃗2 . 𝑛̂2 ∆𝑠 + 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗1 . 𝑛̂1 ∆𝑠 = 0

Where ∆𝑠 is the area of the top and bottom flat surfaces 𝑛̂1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛̂2 being unit normal
vectors of them,

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛̂2 = −𝑛̂2 = 𝑛̂

⃗⃗2 − 𝐵
∴ (𝐵 ⃗⃗1 ) ∙ 𝑛̂ = 0

Or,

𝐵2𝑛 = 𝐵1𝑛

⃗⃗ are continuous in the interface.

i.e. the normal components of 𝐵

B.C. on ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ :- The boundary condition on 𝐻
⃗⃗ can be obtained by integrating the relation

⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∇ ⃗⃗ = 𝐽⃗ over a small rectangular circuit ABCD where AD, BC are very small
compare to AB or CD.

⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∴ ∫∇ ⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∫ 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗
∆𝑠 ∆𝑠

∆𝑠 is the area bounded by rectangle ABCD.

Applying stokes theorem,

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 Sanju 9681634157

⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗

∮𝐻
𝑐 ∆𝑠

Taking AB = CD=∆𝑙 and assuming BC =DA=∆ℎ → 0

⃗⃗2 . ∆𝑙⃗ − 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗⃗1 . ∆𝑙⃗ = lim 𝐽⃗. ∆𝑠⃗
∆ℎ→∞

Or,

⃗⃗2 . ∆𝑙⃗ − 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗⃗1 . ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝐾1 . ∆𝑙⃗

Where 𝐾1 is the surface current density (i.e. the transport current per unit length of
the interface) normal to the plane of the rectangle.

Hence,

𝐻2𝑡 − 𝐻1𝑡 = 𝐾1

If

⃗⃗ = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻2𝑡 = 𝐻1𝑡 𝑖. 𝑒.

𝐾

In absence of any surface current, the tangential components of magnetic intensity

are continuous across the interface.

Magnetic material:

Magnetization under the action of applied magnetic field is universal property of

solids. If M be the magnetization induced in the magnetic field H, we can write,

𝑀 = 𝜒𝐻

𝜒 is called magnetic susceptibility.

All solids can be classified according to their magnetic properties into three groups, i)
diamagnetic ii) Paramagnetic iii) Ferromagnetic.

The classification is based on the values and behavior of 𝜒 under different conditions.

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 Sanju 9681634157

Diamagnetic: - In this case 𝜒 has very low (-)value (i.e. 𝜒<0 and |𝜒| ≪ 1) . The
susceptibility is found to be constant &independent of ⃗H
⃗⃗ and temperature. Nature of
variation of ⃗M
⃗⃗⃗ with ⃗H
⃗⃗ is shown below.

Paramagnetic :- In this case 𝜒 has very low (+)value. (i.e. 𝜒>0|𝜒| ≪ 1) . In this case 𝜒
is only constant and independent of H only for low values of H. At very low
temperature and high magnetic field magnetization tends to saturate as H ⃗⃗⃗ increases
which shows 𝜒→0 as H increases.

Variation of M with H is shown graphically below.

Unlike diamagnetism, 𝜒 depends on temperature in case of paramagnetic substances

and is given as,
𝐶
𝜒=
𝑇

C is called curie’s constant and T is the absolute temperature. This is known as Curies
law.

Ferromagnetics :- For these substances 𝜒 is (+)ve and has usually very high 𝜒>>1.
⃗⃗⃗⃗with H
For these materials variation M ⃗⃗⃗ and also variation of 𝜒 with H
⃗⃗⃗ are shown below.

If a ferromagnetic is heated, its susceptibility 𝜒 decreases. Above a certain critical

temperature Tc called ferromagnetic Curie temperature, it loses its ferromagnetic
property and transformed to a paramagnetic

For 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑐 , the magnetic susceptibility of the substance ( which behaves like a
paramagnetic ) can be expressed by ,
𝐶′
𝜒=
𝑇−𝜃

C ′ is a constant and θ is known as paramagnetic curie temperature.

This is also known as Curie-weiss law.

Magnetic hysteresis:

A magnetic hysteresis, otherwise known as a hysteresis loop, is a representation of

the magnetizing force (H) versus the magnetic flux density (B) of a ferromagnetic

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 Sanju 9681634157

material. The curvature of the hysteresis is characteristic of the type of material being
observed and can vary in size and shape;

i) Hysteresis loops begin at a starting point (𝐻 = 0) wherein its magnetic

dipole moment disoriented .When a magnetizing force (H) is adding to the
material, it follows the pathway up to the saturation point (A). At this point
all the magnetic dipole moments are aligned in the direction of the
magnetizing force and the magnetic flux no longer increases.

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 Sanju 9681634157

ii) When H is reduced to zero, some remnant magnetization remains; this point
is known as the retaintivity point (𝐵) .In order to remove this remnant
magnetization, a coercive magnetizing force is applied in the reverse
direction. The point in which there is no longer a magnetic flux (𝐵 = 0) due
to the cancelation of dipole moments acting in opposite directions is known
as the coercivity point (C).
iii) As the magnetizing force increases in the negative direction, the same
saturation occurs as it did before however in the opposite direction (𝐷). The
loop continues with an equal but opposite retentivity point (𝐷) and
coercivity point (𝐸) until its original saturation point (𝑎).
Hysteresis Loss: To calculate the hysteresis loss of a ferromagnetic material, let us
consider 𝑚⃗⃗⃗ be the magnetic moment of a typical domain, that makes an angle 𝜃 with
⃗⃗⃗ is magnetization at that time.
the direction of the applied field. 𝑀

⃗⃗ over
The sum of components of magnetic moments perpendicular and parallel to 𝐻
unit volume respectively;

∑ 𝑚 sin 𝜃 = 0;

∑ 𝑚 cos 𝜃 = 𝑀 ;

Hence,

𝑑𝑀 = − ∑ 𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

−𝑣𝑒 Sign indicates increase of M with decrease in 𝜃 .

Now the torque acting on the domain of dipole moment 𝑚

⃗⃗⃗,

𝜏 = |𝑚 ⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 |
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
= 𝑚𝜇0 𝐻 sin 𝜃

Work done by external source in further turning all the domain in unit volume
through small angle 𝑑𝜃,

𝑑𝑊 = − ∑ 𝑚 𝜇0 𝐻 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝜇0 𝐻𝑑𝑀

∴ Work done per unit volume in taking the specimen through complete cycle,
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 Sanju 9681634157

𝑊 = ∮ 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑑𝑀 = 𝜇0 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑀 − 𝐻 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝

Using the relation;

𝐵
𝑀= −𝐻
𝜇0
𝐵
= ∮ 𝜇0 𝐻𝑑 (
− 𝐻) = ∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝐵 − ∮ 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑑𝐻
𝜇0
Clearly ∮ 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑑𝐻 = 0; as, ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐻 describes area under straight line.

𝑊 = ∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 B-H loop defines expended per unit volume per cycle is
the area inside the 𝐵 − 𝐻 loop.

7 . A specimen of iron of density 7700 kg/ 𝑚3 and specimen heat 0.11 (cal /gr/k) is
magnetized by a ac of frequency 50 Hz. Assuming no. of loss of heat , calculate rise in
temperature of the specimen per minute . Given that the area enclosed by B - H loop is
equivalent to 5000 𝑚−3 /𝑐𝑎𝑙 . Is the area of the lop is temperature independent.?
8 .Determine the hysteresis loss in an iron core of 50 kg having a density of 7.8
kg/𝑚3 , when the area of the loop is 150 𝑐𝑚2 , frequency is 50Hz and scale on x - axis
and y - axis => 1cm - >1cm - >30 AT/cm and 1cm = 0.2Wb/𝑚2 respectively.
Remanence or remanent magnetization or residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a
ferromagnetic material (such as iron ) after an external magnetic field is removed. It is also the measure of
that magnetization. The remanence of magnetic materials provides the magnetic memory in magnetic
storage devices including magnetic tape, floppy disks and hard disk drives.

Difference between Hard and soft material

S.No. Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials

1 Materials which retain their Soft magnetic materials are easy to
magnetism and are difficult to magnetize and demagnetize. These
demagnetize are called hard materials are used for making
magnetic materials. These materials temporary magnets. The domain wall
retain their magnetism even after the movement is easy. Hence they are
removal of the applied magnetic easy to magnetize. By annealing the
field. Hence these materials are used cold worked material, the dislocation
for making permanent magnets. In density is reduced and the domain
permanent magnets the movement wall movement is made easier. Soft
of the domain wall is prevented. magnetic materials should not
They are prepared by heating the possess any void and its structure

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 Sanju 9681634157

magnetic materials to the required should be homogeneous so that the

temperature and then quenching materials are not affected by
them. Impurities increase the impurities
strength of hard magnetic materials.
2 They have large hysteresis loss due They have low hysteresis loss due to
to large hysteresis loop area. small hysteresis area.
3 Susceptibility and permeability are Susceptibility and permeability are
low. high.
4 Coercivity and retentivity values are Coercivity and retentivity values are
large. less.
5 Magnetic energy stored is high. Since they have low retentivity and
coercivity, they are not used for
making permanent magnets.
6 They possess high value of BH Magnetic energy stored is less.
product.
7 The eddy current loss is high. The eddy current loss is less because
of high resistivity.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Laws of electromagnetic induction:

i) The induced e.m.f. in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
ii) The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tries to oppose the cause of
its generation i.e. the variation of magnetic flux producing it.

In mathematical form the above laws can be expressed as,

𝑑𝜙
𝜀=− ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑑𝑡
𝜀 is induced emf also called back emf.

• Differential form of faradays law:- Let 𝜙 be the magnetic flux linked with a
circuit at anytime 𝑡 then the laws of e.m. induced induction can be expressed as,
𝑑𝜙
𝜀=− ; 𝜀 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 … … . . (1)
𝑑𝑡

If the electrical field in space is 𝐸⃗⃗ , then, e.m.f. around a closed path 𝑐,

𝜀 = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ … … … . (2)

𝑐

⃗⃗ then
If 𝑆 is an open surface bounded by the curve 𝐶 placed in a magnetic field 𝐵
the magnetic flux through the surface.

⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ … … . . (3)

𝜙=∫ 𝐵
𝑆

𝑑
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − ∫ 𝐵⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ … … … … (4)
𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑆

If the circuit is rigid and stationary then neither ‘S’ nor ’C’ depends on ’t’ hence,

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − ∫ . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑐 𝑠 𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗ = 𝐵
The partial derivative is taken since 𝐵 ⃗⃗(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)

Using Stoke’s law,

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⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∫
∫ ∇ ∙ 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑠 𝜕𝑡

Since this is true for any arbitrary surface 𝑆,

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = −
∴ ∇ … … … . . (6)
𝜕𝑡
This is the differential form of Faradays law.

Motional emf

• Faraday’s disc:- This is a conducting disc of radius a rotating about its axis with
constant angular velocity 𝜔 ⃗⃗, placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⊥lr to its plane.
Let any time 𝑡 a radius of the disc makes an angle θ with y axis. In interval 𝑑𝑡, it
rotates through an angle 𝑑𝜃
1
∴ Area swept out by out in time 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎. 𝑎𝑑𝜃
2
1
∴ Flux cut in time 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝑎2 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑑𝜙 1 𝑑𝜃
∴ Rate of change of flux = 𝐵. 𝑎2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
1
= 𝑎2 𝜔𝐵.
2

*Induced emf between centre and rim,

𝑑𝜙 1
𝜖𝑠 = | | = 𝐵𝑎2 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2

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• Conducting bar moving on tracks through a constant Magnetic Field: Motional emf:
Let us consider two parallel rails of negligible resistance connected at one end, are
separated by a distance 𝑙. A rod moves at a constant velocity 𝑣⃗ on fixed rails
(𝑣⃗ ≪ 𝑐⃗). An external uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃗⃗ is applied normal to the plane 𝑜𝑓 the
rails.

Let at time 𝑡, the distance transversed by the rod 𝑥,

∴ Area generated → 𝐿𝑥
∴ Flux linked with this area 𝜙 = 𝐵 𝐿𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑥
∴ Rate of change of flux→ = 𝐵𝐿 = 𝐵𝐿𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 = 𝜖𝑠 = − = −𝐵𝐿𝑣
𝑑𝑡
This is called Motional e.m.f
If 𝑅 be the resistance of the loop,
∴ induced current
𝐸 𝐵𝐿𝑉
𝑖= =−
𝑅 𝑅
[Here we assume that 𝑖 is so small that magnetic field produced by it is very
⃗⃗]
negligible compare to 𝐵
• We consider two parallel rails of negligible resistance separated by a distance d
and connected to a cell of emf E at one end. A jumper of mass 𝑚 and resistance
slides without friction along the rails.
• Velocity of the jumper: Let at any instant the jumper moves with velocity 𝑣⃗.
∴ Induced emf = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
∴ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑜ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤,
𝜀 − 𝐵𝑣𝐿
𝑖=
𝑅
As the force on the conductor is 𝐵𝑖𝑣𝐿

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𝑑𝑣 𝐵𝑙 𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝜀
∴𝑚
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵𝑖𝑙 =
𝑅
(𝜀 − 𝐵𝑣𝑙) = −
𝑅
(𝑣 − 𝑏𝑙1)
𝑑𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2
∴ 𝜀 = − 𝑚𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑣−
𝐵𝑙
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,
v
𝑑𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑡
∫ 𝜀 = − 𝑚𝑅 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑣− 0
𝐵𝑙
𝜀
𝑣− 𝐵2 𝑙2
∴ ln 𝐵𝑙
𝜀 = − 𝑚𝑅 𝑡
−
𝐵𝑙
𝜀 𝐵2 𝑙 2
∴ 𝑣 = [1 − 𝑒 𝑚𝑅 𝑡 ]
−
𝐵𝑙
𝜀
𝑖𝑓 𝑡 →∝, 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝐵𝑙

• Self induction:- When a current (𝐼)flows in a circuit, the magnetic flux(𝜙)

produced by the current depends on the geometry of the circuit and for non
ferromagnetic material, it is proportional to the current. Thus we can write,
𝜙∝𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝜙 = 𝐿 𝐼 … … … … . . (1)
Where the constant (depends on the geometry of the circuit) is called self
inductance of the circuit. It can be defined as total flux linked with the circuit
when unit current flows through it.
Now for rigid stationary 𝑐𝑘𝑡,
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐼
= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡
∴ Induced e.m.f.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝜀=− =− . = −𝐿 … … . (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
From equation (2) we can define ‘L’ as the e.m.f. induced in the circuit for a unit
rate of change of current in it.

• Limit and Dimensions:- In S.I unit L is express in Henry.

1𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1𝐻 = =
1𝑎𝑚𝑝 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝
[𝐿] = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐼 −2 ]

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• Calculation of Self – inductances:-

• A Solenoid:- The magnetic induction𝐵
⃗⃗ at a point inside an air cored very long
solenoid is,

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
𝑙

Where 𝑁 is the total turns on the solenoid, 𝑙 is

the length and 𝐼 be the current,
If 𝐴 be the crossectional area of the solenoid; flux linked with each turn,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝐴
𝜙1 = 𝐵𝐴 =
𝑙
∴ Total flux linked,
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐼𝐴
𝜙 = 𝑁𝜙1 =
𝑙
∴ Self inductance of the Solenoid,
𝜙 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
𝐿= =
𝐼 𝑙
[If the solenoid is not too long then we have magnetic field at any axial point P
as,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
2𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝑙−𝑥 𝑥
= [ + ]
2𝑙 √(𝑙 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑎2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝑁
In a length 𝑑𝑥 about P there are number of terms and hence flux linked in
𝑙
these turns,
𝑁
𝑑𝜙 = ( 𝑑𝑥) 𝐵𝐴
𝑙
𝑙
𝐵𝐴𝑁
∴ 𝜙=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴𝐼 𝑙 𝑙−𝑥 𝑥
= ∫ [ + ] 𝑑𝑥
2𝑙2 2
0 √(𝑙 − 𝑥 ) + 𝑎 2 2
√𝑥 + 𝑎 2

𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴𝐼
= 2
[−√(𝑙 − 𝑥 )2 + 𝑎2 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ]
2𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
= 2
[√𝑙2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎] 𝐼
𝑙
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 Sanju 9681634157

𝜇0 𝑁2 𝐴 2
∴ Self inductance 𝐿 = 2 [√𝑎2 + 𝑙 − 𝑎]
𝑙

• Two long parallel wires:- Let us consider two long parallel wires carrying the
same current in opposite directions, separated by a distance 𝑑. We assume that
diameter of each wire is much less that ′𝑑′; so that the flux inside the material of the
wire may be neglected.
Total field at any point at a distance 𝑥 from one wire.
𝜇0 𝐼 1 1
𝐵= [ + ]
2𝜋 𝑥 𝑑 − 𝑥

∴ The flux through an elemental area of width 𝑑𝑥 and length unity is,
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑−𝑎 1 1
𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ [ + ]
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑−𝑥
𝜇0 𝐼
= [ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑑 − 𝑥 )]𝑑−𝑎
𝑎
2𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑−𝑎 𝑎
= [ln − ln ]
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑑−𝑎
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑 − 𝑎
= ln
𝜋 𝑎
∴Self induction per unit length,
𝜙 𝜇0 𝑑 − 𝑎
𝐿= = ln
𝐼 𝜋 𝑎

• Long coaxial cable: Let us consider two co-axial cylinders of radii 𝑎and 𝑏,
(𝑏 > 𝑎) as shown in the fig, carrying the same current 𝐼 in the opposite
directions.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law it is easy to show that the magnetic field
outside the cable is zero and at an internal point at a distance 𝑟 from the axis
(𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏) the field is,
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
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 Sanju 9681634157

From an elemental area of radial width 𝑑𝑟 and axial length

unity the flux through it will be,
𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ . 𝑑𝑟 × 1 =
𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
∴ Total flux per unit length,
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑏 𝑑𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑏
𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ = ln
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑟 2𝜋 𝑎
Self induction per unit length,
𝜙 𝜇0 𝑏
𝐿= = 𝑙𝑛
𝐼 2𝜋 𝑎
Here we neglect the flux within the materials of the two cylinders taking 𝑏 ≫ 𝑎.

• Mutual inductance: Let us consider two fixed loop 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 placed close to
each other. If a current 𝐼 through 𝑐1 produces flux 𝜙 in the loop 𝑐2 . If now 𝐼1 is
varied, the flux will also vary and there will be an e.m.f in loop 𝑐2 . This is known
as Mutual Induction.
Let 𝜙2 be flux through loop 𝑐2 due to current 𝐼1 in loop 𝑐1 , 𝜙1 be flux through
loop 𝑐1 due to a current 𝐼2 in 𝑐2 in the absence of ferromagnetic material.
𝜙2 = 𝑀21 𝐼1
𝜙1 = 𝑀12 𝐼2
The proportionality constants 𝑀12 ,𝑀21 are called mutual inductance of the
loops. These depends on the geometry of the circuits, their dimensions and
permeability of the surrounding medium.
∴E.m.f induced in loop 𝑐2 due to current 𝑐1 ,
𝑑𝜙2 𝑑 𝑑𝐼1
𝐸2 = − = − (𝑀21 𝐼1 ) = −𝑀21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙1 𝑑 𝑑𝐼2
𝐸1 = − = − (𝑀12 𝐼2 ) = −𝑀12
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Thus mutual induction of two loops is numerically equal to the emf induced in
one loop due to unit rate of change of current in other.

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• Neumann’s Formula:Let us consider two loops of wires 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 at rest in

vacuum. A current 𝐼1 through 𝑐1 produces a magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵1 at the site of 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 2.
So the flux linked with loop 𝑐2 , due to current in the loop 𝑐1 ,

⃗⃗1 . 𝑑𝑆⃗2
𝜙2 = ∫ 𝐵
𝑆2

⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗1 ). 𝑑𝑆⃗2
= ∫ (∇
𝑆2

𝐴⃗1 being magnetic vector potential corresponding to 𝐵

⃗⃗1 .
Using Stoke’s law,

𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐴⃗1 . 𝑑𝑙⃗2
𝑐2

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙⃗1
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐴⃗1 = ∮
4𝜋 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙⃗1 . 𝑑𝑙⃗2
∴ 𝜙2 = ∮ ∮ = 𝑀21 𝐼1
4𝜋 𝑐2 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙⃗1 . 𝑑𝑙⃗2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀21 = ∮ ∮
4𝜋 𝑐2 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
Since |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 | = |𝑟1 − 𝑟2 | and the order of the integration may be interchanged
we can write,
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙⃗1 . 𝑑𝑙⃗2
𝑀 = 𝑀21 = 𝑀12 = ∮ ∮
4𝜋 𝑐2 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
This is Neumann’s formula and 𝑀 is simply referred to as the mutual induction
between the loops.

• Conclusions:
(i) 𝑀(= 𝑀12 = 𝑀21 )is purely geometrical quantity. It depends on the shape ,
size and relative position of the loops.

(ii) The flux through the loop 𝐶1 when a current 𝐼 flows around 𝐶2 is equal to
the flux through 𝐶1 due to some current flowing through 𝐶2 , are the same. Thus
it is also called reciprocity theorem.

Calculation of Mutual inductance:-

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 Sanju 9681634157

1. Two solenoids:Let us consider a very short solenoid 𝑆 wounded over a long

narrow air-cored solenoid 𝑃 about its centre.
If a current 𝐼 flows through the primary (𝑃) coil, the magnetic induction
produced at its centre,
𝑁1
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑙
𝑁1 is the total number of terns on 𝑃 over length 𝑙.
If 𝐴 be the crossectional area of 𝑃, then total number of terns 𝑁2 would be,

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴
Φ = 𝐵. 𝐴. 𝑁2 = 𝐼
𝑙

∴ Therefore, the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary

solenoids,
𝜙2 𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴
𝑀= =
𝐼 𝑙

2. Two parallel coaxial circular loops: Let us consider two parallel circular
coaxial coils 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 of radii 𝑎, 𝑏 respectively and the distance between
their centres 𝑜1 and 𝑜2 𝑏𝑒 𝑥.
We assume that (𝑏 ≪ 𝑎) such that magnetic field all over it may be assumed
to be uniform.
If 𝐼 be the current through coil 𝐶1 , the magnetic field at the site of the coil 𝐶2
due to coil 𝐶1 would be,
𝜇0 𝑁1 𝐼𝑎2
𝐵̅ = 3
2 2 2
(𝑎 + 𝑥 )2
𝑁1 being number of turns in coil 𝐶1
∴ Total flux linked with the coil 𝐶2 ,
𝜙2 = 𝐵. 𝜋𝑏 2 . 𝑁2
𝜇0 𝜋𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
= 3
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝑁2 is the number of terms in coil 𝐶2 .

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 Sanju 9681634157

∴ Mutual inductance between the two coils,

𝜙2 𝜇0 𝜋𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
𝑀= = 3
𝐼
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2
If the coils are coplanar, then 𝑥 = 0,
𝜇0 𝜋𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑏 2
∴𝑀=
2𝑎
[ if𝐶2 is not too small we have to use Neumann’s formula]

• Coefficient of Coupling: It is defined as the fraction of the magnetic flux generated

by one coil that gets linked up with the other.
Let us consider two coils 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 having self inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 and
coupled together. Let a current 𝐼1 through 𝐶1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 a flux 𝜙1 .
∴ 𝜙1 = 𝐿1 𝐼1
If 𝐾1 fraction of it gets link with 𝐶2 then,
𝜙2 = 𝐾1 𝜙1 = 𝐾1 𝐿1 𝐼1 = 𝑀𝐼1
𝑀 is the mutual inductance between them.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐾1 𝐿1
Similarly if a current 𝐼2 flows through 𝐶2 produces a flux 𝜙2 , a fraction (𝐾2 ) of
which links with 𝐶1 then,
𝜙1 = 𝐾2 . 𝜙2 = 𝐾2 𝐿2 𝐼2 = 𝑀𝐼2
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐾2 𝐿2
∴ 𝑀 2 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑀 = 𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐾 = √𝐾1 𝐾2
This constant 𝐾 is called Coefficient of Coupling.
It can have value from 0 𝑡𝑜 1. It depends on the geometry and relative position
of the coils.
𝐾 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀2 ≤ 𝐿1 𝐿2
• Inductances in series and parallel:-
1. Series Connection: Let us consider two coils of self inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2
connected in series. Let 𝐼 current pass through the coils at time 𝑡.
Let the mutual flux favours the self flux of the coils.
Now induced emf in coil 1 due to its self inductance,
𝑑𝐼
𝜖11 = 𝐿1
𝑑𝑇

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And the emf induced in coil 2 due to current 𝐼 in coil 1 is,

𝑑𝐼
𝜖21 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑇
M is the mutual inductance between the coil.

∴ The emf induced in coil 2 due to its self inductance,

𝑑𝐼
𝜖22 = −𝐿2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦,
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐼
𝜖12 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑇
As the fluxes aid one another, total emf,

𝜖 = 𝜖11 + 𝜖22 + 𝜖12 + 𝜖21

𝑑𝐼
= −(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀)
𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒,

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

Again, if mutual flux opposes self-flux then,

𝜖𝑠 = 𝜖11 + 𝜖22 − 𝜖21 − 𝜖21

&
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀

• Parallel connection:The fig. Shows two coils of self inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are
connected in parallel. Let total current 𝐼 be divided into parts 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 .
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
Assuming the mutual flux aids the self flux, total emf induced in coil (1),
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
𝜖1 = −𝐿1 −𝑀
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
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𝑀 → 𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠

Similarly for coil (2)

𝑑𝐼2 𝑑𝐼1
𝜖2 = −𝐿2 −𝑀
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
Since two coils are in parallel,

𝜖1 = 𝜖2 =∈ (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
∴ 𝐿1 +𝑀 = −𝜖
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
𝑀 + 𝐿2 = −𝜖
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 ( 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝑑𝐼1 −𝜖(𝐿2 − 𝑀)
=
𝑑𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝑑𝐼2 −𝜖(𝐿1 − 𝑀)
=
𝑑𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2 −𝜖(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀)
∴ = + =
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀 2
Or,
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 𝑑𝐼
𝜖=−
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀 𝑑𝑇
∴ Equivalent induction of the circuit,
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
If the mutual flux opposes the self-flux, the equivalent inductance,

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
• Energy stored in an inductor: Let an emf 𝜖 is suddenly suspended to an inductor 𝐿
having resistance 𝑟. If 𝑖 be the current at any time 𝑡 after switching on, the back emf
𝑑𝑖
produced – 𝐿 amd net e.m.f
𝑑𝑡

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𝑑𝑖
𝜖−𝐿
𝑑𝑡
According to 𝑘𝑉𝐿
𝑑𝑖
𝜖=𝐿 + 𝑟𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Work done by the source delivering a small change 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡, in time dt,
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜖 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖 + 𝑖 2 𝑟𝑑𝑡
∴ Total work done when current increases from zero to 𝐼 in time 𝑇,
𝐼 𝑇
𝑈 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑖 + 𝑟 ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑇
1
= 𝐿𝐼 2 + 𝑟 ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
2 0
The 2 term represents the Joule heat loss in the resistance.
nd

The 1st term is the work done against the back emf and can be regarded as
energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
∴ Magnetic energy stored in an inductor 𝐿,
1
𝑈𝑚 = 𝐿𝐼 2
2

EDDY CURRENT: When magnetic field B ⃗⃗⃗⃗changes with time, currents are induced in
the conducting materials placed in the region where B is non-zero. These currents are
termed eddy currents. They heat up the conducting materials through Joule losses and
are therefore undesirable in electromagnetic devices.

The effects of eddy currents can be minimized by using laminated conductors instead
of a single large body. use of thin sheets of lamina insulated from each other increases
the resistance to the flow of eddy current and consequently the effect of eddy current
are minimised.
It can be shown that the power loss due to eddy current can be reduced by a factor
1
proportional to by subdividing the cross-section (perpendicular to B ⃗⃗ − field) of the
𝑛
conductor into n- equal parts by lamination.

Magnetic energy density: Let we have a number of current carrying circuits in a finite
region of a medium having linear magnetic properties. To develop a magnetic field in
𝑑𝜙
a loop work has to be done against back emf (𝜀 = − )which is stored as magnetic
𝑑𝑡
energy.
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𝑑𝑞𝑘
Hence work done to grow current 𝑖𝑘 (=
𝑑𝑡
) in the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ loop;

𝑑𝜙𝑘
𝜀𝑘 𝑑𝑞𝑘 = − 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑖𝑘 𝑑𝜙𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
Hence energy stored in 𝑖 𝑡ℎ loop= −𝑖𝑘 𝑑𝜙𝑘

Total energy stored 𝑑𝑈 = ∑𝑘 𝑖𝑘 𝑑𝜙𝑘

Let us assume that all currents (𝑖𝑘 ) and hence all fluxes (𝜙𝑘 ) are brought to their
final values (𝐼𝑘 , 𝜙𝑘 ) in such a way that at instant of time t, all currents and all fluxes
are at the same fraction ∝ of their final values .

Hence

𝑖𝑘 = 𝛼𝐼𝑘

𝜙𝑘 = 𝛼𝜙𝑘

∴ 𝑑𝑈 = ∑ 𝐼𝑘 𝑑𝜙𝑘 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
𝑘

Hence, total energy,

1
1
𝑈 = ∑ 𝐼𝑘 𝑑𝜙𝑘 ∫ 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 = ∑ 𝐼𝑘 𝑑𝜙𝑘
𝑘 0 2

Again for a single loop

⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∮ 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗𝑘

⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∫ ∇
𝜙𝑘 = ∫ 𝐵
𝑠𝑘 𝑠𝑘 𝑐𝑘

𝐴⃗ being local vector potential.

Hence,

1
𝑈 = ∑ ∮ 𝐼𝑘 𝐴⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗𝑘
2 𝑘
𝑐𝑘

For general type of distribution of current, 𝐼𝑘 𝑑𝑙⃗𝑘 is replaced by 𝐽⃗𝑑𝑉 and ∑𝑘 ∮𝑐𝑘 is
replaced by ∫𝑣 .

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1
Now = ∫𝑉 𝐴⃗. 𝐽⃗ 𝑑𝑉; V is the volume occupied by current distribution.
2

⃗⃗ × 𝐻
Using ∇ ⃗⃗. (𝐴⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗ = 𝐽⃗ and the vector identity ∇ ⃗⃗) = 𝐻 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) − 𝐴⃗. (∇
⃗⃗. (∇ ⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗)

1
𝑈= ∫ 𝐴⃗. (∇
⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗)𝑑𝑉
2
𝑉

1 1
= ∫𝐻 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)𝑑𝑉 − ∫ ∇
⃗⃗ . (∇ ⃗⃗. (𝐴⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗)𝑑𝑉
2 2
𝑉 𝑉

1 1
= ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 − ∮ (𝐴⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗ . 𝐵
∫𝐻 ⃗⃗ ), 𝑑𝑆⃗
2 2
𝑉 𝑆

Now the contribution of the surface integral t vanishes as very large volume is
considered as both of 𝐴⃗, 𝐻
⃗⃗ decrease with distance.

Thus

1
𝑈= ∫ ⃗⃗. 𝐵
𝐻 ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉
2
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

Thus the above equation suggests that magnetic energy stored in the magnetic field
with an density;
1
𝑈= 𝐻⃗⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗
2

Field equations together:

Electrodynamics before Maxwell: - So far in our study in electricity and magnetism we
find these following four basic equations.

In free space in medium

𝜌
(i) 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ = ⁄𝜖0 (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤) 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐷
⃗⃗ = 𝜌
(ii) 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0 (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 ′ 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ) 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐻
⃗⃗ = 0

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⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
(iii) 𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = − (Faraday’s law) 𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
(iv) 𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗ (𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤)′ ⃗⃗ × H
∇ ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗J

Generalized Ampere’s circuital law and Maxwell’s equations: - Ampere’s circuital law
(in free space)
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗ ………………. (1)
Taking ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 ∙ on both sides,
𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ (𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) = 𝜇0 (𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗) …………….. (2)
Since the divergence of curl of any vector is always zero; from (2) we should have,
∙ Now continuity equation, reads,
𝜕𝜌
𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = − Which indicates, apart from the case of steady
𝜕𝑡
state (ρ = constant); 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ ≠ 0.
Hence Ampere’s Law is bound to fail for non-steady state current.

Maxwell assumed that definition of ⃗J is incomplete and we have to replace 𝐽⃗ by

𝐽⃗ + 𝐽⃗𝑑 where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝑑 should be such that,
𝛻⃗⃗ . (𝐽⃗ + 𝐽𝑑 ⃗) = 0
i.e. 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗𝑑 = −𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗
𝜕𝜌
=
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 ⃗⃗
= 𝜖0 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗𝑑 = 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝜖0 𝜕𝐸
(𝛻
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝑑 = 𝜖0 ,
𝜕𝑡
With this ampere’s law modified to,
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐽⃗ + 𝐽⃗𝑑 )
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜕𝐸
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜕𝑡
This is ampere’s law in modified form.
An example illustrating the need for the displacement current arises in connection with capacitors with no
medium between the plates. Consider the charging capacitor in the figure. The capacitor is in a circuit that
causes equal and opposite charges to appear on the left plate and the right plate, charging the capacitor and
increasing the electric field between its plates. No actual charge is transported through the vacuum between
its plates. Nonetheless, a magnetic field exists between the plates as though a current were present there as
well. One explanation is that a fictitious displacement current ID "flows" in the vacuum, and this current
produces the magnetic field in the region between the plates according to Ampère's law:

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Maxwell’s equation:- The four fundamental equations of electromagnetic are known as

Maxwell’s equations are given in S.I. unit as follows,
𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐷
⃗⃗ = 𝜌 (Gauss’s law in electrostatics)
𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0 (Gauss’s law in magneto static)
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = − (Faradays law of induction)
𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗
𝜕𝐷
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + (Modified ampere’s law)
𝜕𝑡
⃗E⃗, ⃗D
⃗⃗ are electric field vectors B
⃗⃗, ⃗H
⃗⃗ are magnetic field vectors related by the relations .

1.i)What is displacement current. Relate it with displacement vector.

𝜎
ii)Consider charge on a conducting pate that produce electric field 𝐸 = ; Obtain
𝜖0
the idea about displacement current.(hint: charge is compiling there)

⃗E⃗ = 𝜖0 ⃗D
⃗⃗; ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 ⃗H
B ⃗⃗
In vacuum,
𝜌
𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝜖0
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛻∙𝐵⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗ + 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜕𝐸
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜕𝑡

Physical significance: -
Equation (1) (𝜵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝆 ): represents Gauss’s law in electrostatics in differential form.
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑬
𝝐𝟎
Integrating equation (1) over a volume we obtain,
1
∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝜖 𝑣 𝑣

i.e.
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1
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ , electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 𝜖 ∫𝑣 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 i.e. total charge
enclosed divided by permittivity of space.

⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑩
Equation (2) (𝜵 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎) : represents Gauss’s Law in magnetostatics, along with the
fact that magnetic poles always exists in pair i.e. monopole does not exists.
Integrating equations (2) over volume 𝑉,

∫ 𝛻⃗⃗ 𝑉 ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∯ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0
𝑣 𝑠
i.e.

∮𝐵⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ , total magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero, implying that flux
entering the volume equals the flux leaving it. So there is no source or sink inside the
volume, i.e. monopole does not exist.

⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = − 𝝏𝑩) represents Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬
Equation (3) (𝜵
𝝏𝒕
Integrating equation (3) over any closed surface, bounded by path c, and using Stokes
theorem,
⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − ∯ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = − ∯ 𝐵 ⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = −
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
So (-)ve rate of change of magnetic flux is equal to induced e.m.f in a closed circuit.
This is Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.

Equation (4) represents generalized Ampere’s law, modified by introduction of

displacement current along with the conduction current. It tells us that a changing
electric field produces a changing magnetic field as the reverse, consistent with
equations of continuity of charge.
From equation (4) taking divergence on both sides,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗) = 𝜇0 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ + 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜕 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0
𝛻 ∙ (𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
Or, 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙. 𝐽⃗ + 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝜖 𝐸
𝜕𝑡 0
⃗⃗ = 0
𝜕𝜌
Or, 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐽⃗ + 𝜕𝑡 = 0
i)Write down Maxwell’s em field equations. Explain physical significance of
each.

ii. Discuss the symmetry between electric and magnetic fields that is focused in
the Maxwell’s equations
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 Sanju 9681634157

iii. Obtain i) continuity equation of charge; ii) KVL iii) KCL from Maxwell’s
equation.

iv)write appropriate solutions of Maxwell’s equation if (𝑱 = 0); and only charge

is a point charge 𝑞 fixed at origin.

Decay of free charges; Relaxation time:- An important deduction that follows

immediately from Maxwell’s equation is the decay of free charges on conductors..
From Maxwell’s equations,

𝜕𝐷⃗⃗ 𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + ⃗⃗
= 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗) = 𝜎𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝜖 𝜕 (𝛻⃗⃗ ∙
∴ 𝛻⃗⃗ ∙ (𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝜕𝑡
𝐸⃗⃗ ) [ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜎, 𝜖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
𝜎𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝑂𝑟, 0 = +
𝜖 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜎
𝑂𝑟, = − 𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝜖
𝜎
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜌 = 𝜌0 𝑒 − 𝜖 𝜕𝑡

= 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
ϵ
Where τ= is called relaxation time.i.e. free charges decay exponentially with a time
σ
ϵ
constant ; placed in a medium of conductivity σ and permittivity ϵ .
σ

Q:Prove that excess charge placed at any point in a medium of conductivity 𝜎, 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜖
𝜖
decays exponentially with a time constant 𝜎 .

ii)Find this time constant for 𝜎 = 3 × 107 (𝛺 − 𝑚)−1 ; 𝜖 = 𝜖0

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