EVAPORATION

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the removal of a solvent from a solution by
vaporization, This term is restricted to the concentration of
solution by boiling.
Heat Transfer to Boiling Liquids in an Evaporator
 The normal rate equation for heat transfer is given in the
form
q = U A ΔT
where
q is the heat transferred per unit time
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
Δ T is the temperature differences between the two
streams
A is the heat transfer surface
EQUIPMENTS
The equipment used in evaporation may be classified
conveniently according to the form of the movement,
as this is very important in heat transfer, and can be
divided into three main groups :
A. NATURAL CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS.
B. FORCED CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS.
C. FILM EVAPORATORS.
A. NATURAL CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS

 Evaporators in this category are those in which the movement of

the liquid results from convection currents set up by the
heating process
1. Evaporating Pans:
 This consists of an inner pan called the liner, partially enveloped
with an outer pan called the jacket. The two are joined together so
as to enclose a space through which steam is passed. In the
construction of a steam pan, the ideal to be aimed at are:
A. Great conductivity of the liner, so that the maximum amount of
heat passes from the steam to the contents of the liner, and
B. Minimum conductivity of the jacket to prevent loss of heat by
conduction and radiation. For these reasons, copper is an
excellent material for the liner, and iron for the jacket. To
prevent rusting of the latter, the iron is either tinned or enameled
on the inner surface. If acid preparation are to be evaporated
in the pan, tinned copper are preferably stainless steel may
be used for the liner
 Evaporating pan

Steam
Air vent

Steam jacket

Condensate
Outlet

Product Outlet
 As shown in the figure, the apparatus consists of a
hemispherical pan surrounded by the steam jacket .
 The hemispherical shape gives the best surface/volume
ratio for heating and the largest area for release of vapor.
Steam is admit into the upper part of the jacket, and the
condensate is allowed out by a steam trap fixed at the
lowest possible point opposite to that of the steam inlet .

 Steam pans may be of the fixed or of the tilting type. For

convenience in emptying the former, a tube passes from the
lowest point of the liner, through the jacket, and terminates
in a tap through which the evaporated product may be
collected. In tilting pans, the pan is pivoted on both sides,
one of the pivots being a gland into which the rigid steam
pipe is introduced. Here, tilting the pan will simply
accomplish collection of the evaporated product .
DISADVANTAGES OF EVAPORATING PANS
1. Having only natural circulation, the overall coefficient of
heat transfer will be poor and solids are likely to
deposit on the surface, leading to decomposition of the
product and a further deterioration in heat transfer. Also,
many products give rise to foaming when boiled under
conditions of natural convection .
2. All the liquor is heated all the time, which may be
unsatisfactory with thermo- labile materials .
3. The heating surface is limited and decreases gradually as
concentration of the product occurs .
4. The pan is open, so that vapor passes to the atmosphere,
which can lead to saturation of the atmosphere,
slowing evaporation as well as causing discomfort.
Further more, it limits the evaporating pan to use with
aqueous liquids only. The open design means also that
reduced pressure cannot be used, so that the temperature of
boiling cannot be lowered .
USES OF EVAPORATING PANS
 The evaporating pan can be used only of
concentration of aqueous and thermostable
liquors. For example, extract of liquorice.
 Since many pharmaceutical materials are thermo-
labile or dissolve in organic solvents, such as
alcohol, the evaporating pan is limited in
application .
2. EVAPORATING STILL :

 This type of evaporator is widely used in the

pharmaceutical industry. It is commonly known as
still, since it is essentially a vessel similar to the
evaporating pan, with a cover that connects it to a
condenser, so that the liquid is distilled off.

 Typical construction is known in the figure often, a

quick release system of clamps may be used to allow
the cover to be removed easily for access to the interior
of the vessel for product removal or for cleaning
purposes .
 EVAPORATING STILL

Condenser
Steam

Product Outlet Condensate

ADVANTAGES

1. Like the evaporating pan, it is quite simple to

construct and easy to clean and maintain .

2. The vapor is condensed which speeds

evaporation, reduces inconvenience and allows the
equipment to be used for solvents other than water.

3. A receiver and vacuum pump can be fitted to the

condenser , permitting operation under reduced and,
hence, at lower temperatures, which makes it
possible to evaporate .
DISADVANTAGES
1. Natural convection only

2. All the liquor is heated all the times

3. The heating surface is limited

3. TUBE EVAPORATORS
 This group may be subdivided according to whether the
tubes are horizontal ( with the steam inside ), or vertical
( with the steam outside ) .

A. Horizontal tube evaporator:

 The usual type of horizontal evaporator is known in the
figure. The body of this evaporator is in the form of a
vertical cylinder. closed at the top and bottom, with dished
heads.

 Steam is admitted through series of horizontal tubes

situated at a low point of the evaporator, thus allowing a
good column above the liquid to reduce entrainments.
 The horizontal tubes are connecting to two steam compartments,
one at each side of the casing. Steam is introduced into one steam
compartment at A, and as it flows through the tubes and washes
both non-condensed gas as well as condensate ahead of it so
that these are withdrawn from the opposite steam compartment
at vent B and drips C respectively.

 The feed liquid is introduced at any middle point in the body of

the evaporator above the tube-bundle level, say at D, and the
thick product may be collected from the center of the bottom at
point E .

 Most evaporator are provided with sight glasses such as shown at

F. The vapour from the boiling liquid escapes through the top
connection G to be suitably disposed of .
HORIZONTAL TUBE EVAPORATOR
 Advantages :
1. Low initial cost .
2. Require low head room and are easy to still .
3. They can be used either as batch or as continuous
evaporators .
 Disadvantages :

1. Poor liquor circulation .

2. Unsuitable for viscous liquids .
3. Unsuitable for liquors that crystallize on
concentration .
B. VERTICAL TUBE EVAPORATORS
 This evaporator is also commonly called “short-tube
evaporator”. As shown in the figure shown, the body of
the evaporator resembles that of horizontal tube evaporator
but here the heating element consists of an annular
steam compartment into which is sealed a heat of
numerous vertical tubes having both ends open. this
heating part of the evaporator is known as "calandria".

 In this case, as in the horizontal tube evaporators the liquid

to be heated is fed into the body of the evaporator. here, it
rises in the tubes, will be heated by the surrounding steam
and, when sufficiently hot, boils and spouts upward out of
the top of the tubes in a manner similar to that of the liquid
which is boiled vigorously in a test tube. The spouting
liquid will then return downwards through a large central
opening in the calandria called the "down-take”.
Short Tube Evaporator
ADVANTAGES :
1. The use of tubular calandria increases the heating area
largely.
2. The vigorous circulation reduces the boundary layers and
scraps any solids separating from the concentrated liquid
off the heating surface inside the tubes, thus increasing the
rate of heat transfer. Thus, vertical tube evaporator is
suitable for the evaporation of viscous liquids and those
liquids which will crystallize on concentration. In fact, this
type of evaporator is often employed as an evaporative
crystallizer, particularly in the sugar industry .
3. They can be used both as batch or as continuous
evaporators .
4. A condenser, receiver, and a vacuum pump can be attached
rendering operation under vacuum possible.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Since the evaporator is filled to a point above the level of
the calandria a considerable amount of the liquor is heated
for a long time. The effect of this continual heating can be
reduced to some extent by removing the concentrated liquor
slowly from the outlet at the bottom of the vessel.

2. The plant is much more complicated, making it expensive

to construct and increasing the difficulty of cleaning and
maintenance

3. The head of the liquor increases pressure at the bottom of

the vessel and, in large evaporators where the liquor depth
may be of the orders of 2 meters, this may give rise to a
pressure of about 0.25 bar, leading to elevation of the
boiling point by 5 or 6 °C. This reduces the effective
temperature gradient and may affect heat-sensitive
material .
B. FORCED CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS

Forced circulation Evaporators with external

heating surface :
 The heating surface, instead of being built as part of the
evaporator body, is an ordinary two heater entirely
separate from the evaporator body itself.

 The circulation pump takes liquid from the evaporator body,

pumps it through the heater, and return it by tangential inlet to
the main body .

 The evaporator body now becomes nothing but a flash chamber.

The tangential inlet serves to keep the whole mass of the material
in rotation, and this assist in liberating the vapor bubbles from
the liquid surface without excessive entrainments.
FORCED CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS
 In most cases the relative elevation are so calculated
that the hydrostatic head of liquid on the heater outlet
is enough to prevent any liquid boiling in the tubes ,
and boiling only takes place as the pressure is relived
in discharging the liquid into the evaporator body .

 Such evaporators are widely used for the concentration

of the materials that deposit crystalline solids on
evaporation , such as the evaporation of salt brines
and the electrolytic caustic solutions .
C. FILM EVAPORATORS
 The two pass heater shown in the figure shown is convenient
because it requires the minimum amount of piping, and it places
the tubes in a position convenient for replacements. It is also
possible to use single pass heaters, and, if they are usually placed
vertically, although this makes tube replacement less easy . This
type calls for rather considerable head room since the evaporator
body must be high enough above the heater to prevent boiling in
the heater .

 All the evaporators discussed before are operated by boiling the

liquor in a vessel , the vapor escaping as bubbles from the bulk of
the liquor. Film evaporators , as the name implies, spread the
material as a film over the heated surface, and it is important to
realize that basic difference between the two groups greatly
influence the rate of heat transfer (and so of evaporation) and the
suitability of the method for particular purpose. As with
conventional evaporators, the film may be formed naturally or by
mechanical means .
CLIMBING FILM EVAPORATOR

 The liquor to be evaporated is introduced into the

bottom of the tube, a film of liquid forms on the walls
and rises up the tubes, hence the title “climbing film
evaporator”.
 At the upper end, the mixture of vapor and the
concentrated liquor enter a separator the vapor
passing on to a condenser, and the concentrate to a
receiver.
 The fact that the film of liquid “Climbs” up the tube
through a distance of 5 or 6 meters without
mechanical assistance may seen impossible, but the
explanation is given and is visualized in figure shown .
 Vapor

Separator

Steam
Liquid Concentrate
Liquor
Inlet

Climbing film evaporator

MECHANISM OF WORK
 Cold or pre-heated liquor is introduced into the tube (1). Heat is
transferred to the liquor from the walls, and boiling begins (2),
increasing in vigorous (3) and (4).

 Eventually sufficient vapor has been formed for the smaller bubbles
to unite to a large bubble, filling the width of the tube and trapping a
"slug" of liquid above the bubble (5).

 As more vapor is formed, the slug of liquid is formed, the slug of

liquid is blown up the tube, the tube is filled with vapor, while the
liquid is spread as a film over the walls (6).

 This film continuous to vaporize rapidly, the vapor escaping up the

tube, because of friction between the vapor and liquid, the film is also
frigid up the tube.

 Some idea of the speedy rate of vaporization can be gained from the
fact that the liquid travels up the tube at velocities of the order of 6
to 7 meters/second.
 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Principles of climbing film evaporator
 It must be emphasized that this is the sole reason for
the liquor traveling up the tube, and that reduced
pressure, for example, does not affect this mechanism,
although it is sometimes stated incorrectly that the
vacuum “draws” the liquid up the tube.

 While it is true that such evaporators are used

commonly under reduced pressure, the climbing film
evaporator will function equally well at atmospheric
pressure.
ADVANTAGES
1. The very high film velocity reduces boundary layers to a
minimum giving improved heat transfer .
2. The use of long narrow tubes provide large area for heat
transfer.
3. Because of the increased efficiency of heat transfer, as
small temperature difference is sufficient, with less risk of
damage to thermolabile material.
4. The time of contact between the liquor and the
heating surface is very short.
 Even allowing for pre-heating period, the total time a given
portion of the liquor is in the evaporator is of the order of 20
seconds, of which one second only is occupied in climbing up
the tube. When this times is compared with the hours of
continuous boiling in other evaporators, the advantages of
this method for heat-sensitive material will be realized.
5. Despite the short heating time, the evaporation rate is
very high, since the film formation gives an extremely large
surface area in relation to the volume of the liquid.

6. The mixture of the concentrated liquid and vapor enter the

cyclone separator at high velocity, which improves the
separation efficiency and makes the method especially
suitable for material that foam.

7. Although the tubes are very long, they are not submerged,
as in the short-tube evaporator, so that there is no elevation
of boiling point due to hydrostatic head .
DISADVANTAGES
1. Difficult to lean and maintain, since replacement of
the tubes require a head room clearance of further 7
meters.

2. The feed rate is from the operational point of view,

critical.
If too high, concentration will be insufficient.
If too low, the film cannot be maintained and dry
batches may form on the tube wall, because of the
rapid evaporation, minimum temperature gradient,
and short heating time.
USES OF CLIMBING–FILM EVAPORATORS
 This method approach most nearly the perfect method
for the pharmaceutical products .

 Even thermolabile materials can be processed in film

evaporators and they have been used successfully for
the concentration of solution such as insulin , liver
extract , and vitamins.