CONTROL AND

CO-ORDINATION
KABANDA STEPHEN
 The endocrine
system
It consists of all the endocrine glands in the
body together with the hormones that they
secrete
 Features of the nervous system and the endocrine system

Feature Nervous system Endocrine system

Method of Electrical impulses Chemical hormones

Communication

Method of Through neurones Through blood

Transmission

Transmission speed Fast Slow

Duration of effect Short /temporary Long /permanent

The human
nervous
system
Neurones

▪ Sensory neurones transmit

impulses from receptors to
the CNS
▪ Intermediate neurones (also
known as relay or connector
neurones) transmit impulses
from sensory neurones to
motor neurons
▪ Motor neurones transmit
impulses from the CNS to
effectors
Structure of a
myelinated
motor neurone
 ▪ It has a nucleus in cell body
Structure of a
myelinated ▪ It has short dendrons
motor
neurone ▪ The axon is much longer than the dendrons

▪ The cell body contains mitochondria, RER, golgi

bodies and groups of ribosomes

▪ There are many mitochondria at the synaptic knob

 ▪ The synaptic knob has synaptic vesicles which
Structure of a contain a neurotransmitter e.g., Acetylcholine
myelinated
motor ▪ It has Schwann cells around the axon which form
the myelin sheath
neurone
contd…. ▪ The small uncovered areas of the axon between
Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier

▪ The motor end plate / dendrites have receptors (for

neurotransmitters)
 ▪ It has a nucleus in the cell body
Structure of a
▪ It has a long dendron with a shorter axon
myelinated ▪ There are many mitochondria in the cell body
sensory ▪ There are many RER/nissl’s granules in the cell body
neurone ▪ It has synaptic knobs that have terminal dendrites
▪ It has Schwann cells around the axon which form the
myelin sheath
▪ The small uncovered areas of the axon between
Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier
Sensory receptors
How sensory receptors in mammals
convert energy into action
potentials using a chemoreceptor
cell in a human taste bud as an
example
▪ Sensory receptors e.g.,
chemoreceptor are energy
transducers

▪ Sensory receptors detect changes in a

stimulus e.g., touch / pressure light /
sound which causes Na+ channels to
open

▪ Na+ enters cell

▪ K+ channels open allowing K+ to

diffuse out of the cell
How sensory receptors in
mammals convert energy into
action potentials
▪ This leads to depolarisation of the cell surface
membrane resulting in a receptor or generator
potential

▪ If the receptor potential is greater than threshold,

then an action potential or impulse is generated

▪ If the receptor potential is less than threshold only

localised depolarisation occurs

▪ Increased stimulus leads to increased frequency of

action potentials transmitted
 ▪ A reflex arc is the pathway along which
impulses are transmitted from a receptor to
The reflex arc an effector without involving ‘conscious’
regions of the brain
The reflex
arc
 ▪ They are fast or immediate
Importance of
▪ They are automatic i.e., no conscious thought
reflex actions involved
▪ They are innate, stereotyped or instinctive
▪ They stop or limit damage or danger
How the resting ▪ The axon phospholipid bilayer is impermeable to K+
/ Na+
potential is set ▪ Na+ moves out of, cell and K+ moves into cell by,
up active transport (using ATP) against the
concentration gradient using the sodium-potassium
ion pump
▪ 3 Na+ are pumped out for every 2 K+ pumped in
How the resting ▪ K+ diffuses out of cell and Na+ diffuses into cell by
facilitated diffusion through ion channels
potential is ▪ The membrane is more permeable to K+ (more K+
maintained goes out than Na+ diffuse in)
▪ This makes the inside of cell membrane more
negative than outside
▪ The membrane or cell is polarized producing a
resting potential between –60 mV to –70 mV
 ▪ An action potential stimulates the neighbouring
Transmission area of the membrane
of an action ▪ Na+ moves sideways i.e., they are attracted to areas
potential in a at resting potential
▪ This causes Na+ to channels open and Na+ enter cell
myelinated and the inside becomes less negative or more
neurone positive (+40mV) or the membrane is depolarised
▪ Na+ channels close while K+ channels open. K+
diffuse out of the cell
▪ The membrane is more permeable to K+ as more K+
goes out than Na+ in
▪ The inside becomes more negative than the outside
and the membrane is repolarised
 ▪ Myelin sheath (Schwann cells) insulates the axon as
Transmission it does not allow movement of ions
of an action ▪ Action potential (depolarization) occurs only at the
potential in a nodes of Ranvier
▪ This leads to saltatory conduction as the action
myelinated potential ‘jumps’ from node to node
neurone ▪ Hyperpolarisation or the refractory period ensures
one-way transmission of action potentials
Depolarisation Repolarisation

Transmission
of action
potentials
Transmission of
action
potentials
saltatory conduction
Structure of a myelin sheath and
its role in saltatory conduction

▪ Schwann cells wrap around axon

to form the myelin sheath.
▪ The sheath is mainly lipid, and it
insulates the axon (membrane)
▪ Na+ / K+ cannot pass through the
sheath and can only pass through
ion pumps in the membrane at the
nodes of Ranvier
▪ Depolarisation of the axon
membrane cannot occur where
there is a sheath. It occurs only at
nodes of Ranvier
Structure of a myelin sheath
and its role in saltatory
conduction

▪ Local circuits occur between

nodes forcing action potentials
to ‘jump’ between nodes
▪ This is called saltatory
conduction
▪ It increases speed of impulse
transmission up to 100 ms-1
▪ The speed in non-myelinated
neurones is about 0.5 ms-1
 ▪ Voltage gated K+ ion channels are open. The
Refractory membrane is hyperpolarised (-80mV)
period ▪ Action potentials are difficult to generate during
this period
▪ The refractory period is necessary as it allows the
proteins of voltage sensitive ion channels to restore
to their original polarity
▪ The refractory period also determines the
frequency of action potentials
Cholinergic
Synapse
Cholinergic Synapse direction of the impulse

▪ A - synaptic vesicle containing

transmitter (acetylcholine)
▪ B - presynaptic membrane
▪ C - synaptic cleft
▪ D - post synaptic membrane
▪ E – receptor protein (Na+ channel)
 ▪ When an action potential / depolarisation reaches
How a nerve the presynaptic membrane, Ca2+ channels open in
impulse presynaptic membrane
crosses a ▪ Ca2+ flood into presynaptic neurone / knob
▪ This causes vesicles of acetylcholine (Ach) to move
cholinergic towards presynaptic membrane and fuse with
synapse presynaptic membrane
▪ ACh is released into synaptic cleft by exocytosis
▪ ACh then diffuses across the synaptic cleft
 ▪ ACh binds to receptor proteins on postsynaptic
How a nerve membrane
impulse ▪ The proteins change shape and Na+ channels open
crosses a ▪ Na+ rush into postsynaptic neurone
cholinergic ▪ Postsynaptic membrane depolarised
▪ An action potential/nerve impulse is generated
synapse ▪ Acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh
How a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic
synapse
How a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse
How a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse
 Role of ▪ Splits ACh into acetate and choline
acetylcholinesterase ▪ This stops continuous depolarisation of
in the synapse postsynaptic membrane
▪ Choline is recycled into the presynaptic neurone
 ❑Ensure one-way transmission
Roles of
➢Receptor proteins only in postsynaptic membrane /
synapses in neurone
the nervous ➢Vesicles only in presynaptic neurone
system
❑Adaptation
➢The ACh amount reduces due to overuse of synapse

❑Wide range of responses due to interconnection of

many nerve pathways
 ❑Inhibitory synapses affect other synapses
Roles of
❑Involved in memory / learning due to new synapses
synapses in being formed
the nervous ❑Summation or discrimination
system
contd…
 MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
 Type of muscle

STRAITED CARDIAC SMOOTH

Appearance in the Stripes (striations) at regular Stripes (striations) at regular intervals No striations
light microscope intervals

Cell structure Multinucleate (syncytium) Uninucleate cells joined by intercalated Uninucleate cells
discs

Shape of cells Long unbranched cylinder Cells are shorter with branches that Long unbranched cells that taper at the
connect to adjacent cells end

Organisation of Organised into parallel bundles Organised into parallel bundles of Contact proteins not organised myofibrils
contactile proteins of myofibrils myofibrils
inside the cell

Distribution in the Muscles attached to the Heart Tubular structure (blood vessels, oviducts),
body skeleton uterus

Control Neurogenic Myogenic Neurogenic

ULTRASTRUCTURE
OF STRIATED
MUSCLE
ULTRASTRUCTURE
OF STRIATED
MUSCLE
ULTRASTRUCTURE
OF STRIATED
MUSCLE
 ▪ Muscles are made up of thousands of muscle fibres
Ultrastructure
▪ Each muscle fibre (syncytium) is a specialised cell
of striated covered by a cell surface membrane called the
muscle sarcolemma
▪ The cytoplasm is sarcoplasm, and the endoplasmic
reticulum is sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
▪ The cell surface membrane has deep infoldings into
the interior of the muscle fibre called transverse
system tubules or T-tubules. These run close to the
sarcoplasmic reticulum
 ▪ Membranes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum have
Ultrastructure protein pumps that transport calcium ions into the
of striated cisternae of SR
muscle ▪ Sarcoplasm has many mitochondria packed
between myofibrils. These carry out aerobic
respiration generating ATP needed for muscle
contraction
The structure of a
myofibril
The structure of a myofibril
 ▪ Each myofibril is made up of smaller components
The structure called filaments
of a myofibril ▪ Parallel groups of thick filaments lie between
groups of thin walls
▪ Thick filaments are made up mostly of the protein
myosin whilst thin filaments mostly of actin
▪ The darker stripes of the filaments, the A bands
correspond to thick (myosin) filament.
▪ The lighter stripes, the I bands have only thin actin
filaments
 ▪ The very darkest parts of the A band are produced
The structure by the overlap of thick and thin filaments, while the
of a myofibril lighter parts of the A band known as H band have
only thick filaments present
▪ A line known as the Z line provides an attachment
for actin filaments, while the M line does the same
for the myosin filaments
▪ The part of a myofibril between two Z lines is called
a sarcomere
▪ Myofibrils are cylindrical, the Z line is a disc
separating sarcomere and thus is called a Z disc
 ▪ Thick filaments are composed of many molecules of
Structure of myosin, which is a fibrous protein with a globular
thick and thin head
filaments
▪ The fibrous protein anchors the molecule into the
thick filament. Many myosin molecules lie in a
bundle with their globular heads all pointing away
from the M line

▪ Thin filaments are composed of actin, which is a

globular protein. Many actin molecules are linked
together to form a chain
 ▪ Two of these chains are twisted together to form a
Structure of thin filament. Also twisted around the actin
thick and thin filament is a fibrous protein called tropomyosin
filaments
▪ Another protein called troponin is attached to the
actin filament at regular intervals
Structure of
thick and
thin
filaments
The sliding filament model
of muscle contraction
 ▪ When muscles contract, the sarcomeres in each
The sliding myofibril get shorter as the Z discs are pulled closer
filament together
model of ▪ This is known as the sliding filament model of
muscular contraction
muscle ▪ Calcium ions are released from sarcoplasmic
contraction reticulum into the sarcoplasm
▪ The calcium ions bind to troponin, and troponin
then changes shape and moves tropomyosin. This
exposes binding site on actin
 ▪ The myosin heads form cross bridges with the
The sliding binding sites on the actin filaments
filament ▪ The myosin heads tilt, pulling actin (this is called the
model of power stroke)
▪ The myosin heads have ATPase which hydrolyses
muscle ATP
contraction ▪ The myosin head lets go of actin and go back to the
previous orientation
▪ This process is repeated as long as troponin and
tropomyosin molecules are not blocking the binding
sites and as long as the muscle has ATP
▪ This results in the sarcomere shortening
The sliding filament model of muscle contraction
The sliding filament model of muscle contraction
The sliding filament model of muscle contraction
The neuromuscular
junction
The
neuromuscular
junction
Stimulating
muscles to
contract
 ▪ An action potential depolarises the pre-synaptic
Stimulating membrane
contraction in
▪ Voltage-gated calcium ion channels open and
a striated calcium ions diffuse into the pre-synaptic knob
muscle
▪ They stimulate the synaptic vesicles to fuse with
pre-synaptic membrane releasing acetylcholine
(ACh) into synaptic cleft by exocytosis

▪ ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to

receptors on the post synaptic membrane
(sarcolemma)
 ▪ Sodium ion channels open and sodium ions enter the
Stimulating muscle cell (sarcoplasm) causing depolarisation of the
sarcolemma
contraction in
a striated ▪ Depolarisation then spreads via T-tubules and to the
adjacent sarcoplasmic reticulum
muscle
▪ Voltage-gated calcium ion channels open and calcium
ions diffuse out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

▪ Calcium ions diffuse into the sarcoplasm

▪ The calcium ions start contraction by binding to troponin

Energy
sources
used during
muscle
contraction
 ▪ When a muscle contracts, the small quantity of ATP stored in the
Energy muscle fibre is rapidly used up

sources used ▪ Muscles have another source of ATP produced from a substance
during muscle called creatine phosphate. This substance is kept in the sarcoplasm

contraction ▪ A phosphate group is quickly and easily removed from a creatine

phosphate molecule and combined with ADP to form ATP

▪ Creatine phospate + ADP Creatine + ATP

▪ After muscle contraction creatine phosphate is regenerated using ATP

from respiration

▪ Creatine + ATP Creatine phospate + ADP

Control and
coordination
in plants
The Venus fly trap
 ▪ This is a carnivorous plant that obtains Nitrogen by trapping and
The Venus fly digesting insects
trap
▪ The leaves are divided into two coloured lobes that have nectar
secreting glands on the edges to attract insects

▪ The touch of a fly or any other insect on the sensory hairs on the
inside of the venus fly trap, stimulates the conversion of mechanical
energy to electrical energy

▪ The deflection of a sensory hair activates calcium ion channels in cells

at the base of the hair. These channels open so that calcium ions flow
in to generate a receptor potential
 ▪ If two of these hairs are stimulated within a period of
The Venus fly 20−35 seconds, or one hair is touched twice within the
trap same time interval, action potentials travel across the trap
▪ The action potentials spread very fast across the leaf to
the midrib cells

▪ H+ are pumped out of the cells into cell walls. Within the
cell wall, cross-links are broken loosening the cell wall
▪ In the middle lamella, calcium pectate dissolves producing
ca2+ ions. The ca2+ enter the cells lowering the water
potential

▪ Water then enters by osmosis causing the midrib cells to

become turgid change shape from convex to concave. This
causes the leaf to trap shut in <1s
The Venus fly
▪ As the insect tries to escape it further stimulates the inner
trap surface of the lobes triggering more action potentials

▪ Further deflection of sensory hairs stimulates the entry of

Ca2+ ions into glands

▪ The Ca2+ stimulate the exocytosis of vesicles carrying

digestive enzymes just like at the synapse

▪ Once the insect is digested, the cells on the upper surface

of the midrib grow slowly so the leaf re-opens and tension
builds in cell walls of the midrib, so the trap is set again
Chemical
communication
in plants
▪ plant growth regulator (plant hormone): any chemical
produced in plants that influences their growth and
development (e.g., auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins and
ABA)

▪ auxin: a plant growth regulator (plant hormone) that

stimulates cell elongation

▪ gibberellin: a plant growth regulator (plant hormone) that

stimulates seed germination and regulates plant height
(stem growth); a lack of gibberellin causes dwarfness
Auxins
▪ Auxin is synthesised in the growing tips (meristems) of
shoots and roots, where the cells are dividing. It is
transported back down the shoot, or up the root, by
active transport from cell to cell, and also to a lesser
extent in phloem sap

▪ Growth occurs in three stages;

❖Cell division by mitosis
❖Cell elongation by absorption of water
❖Cell differentiation

▪ Auxin is involved in controlling growth by cell elongation

Auxins ▪ Auxin binds to receptor proteins in the cell membrane
stimulating ATPase proton pumps to actively pump protons into
the cell wall

▪ This lowers the pH of the cell wall which leads to loosening of

the bonds between cellulose micro fibrils and the matrix that
surround them

▪ K+ channels open, and K+ diffuse into the cytoplasm. This

lowers the water potential, so water enters by osmosis through
aquaporins

▪ The cells absorb water by osmosis and the increase in the

internal pressure causes the walls to stretch so that these cells
elongate (become longer)
The role of
gibberellins in
the germination
of wheat or
barley
 The role of
▪ When a seed is dormant / metabolically inactive, water enters
gibberellins in the the seed by osmosis
germination of
▪ The embryo releases gibberellin
wheat or barley
▪ Gibberellin stimulates aleurone layer by affecting gene coding
for transcription of mRNA coding for amylase

▪ The aleurone layer produces amylase enzyme

▪ Amylase hydrolyses starch in the endosperm to maltose /

glucose

▪ The embryo uses sugars for respiration to release energy / ATP

which is used for growth