Xuefeng Wang · Shichuo Li

Editors

Refractory Status
Epilepticus

Diagnosis
and Treatment

123
Refractory Status Epilepticus
Xuefeng Wang • Shichuo Li
Editors

Refractory Status
Epilepticus
Diagnosis and Treatment
Editors
Xuefeng Wang Shichuo Li
Department of Neurology Institute on Global Health (IGH)
The First Affiliated Hospital of Peking University & UN Consultative
Chongqing Medical University Committee on Life Science and
Chongqing Human Health (CCLH)
China Beijing
China

ISBN 978-981-10-5124-1    ISBN 978-981-10-5125-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8

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Abbreviations

2-DG 2-deoxy-D-glucose
5-HT 5-hydroxytryptamine
AA Arachidonic acid
AC Arm circumference
ADF Acid detergent fiber
ADK Adenosine kinase
AE Autoimmune encephalitis
AED Antiepileptic drug
aEEG Amplitude integrated electroencephalogram
AERRPS Acute encephalitis with refractory repetitive partial seizures
AMC Arm muscle circumference
AMPA α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid
AMPAR α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor
AMRF Action myoclonus-renal failure
ANP Atrial natriuretic peptide
AP Action potential
ASIC Acid sensitive ion channel
ASID After-SE ictal discharge
ATL Anterior temporal lobectomy
AWS Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
BBB Blood-brain barrier
BDNF Brain-derived neurotrophic factor
BECTS Benign childhood epilepsy with central temporal spikes
BHB Beta-hydroxybutyrate
BiPED Bilateral independent periodic epileptiform discharge
BMEI Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy
BMI Body mass index
BNP Brain natriuretic peptide
BUN Blood urea nitrogen
CAE Childhood absence epilepsy
CASPR2 Contactin-associated protein-like 2
CBF Cerebral blood flow
CBZ Carbamazepine
C/D Concentration/dose
cEEG Continuous electroencephalogram
CHI Creatinine height index
cIV-MDZ Continuous intravenous MDZ

v
vi Abbreviations

CK Creatine kinase
CMV Cytomegalovirus
CNS Central nervous system
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CPK Creatine phosphokinase
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CPS Complex partial seizures
CPSE Complex partial SE
CPTII Carnitine palmitoyltransferase type II
CRE Creatinine
CRMP5 Collapsing response mediator protein 5
CRS Cortical responsive stimulation
CSE Convulsive status epilepticus
CSF Cerebrospinal fluid
CSWS Cerebral salt wasting syndrome
CSWS Continuous spikes and waves during slow wave sleep
CZi Caudal zona incerta
CZP Clonazepam
DBS Deep brain stimulation
DDD Defined daily dose
DESC Devastating epilepsy in school age children
DHA Docosahexaenoic acid
DIC Disseminated intravascular coagulation
DNET Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor
DRE Drug-resistant epilepsy
DRPLA Dento-Rubro-Pallido-Luysian atrophy
DS Dravet syndrome
DT Delirium tremen
DZ/DPH Combination diazepam and phenytoin
DZP Diazepam
EAA Excitatory amino acid
EBV Epstein-Barr virus
ECG Electrocardiography
ECS Electroconvulsive shock
ECT Electroconvulsive therapy
EEG Electroencephalogram
EFNS European Federation of Neurological Societies
eGFR Estimated glomerular filtration rate
EGTCS Epilepsy with generalized tonic-clonic seizures
EIMFS Epilepsy in infancy with migrating focal seizures
EMA Epilepsy with myoclonic absences
EMAS Epilepsy with myoclonic-atonic seizures
EMG Electromyogram
EPA Eicosapentaenoic acid
EPC Epilepsia partialis continua
EPSEP Ege Pediatric SE Protocol
ER Endoplasmic reticulum
ER Epilepsy resolve
Abbreviations vii

ESES Electrical status epilepticus in sleep

FDA Food and Drug Administration
FIRES Fever-induced refractory epileptic encephalopathy syndrome
FLAIR Fluid attenuated inversion recovery
GABA γ-aminobutyric acid
GABAAR γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor
GABAR γ-aminobutyric acid receptor
GAD Glutamic acid decarboxylase
GAD65 Glutamate decarboxylase 65kDa
GAD-Ab Glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody
GalR1 Galanin receptor 1
GalR2 Galanin receptor 2
GCSE Generalized convulsive status epilepticus
GED Generalized epileptiform discharge
GHB γ-hydroxybutyrate
GluR Glutamate receptor
GPED Generalized periodic epileptiform discharge
GRAW Generalized periodic discharges related to anesthetic withdrawal
GTCS Generalized tonic-clonic seizures
HDL High-density lipoprotein
HE Hashimoto encephalopathy
HE Hypertensive encephalopathy
HFS High-frequency stimulation
HIE Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
hMPV Human metapneumovirus
hPVB19 Human parvovirus B19
HS Hypertonic saline
HSE Herpes simplex encephalitis
HSV Herpes simplex virus
HVPT Hyperventilation provocation test
HVS Hyperventilation syndrome
IAP Intracisternal A-particle retrotransposon
ICP Intracranial pressure
ICU Intensive care unit
IF Interferon
IGE Idiopathic generalized epilepsy
IL Interleukin
ILAE International League Against Epilepsy
IOP Intraocular pressure
IPG Implantable pulse generator
IVIG Intravenous immunoglobulin
JAE Juvenile absence epilepsy
JME Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy
KA Kainic acid
KD Ketogenic diet
KE Ketamine
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
viii Abbreviations

LEV Levetiracetam
LGI1 Leucine-rich glioma inactivating factor-1
LGIT Low glycemic index treatment
LGS Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
LKS Landau-Kleffner syndrome
LTP Long-term potentiation
LZP Lorazepam
MAD Modified Atkins diet
MAE Myoclonic-atonic epilepsy
MAP Mean arterial pressure
MCT Medium chain triglyceride
MDPB Mega-dose of phenobarbital
MDZ Midazolam
mEPSC Miniature excitatory postsynaptic current
MERRF Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fiber
MFS Mossy fiber sprouting
MGSE Myoclonus-generalized status epilepticus
mIPSC Miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current
MN Metanephrine
MNA Mini nutritional assessment
MNA-SF The short form of the mini nutritional assessment
MPSI Migrating partial seizures in infancy
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
MUST Malnutrition universal screening tool
NAC Nucleus accumbens
NCL Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis
NCS Neurocritical Care Society
NCSE Nonconvulsive status epilepticus
NGF Nerve growth factor
NICU Neonatal intensive care unit
NICU Neurology intensive care unit
NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartic acid
NMDAR N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor
NMN Normetanephrine
NORSE New-onset refractory status epilepticus
NPE Neurogenic pulmonary edema
NPSLE Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus
NPY Neuropeptide Y
NREM Non-rapid eye movement
NRS Nutritional risk screening
NSE Neuron-specific enolase
OXC Oxcarbazepine
PAWSS Prediction of alcohol withdrawal severity scale
PB Phenobarbital
PCS Prolonged convulsive seizure
PE Plasma exchange
PEBT Partial exchange of blood therapy
PED Periodic epileptiform discharge
Abbreviations ix

PERSE Refractory status epilepticus in patients with pre-existing

epilepsy
PGES Postictal generalized electroencephalography suppression
PG-SGA Patient-generated subjective global assessment
pHyp Posterior hypothalamus
PIKK Phosphatidylinositol kinase-related kinase
PKC Protein kinase C
PLED Periodic lateral epileptiform discharge
PME Progressive myoclonic epilepsy
PNES Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures
PRIS Propofol infusion syndrome
PRL Prolactin
PSE Pseudostatus epilepticus
PSE Psychiatric side effect
PTZ Pentylenetetrazole
PUFA Polyunsaturated fatty acid
RAAS Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
RAS Renin angiotensin system
RCT Randomized controlled trial
RE Refractory epilepsy
RGCSE Refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus
rhEPO Recombinant human erythropoietin
RNS Responsive neurostimulator system
ROS Reactive oxygen species
RPE Reversible posterior encephalopathy
RSE Refractory status epilepticus
SAGE Serial analysis of gene expression
SBP Systolic blood pressure
SE Status epilepticus
SEP Somatosensory evoked potential
SIADH Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone
SLE Systemic lupus erythematosus
SMEI Severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy
SNR Substantia nigra pars reticulata
SOD Superoxide dismutase
SREAT Steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with autoim-
mune thyroiditis
SRSE Super-refractory status epilepticus
SRS Spontaneous recurrent seizure
SSRI Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
SSTR Somatostatin receptor
STESS Status Epilepticus Severity Score
STN Subthalamic nucleus
SUDEP Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy
SV2A Synaptic vesicle protein 2A
SWI Spike-wave index
TBM Tuberculous meningitis
TDM Therapeutic drug monitoring
x Abbreviations

T1DM Type 1 diabetes mellitus

TG-Ab Thyroglobulin antibody
TLE Temporal lobe epilepsy
TNF Tumor necrosis factor
TPO-Ab Thyroid peroxidase antibody
TSF Triceps skinfold thickness
TSWA Typical spike-and-wave activity
ULD Unverricht-Lundborg disease
VEGF Vascular endothelial growth factor
VEM Video-EEG monitoring
VGCC Voltage-gated calcium channel
VGKC Voltage-gated potassium channel
VNS Vagus nerve stimulation
VPA Valproic acid
VTA Ventral tegmental area
VZV Varicella-zoster virus
WHO World Health Organization
WNV West Nile virus
Contents

1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status

Epilepticus������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1
Yangmei Chen and Shichuo Li
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus������������������������������ 43
Zhifang Dong and Zhong Chen
3 Brain Damage Caused by Status Epilepticus�������������������������������� 61
Zhen Hong
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various
Conditions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
Xuefeng Wang, Yuehua Zhang, and Howan Leung
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 171
Yida Hu and Shichuo Li
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus
in Clinical Practice������������������������������������������������������������������������ 197
Xuefeng Wang and Shichuo Li
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus�������������� 247
Guoming Luan and Xuefeng Wang
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus������������ 275
Xuefeng Wang
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status
Epilepticus That Require Attention���������������������������������������������� 291
Shengnian Zhou and Xinshi Wang
10 Special Cases of Refractory Status Epilepticus�������������������������� 325
Xuefeng Wang

xi
Contributor List

We would like to thank the following authors for their participation in the
preparation of this book:
Baobing Gao, Fei Xiao, Feng Li, Fangshuo Zheng, Guibo Feng, Hong Tang,
Jing Jin, Kaiyan Tao, Peijia Lin, Qingxia Lin, Ruijiao Zhou, Tao Xu, Wei
Jiang, Weixiang Liu, Xiaoyan Yang, Xin Xu, Xi Lu, Xinyuan Yu, Xin Tian,
Yujiao Zhang, Yixue Gu, Yafei Shangguan, Yong Yang, Yanke Zhang, Yao
Fang, Yi Yang, Yun Li, Yaxi Luo, Yuting Jiang, Ying Chen, Zijun Lin.

xiii
 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus,
and Refractory Status Epilepticus 1
Yangmei Chen and Shichuo Li

Abstract
Epilepsy is a common nervous system disease that affects approximately
65 million people worldwide. Because it has diverse clinical manifesta-
tions, epilepsy is difficult to diagnose and treat. In contrast to epilepsy,
status epilepticus (SE) is not self-terminating. The International League
Against Epilepsy (ILAE) classifies SE into two types, SE with prominent
motor symptoms and SE without prominent motor symptoms, which pri-
marily include convulsive status epilepticus (CSE) and nonconvulsive sta-
tus epilepticus (NCSE), respectively. Additionally, complex partial
seizures, which are the main presentation in NCSE, have complex clinical
manifestations. Refractory status epilepticus (RSE) is resistant to anti-SE
drugs and requires special treatment to induce termination. It is currently
thought that if the seizure does not terminate or reoccurs after 2–3 types of
anti-SE drugs have been administered, it should be classified as RSE. In
this chapter, we introduce the definitions, classifications, and clinical fea-
tures of and evaluations used in epilepsy, SE, and RSE. Moreover, we
describe what is currently known regarding epilepsy and SE with a focus
on new opinions regarding RSE. Throughout this discussion, we present
our own views, and we hope to provide a solid foundation for the studies
described in the other chapters presented in this book.

1.1 Epilepsy
Y. Chen (*)
Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Epilepsy is a common and frequently occurring
76 Linjiang Road, Yuzhong District, disease, with a morbidity of 7% according to epi-
Chongqing 400010, China demiological investigations. The World Health
e-mail: [email protected]
Organization (WHO) estimates that approxi-
S. Li mately 65 million patients suffer from epilepsy
China Association Against Epilepsy (CAAE),
worldwide, and the disease can occur at any age,
Rm. 5102, Building 2, Beijing Exhibition Center Hotel,
135 Xizhimenwai Avenue, Xicheng District, but it is especially prevalent among teenagers and
Beijing 100044, People’s Republic of China the elderly.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 1

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_1
2 Y. Chen and S. Li

1.1.1 Definition of Epilepsy p­ redisposition to generate epileptic seizures, and

by the neurobiological, cognitive, psychological
Epilepsy originates from the Greek word and social consequences of this condition. The
“epilepsia,” which refers to recurrent seizures
­ definition of epilepsy requires the occurrence of
with different characteristics and levels. The defi- at least one epileptic seizure.” The core element
nition of epilepsy summarizes the intrinsic char- of this definition is “enduring epileptogenic ten-
acteristics of epilepsy in the pithiest and most dency or recurrent predisposition,” which sum-
concise scientific language. This definition is not marizes the essential features of epilepsy in an
only the guideline for clinical and research stud- abstract and theoretical manner. However, this
ies of epilepsy but also of vital importance for definition, to a certain extent, lacks operability
governments and institutions to establish social and practicability in clinical practice.
activities related to disability, pensions, driving In 2008, French et al. [3] proposed the practi-
vehicles, education, and employment. Therefore, cal definition of epilepsy, which requires at least
experts from different eras of epileptology use two epileptic seizures without other diseases or
different terminology to express the perception situational inducements before seizures. This
of epilepsy, giving it new definitions by adding definition gives specific parameters to quantify
new connotations to this old term based on a new the essential characteristics of epilepsy and pro-
understanding of the disease [1]. vides good clinical operability. Verified by long-­
Written records related to epilepsy can date term clinical and epidemiological studies, the
back to over 4000 years ago, and over this time, practicability of this definition is widely recog-
the definition of epilepsy has developed due to nized, but it still has some deficiencies; for exam-
an increased understanding of the disease. In the ple, it requires at least two epileptic seizures.
Middle Ages, epilepsy was considered a result of However, in clinical practice, patients with a high
possession; in the early eighteenth century, epi- risk of recurrence should be given antiepileptic
lepsy was viewed as a phenomenon that occurred treatment after the first epileptic seizure, and
due to an unpredictable sudden excessive release these patients cannot be diagnosed as epileptics
of energy accumulated in a localized part of the according to the old definition; moreover, this
brain. In the nineteenth century, Jackson pro- definition does not cover reflex epilepsy, nor does
posed that epilepsy was an occasional, sudden, it define the resolution time of epilepsy.
excessive, rapid, and self-limited discharge of To meet the requirements of clinical practice,
gray matter. With the constant development of the ILAE released a new practical definition of
human bioscience, recognition of epilepsy has epilepsy in 2014 [4], which considers epilepsy
rapidly increased in the past 30 years, and its as a brain disease, and its diagnosis must meet
definition has been updated more frequently. the following criteria: (a) at least two unprovoked
In 2001, the ILAE defined epilepsy as “a (or reflex) epileptic seizures occurring more than
clinical manifestation with brain dysfunction 24 h apart; (b) one unprovoked (or reflex) seizure
resulting from sudden, paroxysmal, transient and and a probability of further seizures similar to
abnormal discharge of cortical and deep nuclei, the general recurrence risk (at least 60%) after
part of the thalamus and gray matter neurons in two unprovoked seizures, occurring over the next
upper brain stem” [1]. 10 years; and (c) diagnosis of an epilepsy syn-
In 2005, the ILAE defined epileptic seizures drome. This definition added the diagnosis of
and epilepsy [2], and the condition of epileptic reflex epilepsy based on the old definition. The
seizures was defined as “a transient occurrence of risk of recurrence (at least 60%) in the definition
signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive is subjective and difficult to determine; never-
or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.” theless, it has positive effects on seizure control
Meanwhile, the conceptual definition of epilepsy with the purpose of establishing an early diagno-
was established as follows: “Epilepsy is a dis- sis and initiating treatment measures. In clinical
order of the brain characterized by an enduring practice, epileptic seizures after stroke, infection,
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 3

and trauma are conditions that result in a more definition, the new definition is more applicable
than 60% risk of recurrence. The ILAE suggests to clinical diagnosis and more accepted by cur-
that if a doctor cannot determine the risk of the rent experts of epileptology, which improves the
recurrence accurately, the first criterion should management and prognosis of epileptics.
be adopted, namely, a diagnosis should be made
after the second seizure.
Epilepsy syndrome is an epileptic phenomenon 1.1.2 Classification of Epilepsy
consisting of a group of signs and symptoms. In
general, once an epilepsy syndrome is diagnosed, In 1960, the ILAE first released the classifica-
epilepsy is diagnosed; however, in rare cases, tion of epileptic seizures, but it has constantly
sparse epileptic activity occurs in some types of changed due to various types of epileptic seizures
epilepsy, such as benign epilepsy of childhood and complex clinical manifestations. Currently,
with centrotemporal spikes, epilepsy with con- common classifications are based on the types of
tinuous spike-and-waves during slow-­wave sleep, epileptic seizures or epilepsy syndrome.
and Landau–Kleffner syndrome. Therefore, the In 1981, the ILAE proposed the international
third criterion in the new definition highlights that classification of epileptic seizures (Table 1.1)
the diagnosis of epilepsy and epilepsy syndrome [5]. This classification is based on two crite-
can be made under certain circumstances even ria: (a) seizures originating from unilateral or
without seizures. In the new practical definition bilateral hemispheres and (b) whether a loss of
of epilepsy, a new terminology was specifically ­consciousness occurs during seizures. The classi-
proposed, epilepsy resolve (ER), which includes fication mainly depends on the clinical manifesta-
epileptic individuals who had an age-dependent tions and characteristics of electroencephalogram
epilepsy syndrome but are now past the applica- (EEG) when seizures occur. Partial seizures con-
ble age or those who have remained seizure-free stitute a condition in which the EEG and initial
for the past 10 years, with no seizure medica- manifestations of seizures indicate that they are
tions for the past 5 years [4]. It is different from generated from a unilateral hemisphere without
“relieved” and “cure”; ER is a condition of indi- loss of consciousness, while generalized seizures
viduals without epilepsy at p­ resent, but the condi- are generated from the bilateral ­hemispheres with
tion may recur in the future. Compared to the old a loss of consciousness.

Table 1.1 International classification of epileptic seizures (ILAE 1981)

I. Partial seizures Simple partial seizures With motor signs
(originating from (consciousness not With somatosensory or special sensory symptoms
one side of the impaired) With autonomic symptoms or signs
cerebral With psychic symptoms
hemisphere) Complex partial seizures Simple partial onset, followed by impairment of
(with impairment of consciousness
consciousness) With impairment of consciousness at onset
Partial seizures evolving Simple partial seizures evolving into generalized seizures
into secondarily Complex partial seizures evolving into generalized seizures
generalized seizures Simple partial seizures evolving into complex partial
seizures then evolving into generalized seizures
II. Generalized Absence seizures and atypical absence seizures
seizures Myoclonic seizures
Clonic seizures
Tonic seizures
Tonic–clonic seizures
Atonic seizures
III. Unclassified Epileptic seizures that cannot be classified due to inadequate or incomplete data and some
epileptic seizures that defy classification in the described categories
Reproduced with permission from ILAE [5]
4 Y. Chen and S. Li

In 1989, the ILAE proposed the revised clas- p­ roposed the international classification of epi-
sification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes leptic seizures and epilepsy syndrome (Table 1.3)
(Table 1.2) [6]. This classification integrated the [1]. This classification continued “the dichot-
etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, omy” proposed in 1981 but classified SE as a
evolution, and therapeutic effects of epilepsy, unique type of seizure because the treatment and
which provided a good basis for clinical and prognosis are different from self-limited epileptic
research studies at that time and promoted the seizures. Therefore, it is more practical for clini-
study of epileptology. cal application.
However, due to the constantly increasing In 2010, the ILAE again revised the clas-
understanding of epilepsy, the old classification sification of epileptic seizures (Table 1.4) [7].
gradually became limited. In 2001, the ILAE This classification retained “the dichotomy” of

Table 1.2 International classification of epilepsy syndrome (1989)

I. Localization Idiopathic (with Benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes
related (focal, age-related onset) Childhood epilepsy with occipital paroxysms
local, partial) Primary reading epilepsy
Symptomatic Temporal lobe epilepsy
Frontal lobe epilepsy
Occipital lobe epilepsy
Partial lobe epilepsy
Persistent focal epilepsy
Syndromes characterized by seizures with specific modes of precipitation
Cryptogenic Types of seizures, clinical features, etiology, and anatomic structures
should be confirmed
II. Generalized Idiopathic (with Benign neonatal familial convulsions
epilepsy age-related onset) Benign neonatal convulsions
Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy
Childhood absence epilepsy (pyknolepsy)
Juvenile absence epilepsy
Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (impulsive petit mal)
Epilepsy with generalized tonic–clonic seizures on awakening
Other generalized idiopathic epilepsy
Epilepsies with seizures precipitated by specific modes of activation
Cryptogenic or Infantile spasms (West syndrome)
symptomatic Lennox–Gastaut syndrome
Epilepsy with myoclonic–astatic seizures
Epilepsy with myoclonic absences
Symptomatic Nonspecific etiology
Early myoclonic encephalopathy
Early infantile epileptic encephalopathy with suppression bursts
Other symptomatic generalized epilepsies not defined above
Specific syndrome Epileptic seizures with other diseases
III. Epilepsy and With both Neonatal seizures
syndrome generalized and Severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy
undetermined focal seizures Epilepsy with continuous spike-and-­waves during slow-wave sleep
whether focal Acquired epileptic aphasia (Landau–Kleffner syndrome)
or Other undetermined epilepsies not defined above
generalized Without unequivocal generalized or focal features
IV. Special Febrile convulsions
syndromes Isolated seizures or isolated status epilepticus
Seizures occurring only when in the presence of an acute metabolic or toxic event (alcohol,
drugs, eclampsia, nonketotic hyperglycemia)
Reproduced with permission from ILAE [6]
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 5

Table 1.3 International classification of epileptic seizures and epilepsy syndrome (ILAE 2001)
ILAE International Classification of epileptic seizures and epileptic syndrome
I. Self-limited seizures Generalized Tonic–clonic seizures
epilepsy Tonic seizures
Clonic seizures
Typical absence seizures
Atypical absence seizures
Myoclonic absence seizures
Myoclonic seizures
Myoclonic–atonic seizures
Atonic seizures
Eyelid myoclonia
Negative myoclonic seizures
Spasm (mainly infantile spasms)
Reflex seizures in generalized epilepsy syndromes
Focal seizures Focal sensory seizures
Focal motor seizures (including epileptic
automatism)
Gelastic seizures
Hemiclonic seizures
Secondarily generalized seizures
Reflex seizures in focal epilepsy syndromes
II. Continuous seizures Generalized Generalized tonic–clonic status epilepticus
status epilepticus Tonic status epilepticus
Clonic status epilepticus
Myoclonic status epilepticus
Absence status epilepticus
Focal status Epilepsia partialis continua of Kojevnikov
epilepticus Aura continua
Limbic status epilepticus
Hemiconvulsive status with hemiparesis
International classification of epileptic syndrome (ILAE)
Benign familial neonatal seizures Idiopathic photosensitive occipital lobe epilepsy
Early myoclonic encephalopathy Other visual-sensitive epilepsies
Ohtahara syndrome Primary reading epilepsy
Migrating partial seizures of infancy Startle epilepsy
West syndrome Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy
Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy Familial temporal lobe epilepsies
Benign familial infantile seizures Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus
Benign infantile seizures (nonfamilial) Familial focal epilepsy with variable foci
Dravet syndrome (DS) Symptomatic (or likely symptomatic) focal epilepsies
Hemiconvulsion–hemiplegia (HH) Limbic epilepsies
syndrome
Myoclonic status in nonprogressive Medial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis
encephalopathies
Benign childhood epilepsy with Medial temporal lobe epilepsy defined by specific etiologies
centrotemporal spikes
Early-onset benign childhood occipital Other types defined by location and etiology
epilepsy Neocortical epilepsies
Late-onset childhood occipital epilepsy Rasmussen syndrome
(Gastaut type)
Epilepsy with myoclonic absences
Epilepsy with myoclonic–astatic Other types defined by location and etiology
seizures
(continued)
6 Y. Chen and S. Li

Table 1.3 (continued)

ILAE International Classification of epileptic seizures and epileptic syndrome
Lennox–Gastaut syndrome Conditions with epileptic seizures that do not require a diagnosis of
Landau–Kleffner syndrome (LKS) epilepsy
Epilepsy with continuous spike-and-­ Benign neonatal convulsions
waves during slow-wave sleep (other Febrile convulsion
than LKS) Reflex seizures
Childhood absence epilepsy
Progressive myoclonic epilepsy Alcohol-withdrawal seizures
Idiopathic generalized epilepsies with Drug or other chemically induced seizures
variable phenotypes Immediate and early posttraumatic seizures
Juvenile absence epilepsy Single seizures or isolated clusters of seizures
Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy Rarely repeated seizures (oligoepilepsy)
Epilepsy with generalized tonic–clonic
seizures only
Reflex epilepsy
Reproduced with permission from Parra et al. [1]

Table 1.4 International classification of epileptic seizures and transitional classification of epilepsy and epilepsy syn-
drome (ILAE 2010)
International classification of epileptic seizures (IALE)
I. Generalized Tonic–clonic seizures
seizures Absence seizures Typical absence seizures
Atypical absence seizures
Absence with special manifestations (myoclonic absence seizures,
eyelid myoclonic seizures)
Myoclonic Myoclonic seizures
Myoclonic atonic seizures
Myoclonic tonic seizures
Clonic seizures
Tonic seizures
Atonic seizures
II. Focal seizures Specifically explained by a particular situation
III. Unclassified Epileptic spasms
seizures
Transitional classification of epilepsy and epileptic syndrome (ILAE): electroclinical syndromes and other
epilepsies
Electroclinical Neonatal period Benign familial neonatal epilepsy (BFNE)
syndrome classified (0–30 days) Early myoclonic encephalopathy (EME)
by age at onseta Ohtahara syndrome
Infancy Epilepsy of infancy with migrating focal seizures
(1 month–2 years West syndrome
old) Myoclonic epilepsy in infancy (MEI)
Benign infantile epilepsy
Benign familial infantile epilepsy
Dravet syndrome
Myoclonic encephalopathy in nonprogressive disorders
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 7

Table 1.4 (continued)

International classification of epileptic seizures (IALE)
Childhood Febrile seizures plus (FS+, can start in infancy)
(2–12 years old) Panayiotopoulos syndrome
Epilepsy with myoclonic atonic (previously astatic) seizures
Benign epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes (BECTS)
Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE)
Late-onset childhood occipital epilepsy (Gastaut type)
Epilepsy with myoclonic absence
Lennox–Gastaut syndrome
Epileptic encephalopathy with continuous spike-and-wave during sleep
(CSWS)b
Landau–Kleffner syndrome (LKS)
Childhood absence epilepsy (CAE)
Adolescence-adult Juvenile absence epilepsy (JAE)
(≥12 years old) Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME)
Epilepsy with generalized tonic–clonic seizures alone
Progressive myoclonic epilepsies (PME)
Autosomal dominant epilepsy with auditory features (ADEAF)
Other familial temporal lobe epilepsies
Variable onset age Familial focal epilepsy with variable foci (childhood to adult)
Progressive myoclonie epilepsy (PME)
Reflex epilepsy
Other epilepsies/ Medial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis (MTLE with HS)
surgical syndrome Rasmussen syndrome
Gelastic seizures with hypothalamic hamartoma
Hemiconvulsion–hemiplegia epilepsy
Other epilepsies not Epilepsies that do not fit into any of these diagnostic categories can be distinguished first
defined above based on the presence or absence of a known structural or metabolic condition (presumed
cause) and then according to the primary mode of seizure onset (generalized vs. focal)
Non-syndrome Epilepsy Malformations of cortical development (hemimegalencephaly,
epilepsy attributed to and heterotopias, etc.)
organized by Neurocutaneous syndromes (tuberous sclerosis complex, Sturge–
structural-­ Weber, etc.)
metabolic causes Tumor, infection, trauma, angioma, perinatal insults, stroke, etc.
Epilepsy with unknown causes
Conditions with Febrile seizures (FS)
epileptic seizures Benign neonatal syndrome (BNS)
that are traditionally
not diagnosed as a
form of epilepsy
Reproduced with permission from Berg et al. [7]
a
The order of electroclinical syndrome does not reflect the etiology
b
Sometimes indicates electrical status epilepticus in slow-wave sleep (ESES)

seizures and suggested calling partial seizures that focal seizures could be described in detail
as focal seizures; it also suggested eliminat- if needed. Meanwhile, the ILAE revised the
ing the further classification of seizures (simple definition of focal epileptic seizures and gener-
and complex seizures). However, it proposed alized epileptic seizures. Focal epileptic seizures
8 Y. Chen and S. Li

are seizures that constantly originate from a drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). DRE, in a broad
­unilateral hemisphere, with a localized or more sense, is epilepsy that cannot be completely con-
widely distributed epileptogenic network. These trolled by current antiepileptic drugs (AEDs).
seizures have a benign discharge pathway and With the introduction of new AEDs, epilepsy that
can subsequently involve the other hemisphere. can be treated is no longer called DRE. DRE, in
Focal seizures may originate from subcortical narrow sense, is limited to epilepsy that cannot be
structures. Although some patients have more completely controlled by first-line AEDs, such as
than one epileptogenic network and various sei- carbamazepine, phenytoin sodium, valproic acid,
zure types, the onset site is constant for each phenobarbital, and ethosuximide [8, 9].
seizure type. Generalized epileptic seizures are In 2010, the ILAE released a definition of
seizures that originate from one point in the bilat- DRE, namely, “failure of adequate trials of two
eral cerebral cortices or epileptogenic networks tolerated and appropriately chosen and used
composed of cortices and subcortical structures AED schedules (whether as monotherapies or in
and quickly spread to the entire network. The combination) to achieve sustained seizure free-
onset site is variable for each seizure, and the dom” [10]. In this definition, “two AEDs” refer
entire cortex may not be involved when general- to monotherapy or combined therapy; “appropri-
ized seizures, which can be asymmetric, occur. In ately” refers to drug selection based on seizure
2010, the ILAE proposed the transitional classifi- types; “tolerated” refers to tolerable side effects
cation of epilepsy and epilepsy syndrome, using or no significant side effects; “properly used
age as the main factor (Table 1.4) [7]. However, AED” refers to a sufficient course of treatment
during practical a­ pplication, the type of disease and defined daily dose (DDD), which is consis-
constantly changes with increasing age, and tent with the average daily dose of AEDs defined
therefore the clinical practicability of this clas- by the WHO (Table 1.5) [11]. For the practical
sification is much lower than the classifications application of this definition, the ILAE gave
proposed in 1981 and 2001. Currently, various detailed methods to measure the treatment out-
classifications include only a summary of the dis- come of patients through the treatment outcome
ease to facilitate drug development and clinical of drugs, thus determining whether to diagnose
and basic research of drugs, without describing epilepsy as DRE (Tables 1.6 and 1.7). The cur-
the characteristics of epileptic seizures or epi- rent definition of DRE released by the ILAE in
lepsy syndrome. 2010 is the most practicable definition, which is
widely used by clinicians.

1.1.3 Refractory Epilepsy (RE)

Table 1.5 Defined daily doses (DDD) of AEDs (WHO)
Epilepsy is a curable disease, and approximately Name of drug DDD (mg) 50% DDD (mg)
80% of epileptic seizures can be controlled with Carbamazepine 1000 500
current therapies; however, it is still difficult for Clonazepam 8 4
the other 20% of epileptics to obtain satisfactory Gabapentin 1800 900
relief with available treatments, and this type of Lacosamide 300 150
epilepsy is called RE. The basis of RE is that epi- Levetiracetam 1500 750
lepsies and epilepsy syndrome have been proven Oxcarbazepine 1000 500
to be refractory or cannot be terminated by cur- Lamotrigine 300 150
rent antiepileptic treatments during the effective Phenobarbital 100 50
treatment period. RE, in a broad sense, is epilepsy Valproic acid 1500 750
that cannot be terminated or undergo a significant Phenytoin 300 150
reduction in seizures using current therapies, Pregabalin 300 150
including drugs, operations, and vagus nerve Tiagabine 30 15
stimulations. In narrow sense, RE is l­imited to Reproduced with permission from the WHO [11]
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 9

Table 1.6 Scheme for categorizing outcome of an intervention for epilepsy

Outcome Definition Side effect Classification
I. Successful Remission period reaches 12 months or 3 times the A: Yes 1A
seizure interval before treatment B: No 1B
C: Undetermined 1C
II. Failed Treatment is not effective A: Yes 2A
B: No 2B
C: Undetermined 2C
III. Undetermined Information is insufficient to evaluate therapeutic effects A: Yes 3A
and/or the evaluation is interrupted by side effects B: No 3B
C: Undetermined 3C
Reproduced with permission from Kwan et al. [10]

Table 1.7 Outcomes of AED treatments in epileptics 1.2.1 Definition of SE

Therapeutic review Definition
Effectiveness After treatment with the current In 1993, the ILAE defined SE as “a single
AED, the remission period of ­epileptic seizure of >30 min in duration or a
epileptics reaches 12 months or series of epileptic seizures during which func-
3 times the seizure interval
before treatment tion is not regained between ictal events in a >30-
Drug resistance Failure of effective seizure min period” [13]. This definition listed specific
control after administrating two time limits for the diagnosis of SE, facilitating
types of appropriate and the clinical application. However, subsequent
tolerated drugs with proper use research showed that a longer duration results in a
of AED schedules (reasonable
dose and regimen) poorer prognosis. Thus, SE should be terminated
Undetermined Failing to meet the diagnosed as soon as possible. Subsequently, Lowenstein
conditions standard of effectiveness or et al. defined SE among adults and children
ineffectiveness over 5 years old as (a) one generalized convul-
Reproduced with permission from Kwan et al. [10] sive seizure that lasts for more than 5 min or (b)
recurrent generalized convulsive seizures without
recovery (returning to baseline) between seizures
1.2 Status Epilepticus [14]. This definition increased the standard of SE
to 5 min mainly due to two reasons. On one hand,
The “transient” type of epileptic seizures both video-EEG and clinical research found that
­emphasizes the duration, indicating that a sei- most single clinical or EEG-suggested epileptic
zure starts suddenly and ends quickly, while SE seizure could self-terminate within 5 min, but
involves epileptic seizures with a long duration epileptic seizures that lasted for more than 5 min
of seizure or recurrent seizure without complete rarely self-terminated and could easily evolve
recovery of consciousness during seizure inter- into SE. On the other hand, animal experiments
vals. The duration of an epileptic seizure is the indicated that 30 min of epileptic seizures could
key to distinguishing an ordinary seizure and lead to permanent injury of the central nervous
SE. Due to a lack of substantial epidemiological, system (CNS) and RSE. Therefore, most clini-
clinical, and animal experimental evidence, the cians recognized “≥5 min” as the standard to
definition of SE was obscure and inaccurate until diagnose SE, advocating early and timely treat-
the 1990s—SE was regarded as a seizure with a ments of SE to reduce CNS injury and RSE. In
long duration or a fixed and enduring condition 2010, the European Federation of Neurological
that resulted from repeated epileptic seizures. No Societies (EFNS) released the EFNS guideline
concise definition exists for the time standard of on the management of SE, which did not give an
SE, and no corresponding classification of SE is explicit standard for SE diagnosis (5 min, 10 min,
described in previous definitions [12]. or 30 min) due to the tremendous controversy
10 Y. Chen and S. Li

Table 1.8 Historical evolution of the definition of SE

Time Definition of SE
1904 A status of frequent epileptic seizures; with consciousness impairment during the epileptic seizure
intervals [21]
1940 The most serious epileptic seizures; convalescence becoming shorter for relapses of epileptic seizures [22]
1964 One seizure with a long duration (no explicit time) or a fixed and enduring condition resulting from
repeated epileptic seizures [23]
1981 One seizure with a long duration (no explicit time), or recurrent epilepsy, without recovery of
consciousness during seizure intervals [5]
1993 ILAE considered: (a) a single seizure lasting for more than 30 min; (b) a series of epileptic seizures of
more than 30 min, during which function is not regained between ictal events in a >30-min period.
Although this definition is disputed, it is well accepted by the majority of epilepsy societies and clinicians
and is widely used [13]
1998 Treiman et al. first defined 10 min as the shortest time of SE and regarded this as an inclusive criterion for
subjects. The research results suggest that early SE termination can significantly decrease mortality and
disability [24]
1999 Lowenstein et al. proposed one generalized convulsive seizure lasting for more than 5 min or recurrent
generalized convulsive seizures with incomplete recovery of consciousness during seizure intervals [14]
2015 ILAE: Status epilepticus is a condition caused either by the failure of the mechanisms responsible for
seizure termination or by the initiation of mechanisms that lead to abnormally prolonged seizures (after
time point t1) or a condition that can have long-term consequences (after time point t2), consisting of
neuronal death, neural injury, and alteration of neural networks, which depends on the type and duration of
seizures [17]

among neurologists in European ­countries [15]. vary between t1 and t2. The seizures should be
In 2012, “≥5 min” was suggested as the time regarded as “continuous epileptic activity” when
standard for SE diagnosis in the guidelines pub- the period of seizures exceeds time point t1, indi-
lished by the Neurocritical Care Society (NCS) cating the initiation of SE treatment in clinical
(Table 1.8) [16]. practice. When the duration of seizures exceeds
In 2015, the ILAE proposed a definition and t2, a risk of long-term consequences caused by
classification of SE [17]. The revised definition SE is present, and a more active treatment should
of SE is more detailed and improves clinical be adopted in clinical practice to prevent long-­
practice. The definition is as follows: status epi- term consequences [17].
lepticus is a condition caused either by the failure
of the mechanisms responsible for seizure ter-
mination or by the initiation of mechanisms that 1.2.2 Classification of SE
lead to abnormally prolonged seizures (after time
point t1) or a condition that can have long-term The classification of SE is mainly based on the
consequences (after time point t2), consisting of semiology of epileptic seizures (types of sei-
neuronal death, neural injury, and alteration of zures), EEG findings during the period, interval
neural networks, which depends on the type and of seizures, anatomical structures, etiology, and
duration of seizures. To facilitate clinical use, the age of the patient. In 1981, the ILAE suggested
definition includes two time points (t1 and t2). In that SE should be classified as focal SE (such as
the case of generalized convulsive (tonic–clonic) Jacksonian seizures) and generalized SE (includ-
SE, t1 and t2 are defined as 5 min and 30 min, ing absence seizures and tonic–clonic seizures),
respectively. In the case of focal SE with impair- which is primarily consistent with the types of
ment of consciousness, t1 is defined as 10 min, seizures and EEG results [5]. In 2001, the ILAE
and t2 is 60 min. In cases of other types of SE, proposed a more detailed classification of SE
evidence is not sufficient to define the two time based on the types of seizures and EEG results
points. The clinical significance and indications (Table 1.9) [18].
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 11

Table 1.9 Classifications of SE (ILAE 2001; America NCS 2012)

ILAE Classification (2001)
I. Generalized SE
   Tonic–clonic SE
  Clonic SE
   Absence SE
   Tonic SE
  Myoclonic SE
II. Focal SE
   Kojevnikov partial SE
  Persistent aura
   Limbic systematic SE (psycho-motorial)
  Hemiconvulsive status epilepticus with hemiparesis (reproduced with permission from Engel et al. [18])
American NCS Classification (2012)
I. Convulsive status epilepticus
  Definition: Convulsive status epilepticus (CSE) presents with a rhythmic movement of the arms and legs
   Clinical characteristics of generalized convulsive SE:
     1.1 Generalized tonic–clonic movement of arms and legs
     1.2 Consciousness impairment (coma, somnolence, and confusion)
     1.3 Focal neurologic deficits in the postictal period (such as Todd’s paralysis)
There are no explanations of focal motor SE and partial SE in this definition
II. NCSE
  Definition: Abnormal epileptiform discharges can be observed on EEG, without clear motor symptoms
    Two types of NCSE:
     2.1 Mild consciousness impairment, confusion, with good prognosis
     2.2 Severe consciousness impairment often occurs in the late period of CSE, with or without subtle
motor symptoms (such as limb or facial muscle abstraction or tonic eyeball heterotropia), which is
called subtle SE (reproduced with permission from Brophy et al. [16])

In 2012, the American NCS guidelines cat- the classification of SE. Therefore, the fact that
egorized SE as convulsive status epilepticus and EEG classification should be initiated as early
nonconvulsive status epilepticus according to the as possible is suggested in the definition. The
semiology (with or without motor symptoms) diagnosis and treatment for some types of SE
and EEG results (Table 1.9) [16]. (particularly NCSE) rely on EEG. In addition,
In 2015, the ILAE published a further the performance of semiology and EEG might
detailed classification of SE. This classification be dynamic during the period of SE; hence, the
contained four main factors: (a) semiology, (b) classification of SE would also be dynamic. For
etiology, (c) EEG-related manifestations, and example, in the initial stage, SE could exhibit
(d) ages. It provides a clinical framework for focal motor secondarily generalized CSE and
the diagnosis and treatment available to every then exhibit NCSE with coma and subtle motor
patient. At the onset of SE, this method can be seizures. At the early stage of SE, EEG results
used to ­classify cases by ages and types of sei- could also show unilateral periodic discharges
zures without delay. Compared to this method, that evolve into bilateral synchronous epilepti-
the etiological classification would take a lon- form discharges [17].
ger period to further analyze and confirm the The evidence of semiology involves the clini-
findings. Because its results could influence the cal manifestations of SE, namely, the types of
choice of treatment protocols and suggest the seizures, which is crucial for SE classification.
prognosis of SE, EEG is of vital importance for Currently, it is suggested that SE should be
12 Y. Chen and S. Li

Table 1.10 Semiology classification of SE (ILAE 2015)

I. Obviously generalized or focal motor symptoms during seizures
   1.1 Tonic–clonic SE, namely, CSE
   Generalized motor SE
    Focal SE secondary to generalized SE
    Occurrence of obvious motor symptoms, failing to differentiate generalized SE and focal SE
   1.2 Myoclonic SE, showing obvious epileptic myoclonic twitch
   Consciousness impairment
    Without consciousness impairment
   1.3 Focal motor seizures
    Recurrent focal motor seizures
   Partial SE
    Adversive status
    Oculoclonic status
    Ictal paresis (focal inhibitory SE)
  1.4 Tonic SE
  1.5 Hyper-motor SE
II. Without obvious motor component, namely, NCSE
   2.1 Coma, including subtle SE
  2.2 Without coma
   2.2.1 Generalized
    Typical absence
    Atypical absence
    Myoclonic absence
   2.2.2 Focal
    Without consciousness impairment (aura persistent status, with symptoms of autonomic nerves,
sensation, sense of vision, sense of smell, affection/spirit/experience, or auditory perception)
    Aphasia status
    With consciousness impairment
    2.2.3 Failure of classification as generalized status or focal status, such as autonomic nerve SE
III. Undetermined status (“marginal syndrome”)
  3.1 Epileptic encephalopathy
   3.2 Coma with non-variable EEG epileptiform discharges
  3.3 Behavior disorders
   3.4 Acute mental disorders (such as delirium and fugue) with EEG epileptiform discharge
Reproduced with permission from Trinka et al. [17]

f­ urther classified based on whether motor symp- and post-stroke), and progressive causes (includ-
toms are apparent and the degree of conscious- ing brain neoplasm, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease,
ness impairment (Table 1.10) [17]. Alzheimer’s disease, and other progressive myo-
The etiological classification of SE is con- clonic epilepsies).
sistent with previous proposals released by the EEG does not show specificity during seizure
ILAE, and it adopts some terminology often intervals for all types of SE. Currently, no EEG
used by professionals in various areas [16, 17]. classification standard exists based on evidence-­
SE is mainly divided into known and unknown based medicine. A description of EEG findings is
causes. The known causes include acute causes recommended according to Table 1.11 [12, 17].
(such as stroke, trauma, and encephalitis), remote The definition in 2015 [17] also lists represen-
causes (including post-trauma, postencephalitis, tative SE characteristics of different age stages,
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 13

Table 1.11 EEG of SE (ILAE 2015)

Site Generalized, including bilateral synchronous discharge; bilateral; independently
bilateral; multifocal
Name of discharge pattern Periodic discharge; rhythmic motor; spike slow-wave/sharp slow-wave syndrome
Morphology Sharp wave; phase (triphasic wave); absolute and relative amplitude; polarity
Characteristics related to time Occurrence; frequency; time limit; duration and index of daily discharge pattern;
onset pattern of discharge (sudden or gradual); variation (change, fluctuation, or
no change)
Modulation Stimulus provoked or spontaneous
Drugs Effect of intervention on EEG
Reproduced with permission from Trinka et al. [17]

Table 1.12 Representative characteristics of SE in different age stages

SE in infantile SE in childhood (2–12 years old) SE in adolescence and SE in the elderly (at least
(1 month–2 years old) and adolescent period adulthood (12–59 years 60 years old)
epileptic syndrome old)
a. Myoclonic status in a. Self-limited SE in early a. Myoclonic status in a. Myoclonic status in
Dravet syndrome benign childhood occipital juvenile myoclonic Alzheimer’s disease
b. Focal status epilepsy epilepsy b. NCSE in Creutzfeldt–
c. Febrile status b. NCSE in exceptional b. Absence status in Jakob disease
d. Tonic status childhood epileptic syndrome juvenile myoclonic c. Occurrence or recurrent
(such as epilepsy with epilepsy absence in the elderly,
myoclonic–atonic seizures and c. Myoclonic status in such as SE after stoke
other childhood myoclonic Down syndrome
encephalopathy)
c. Myoclonic status in
progressive myoclonic epilepsy
d. Tonic status in
Lennox–Gastaut syndrome
e. Discharge SE in slow-wave
sleep
f. Aphasia status in Landau–
Kleffner syndrome
Reproduced with permission from Trinka et al. [17]

which facilitates learning and mastering the rel- Currently, controversy exists regarding the
evant semiology, etiology, and EEG manifesta- definition of RSE, and no universal definition
tions that are caused by SE (Table 1.12). has been proposed. The two main controversial
aspects are as follows. One issue is the number
of AEDs used. One view holds that RSE can be
1.3  efinition and Classification
D diagnosed when two sufficient AEDs (one type
of RSE of benzodiazepine and one subsequent AED) are
used, but convulsive seizures and epileptic dis-
RSE is defined as a condition that when treated charges on EEG are not terminated. However,
with standard protocols, convulsive seizures and others have proposed that RSE can be diagnosed
epileptic discharges on EEG cannot be termi- when convulsive seizures and epileptic discharges
nated when sufficient first-line drugs are used for on EEG are still not terminated after using three
the treatment of SE (benzodiazepines and one sufficient AEDs (a type of benzodiazepine and
subsequent AED). This definition was proposed two subsequent other AEDs). The other issue
in the guidelines published by the American NCS is the duration of seizures after treatment, par-
in 2012 [16]. ticularly, of the length of epileptic seizures after
14 Y. Chen and S. Li

using two or three types of AEDs and when the The above is the brief description of the defi-
disease can be diagnosed as RSE. The opinion in nitions and classifications of epilepsy, SE, and
the guidelines published by the NCS (America) RSE. Currently, the definitions and classifica-
in 2012 is that the diagnosis of RSE can be made tions of epilepsy and SE are accepted by the
without considering the duration of epileptic sei- majority of clinicians due to their increasing clin-
zures after using two types of AEDs. If seizures ical operability and wide application. However,
cannot be terminated after two types of drugs controversy still exists regarding the definition
are used, RSE can be diagnosed. The guideline, of epilepsy, which requires clinicians to judge
published by the EFNS in 2010, mentions that actual situations. With the development of clini-
the duration of epileptic seizures after using two cal research and animal experiments, definitions
or three types of AEDs is not standardized (1 h, of epilepsy, SE, and RSE will be further revised.
2 h, or irrespective of the time) [15]. Currently,
the main opinion is that RSE can be diagnosed
after the failure of two types of AEDs without 1.4  iagnosis of Convulsive
D
considering the duration of epileptic seizures. At Epilepsy and Status
present, no specific report related to RSE clas- Epilepticus
sification exists. Therefore, the classification of
RSE is also consistent with the semiology, EEG SE is one of the most common critical illnesses
findings, and etiology of seizures as well as the of the nervous system; it has a high mortality rate
patient age, which is similar to the classification and requires emergency treatment, but the diag-
of SE. nosis of SE is very difficult [25–27]. Studies have
In 2011, Shorvon et al. [19] noted that super-­ reported that more than half of the patients admit-
RSE could be defined when the period of anes- ted to neurological intensive care units with SE
thetic pharmacotherapy for SE exceeds 24 h but do not have actual seizures, as the onset of epi-
the clinical convulsive seizures or epileptic dis- lepsy lacks specificity. Clinically, convulsive epi-
charges on EEG are still not terminated or when lepsy must be differentiated from ten other types
the condition relapses. Super-RSE is well known of convulsive disorders. Moreover, the clinical
by clinicians and mainly found in following two manifestations of epilepsy are also very complex.
conditions: patients with severe brain trauma and For complex partial seizures, which belong to the
patients with no history of epilepsy who have SE category of NCSE, more than 18 types of aca-
without obvious causes. demically reported clinical manifestations have
Not all SE is epilepsy. Some patients without been described. Due to its comorbidity, some
a history of seizure or epilepsy may demonstrate patients with epilepsy may simultaneously expe-
SE; however, after an episode of SE, even with- rience both epileptic and nonepileptic attacks,
out the use of AEDs, most of these patients do which increases the difficulty of diagnosis and
not have a recurrent seizure. However, in many treatment in clinical settings and thus requires
patients, RSE is caused by delayed diagnosis or caution in the differentiation from other diseases
inappropriate treatment during the initial stage [25–33].
of the disease. Some patients with epileptic syn-
drome are also prone to SE. When that occurs,
treatments vary from those for other types of 1.4.1  onvulsive Epilepsy Versus
C
SE. Therefore, some experts suggested that Nonepileptic Convulsion
according to the prognosis of SE, SE should be
classified as new-onset SE, SE refractory to treat- Convulsion is the sudden, involuntary, and unin-
ment, and special types of SE, for the purpose of hibited tonic and/or clonic contraction of systemic
SE treatment [20]. or local muscle group(s), often accompanied
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 15

by disturbance of consciousness. Although the shortly afterward, with clear start and end points.
ILAE does not recommend the term convul- In the interictal period, most patients appear nor-
sion for the classification of epilepsy, the term mal. “Transient” means that epileptic attacks
convulsive epilepsy, which mainly encompasses usually last for a very short time, no longer than
generalized tonic–clonic seizures, tonic seizures, 5 min, except for those with SE. Although the
clonic seizures, and partial seizures with promi- clinical manifestations of epilepsy are very com-
nent motor symptoms, is still widely adopted and plex, almost all attacks in an individual patient
reported in the literature. Convulsion is not spe- are similar. This is known as the stereotype of epi-
cific to epilepsy; it is one of the clinical mani- lepsy. “Repetitive” refers to repeated attacks of
festations of more than ten types of nonepileptic epilepsy in most patients, and it is necessary to be
seizures. Nonepileptic seizure is not a separate particularly careful with the diagnosis of epilepsy
identity but a general term for many nonepilep- when only one attack has occurred. However, not
tic diseases with similar clinical manifestations. all disorders with the common characteristics of
Although nonepileptic convulsions are similar to epilepsy can be diagnosed as epilepsy, including
epilepsy in clinical manifestations, they are not trigeminal neuropathy, a clinically common dis-
epilepsy and cannot be treated as epilepsy, espe- order that displays paroxysmal, transient, stereo-
cially SE. No susceptibility to repeated epileptic typed, and repetitive clinical manifestations but
seizures exists in the brains of these patients, and is not epilepsy because its clinical manifestations
abnormal electrical discharges of brain neurons are not consistent with the “individuality” of sei-
are not found during clinical monitoring. The zures. This “individuality” distinguishes epilepsy
clinical importance of nonepileptic convulsion from other seizure-like attacks. The “individual-
lies in its extremely easy misdiagnosis as con- ity” of convulsive epilepsy is loss of conscious-
vulsive epilepsy, and inappropriate antiepilep- ness and generalized tonic events followed by a
tic treatment may lead to serious consequences. series of clonic activities [20].
Therefore, clinicians, especially those special- A typical course of convulsive epilepsy can
izing in critic neurological disorders, should pay be divided into three phases: (a) pre-convulsion,
serious attention to this issue [29–32]. (b) convulsion, and (c) post-convulsion phases.
The pre-convulsion phase mainly manifests as
loss of consciousness, often accompanied by
1.4.2  haracteristics of Convulsive
C falls. The convulsion phase mainly manifests as
Epilepsy the sequential emergence of tonic activities and
clonic activities. During the tonic phase, the skel-
Human epilepsy includes two main features: epi- etal muscles of the entire body contract continu-
leptiform discharges on EEG in patients and clin- ously, with eyes turning upward, gazing, locked
ical attacks. In theory, epileptiform discharges jaws, screaming, upper limb adduction and
are present on the EEG of every patient with epi- pronation, and lower limb straightening. These
lepsy; however, in clinical practice, they are not manifestations continue for 10–20 s before the
detectable in a considerable number of epilepsy patient enters the clonic phase, which is mainly
patients due to technical limitations or differences characterized by tonus developing into episodes
in the location of lesions. Therefore, the diag- of ­clonus, each succeeded by a brief interval.
nosis of epilepsy still relies on clinical attacks. The frequency of clonus gradually decreases, the
Because convulsive epilepsy is a type of epileptic intervals are extended, and then the patient enters
disorder, it exhibits the common characteristics the post-convulsion phase. The tonic and clonic
of epilepsy, that is, it is paroxysmal, transient, phases are both accompanied by respiratory
stereotyped, and repetitive. “Paroxysmal” means arrest, increased blood pressure, pupil dilation,
epileptic attacks often begin abruptly and end increased secretion, and other symptoms. In the
16 Y. Chen and S. Li

post-convulsion phase, transient clonus is still Before the onset of CSE, a prodromal period
present, but breathing, blood pressure, and heart lasting for several hours often occurs, manifested
rate gradually return to normal. At this point, the as more epileptic activity than usual, gradually
patient appears easily irritated, confused, and increased frequency and increased intensity of
agitated. A small number of patients exhibit focal attacks. Progressive myoclonus, mental changes,
seizures. or consciousness disorders due to subclinical
epileptic activities may also be present in some
patients. In patients without a history of seizures,
1.4.3 Characteristics of CSE it is possible that SE can occur suddenly.
The frequency of seizure attacks is variable,
Recurrent convulsive seizures without recovery ranging from 4 to 6 times to thousands of times
of interictal neurological function or a single per hour according to reports. As CSE pro-
attack longer than 5 min with continuous epilep- ceeds, the duration of each attack is shortened,
tiform discharges on EEG is known as CSE. In the tonic phase is prolonged, and the clonus is
view of clinical diagnosis and treatment, it is also relieved; finally, these manifestations disappear
advocated that convulsive seizures with frequent completely.
recurrence during a short time should be termed
CSE, but the specific frequency of recurrence
is not unified; it has been stated to be as low as 1.4.4  valuation of Convulsive
E
once per hour or as high as four times per hour. Epilepsy
Recently, a new classification system for epilepsy
has been proposed by the ILAE, in which CSE is Firstly, it is necessary to determine whether a
classified as SE with prominent motor symptoms. patient’s seizures have the common and individ-
Childhood CSE is the most common febrile ual qualities of epileptic seizures, especially the
seizure in children. Hayakawa et al. [34] ana- details of the attack, which usually serve as an
lyzed 381 cases of CSE accompanied by fever important basis for correct diagnosis.
and found that 81.6% developed from febrile sei- Secondly, although not every patient’s EEG is
zures, 6.6% were due to encephalitis, 0.8% were abnormal, abnormalities on EEG are still impor-
due to meningitis, and 7.6% developed from epi- tant evidence of the diagnosis of epilepsy. Video-­
lepsy. Other studies of refractory SE have found EEG monitoring (VEM), in particular, is highly
that 60.3% of cases originated from infection valuable for the differentiation of epileptic and
of the central nervous system [35]. Clinically, nonepileptic seizures. Serological tests, espe-
childhood CSE primarily manifests as systemic cially the detection of prolactin (PRL) levels, and
myoclonus, which is repeated, paroxysmal, and neuroimaging are also helpful for diagnosis.
bilateral, and it may be asymmetric and arrhyth- Thirdly, it is very important to exclude other
mic. EEG shows synchronized bilateral spikes, nonepileptic paroxysmal disorders. Antiepileptic
while outbreaks of sharp waves or spike-and-­ treatment has almost no curative effect on disor-
waves may occur. In some children, generalized ders misdiagnosed as epileptic seizures, and the
tonic SE, mainly demonstrated by paroxysmal, iatrogenic harm caused by medical workers in
transient, and frequent tonic contraction of limbs, pursuit of successful disease control needs to be
is the primary manifestation, often accompa- strongly emphasized as it often poses great threat
nied by gazing and muscle contraction of the to the health of patients.
face, neck, and throat, which occur once over In addition, there are some notes on the evalu-
several minutes. EEG shows desynchronization, ation of convulsive epilepsy. The diagnosis of
but more typically low-voltage fast activities of epilepsy depends on the patient’s medical his-
20–30 Hz that gradually slow to 10–20 Hz with tory; however, history taking is the most diffi-
an increase in amplitude are observed. Polyspike-­ cult part of the diagnostic process. Since loss of
and-­waves can also be seen [20, 35]. consciousness is common in CSE, patients are
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 17

unable to provide critical details of attacks. The both eyes, locked jaws, screaming, and foaming
transient nature of seizure attacks also makes it (saliva) at the mouth. These manifestations serve
difficult for the medical staff to have the oppor- as important evidence for the consideration of
tunity to observe seizures. Therefore, the history convulsive epilepsy. Convulsive epilepsy is often
of seizures is often provided by nurses who are accompanied by changes in vital signs essential
deficient in the essential knowledge of epilepsy for the diagnosis of epilepsy. During attacks of
and attention to details of attacks. However, these convulsive epilepsy, patients tend to have facial
details are particularly important for diagnosis. cyanosis, while the possibility of psychogenic
For example, it should be noted whether respi- seizures should be considered in case of pallor.
ratory arrest occurs during the attack. Its exis- In laboratory examinations, elevated PRL and
tence supports the diagnosis of epilepsy, while neuron-specific enolase (NSE) are very common
deep respiration should lead to the consider- after a convulsive event. The diagnosis of epi-
ation of hyperventilation syndrome. In addition, lepsy is supported by serum PRL reaching 2–3
family members of the patient or nurses with times the interictal level within the first hour of
Munchausen syndrome may provide a false his- the postictal period and an increased level of NSE
tory, which increases the uncertainty of the diag- 24–28 h after an event. Postictal serum creatine
nosis of epilepsy. Therefore, effective measures, phosphokinase (CPK) tends to be elevated and
such as videotaping or recording using mobile provides an important reference for the clinical
phones and educating patients’ families and the diagnosis, although it lacks specificity [35, 36].
nursing staff on epilepsy, are fundamental for
obtaining the medical history of a patient sus-
pected of having epilepsy. 1.4.5 Distinguish Nonepileptic
Meanwhile, attention should be paid to the Convulsion from Convulsive
state of consciousness. Disturbance of conscious- Epilepsy
ness is one of the most important manifestations
of convulsive epilepsy. When a seizure event is Nonepileptic seizure is not an independent iden-
witnessed, all efforts should be made to ascertain tity but a general term for nonepileptic disorders
whether disturbance of consciousness occurs. similar to epileptic seizures in clinical manifes-
Commonly used methods include the menace tations. It is often misdiagnosed as refractory
reflex (when an object rapidly approaches the epilepsy, and the coexistence of both disorders
patient’s eyes from the front, observe whether makes the diagnosis even more difficult [37–39].
blinking occurs; blinking indicates the presence
of consciousness and, therefore, does not sup- 1.4.5.1 Convulsive Syncope
port the diagnosis of convulsive epilepsy) and the Syncope is a transient loss of consciousness
“man in the mirror” (move a mirror in front of caused by transient global cerebral hypoperfu-
the patient; if the patient reacts to follow the mir- sion, or ability to maintain postural tone due to
ror, it suggests that his or her consciousness is not lack of perfusion to the brain. When syncope is
lost). It is also useful to repeat some words used accompanied by tonic or clonic movements, it
in everyday conversations, such as “banana,” can be diagnosed as convulsive syncope. The
“car,” or “house” during the attack and to ask the manifestations of convulsive syncope were first
patient to recite what they heard during the attack reported by Cooper [40]. Santy et al. [41] found
after its termination. The ability to do so does not that syncope in children was accompanied by
support the previous existence of consciousness convulsions, which attracted attention to con-
disorders [20]. vulsive syncope. In 1957, Gastaut et al. [42]
Attention should also be paid to the details of experimentally induced syncope in humans for
the attack. Tonic events during the course of con- the first time and studied its clinical and EEG
vulsive epilepsy tend to be characterized by man- features. After observing that patients in syn-
ifestations such as gazing and upward turning of cope had tonus and myoclonus in the absence of
18 Y. Chen and S. Li

e­ pileptiform discharges on EEG, they proposed drug resistance. Therefore, careful identification
the concept of convulsive syncope. is necessary [45].
Convulsive syncope is easily misdiagnosed. Often, significant inducements of the onset of
Some patients have been initially misdiagnosed convulsive syncope exist, such as bleeding, pain,
with epilepsy and have undergone inappropri- and rapid postural changes, especially when sud-
ate treatment, only to be correctly diagnosed denly standing from the sitting position. In gen-
when they were ultimately found to have convul- eral, convulsive syncope does not occur during
sive syncope induced by tilt table testing. Some sleep. Epileptic seizures often are not signifi-
patients under long-term antiepileptic treatment cantly associated with these factors, and occur-
have been found to have cardiogenic convulsive rence during sleep is very common.
syncope only after occasional electrocardio- Preceding warning symptoms, such as blurred
graphic examinations revealed severe cardiac vision, palpitation, dizziness, excessive sweating,
arrhythmia. Grubb et al. [43] found that 1/3 of and tinnitus, usually appear before syncope. The
cases evaluated for epilepsy were actually cases recovery is slow. The auras of epileptic seizures
of nonepileptic convulsions. mainly include central nervous symptoms, such
Convulsive syncope is often induced by sig- as hallucinations, or paresthesia, such as limb
nificant factors, such as pain, fear, emotional numbness.
stress, blood loss, and carotid artery stimulation. The most important part of identification is
The onset of syncope is preceded by prodromal finding the cause. Cardiogenic syncope patients
symptoms, such as fatigue, unclear vision, tin- often have a variety of arrhythmias and car-
nitus, pale countenance, and excessive sweat- diomyopathy. Cerebral syncope patients may
ing. Convulsion usually occurs 10 s after loss show manifestations such as subclavian steal
of consciousness and manifests as limb rigid- syndrome. Primary orthostatic hypotension,
ity, clonic events, or tonic–clonic events with a levodopa, and chlorpromazine can lead to ortho-
short duration and mild intensity. Additionally, static syncope. Hypoglycemia or severe anemia
apnea, decreased heart rate, or even cardiac may also lead to syncope.
arrest, at which time the pulses of the radial Auxiliary examinations are necessary. Blood
artery and the carotid artery are unlikely to be glucose and hemoglobin should be examined
palpable, may be present. These symptoms gen- routinely. Electrocardiography, especially 24-h
erally last for 20–30 s, after which full recovery dynamic electrocardiography plus echocardiog-
can be expected. After the attack, patients may raphy, is important for the exclusion of cardio-
experience retrograde amnesia, somnolence, or genic shock. For suspected cerebral syncope,
confusion, while psychiatric symptoms such as examinations should include EEG, cranial CT
excitement, euphoria, fear, and visual or auditory or MRI, transcranial Doppler sonography, and, if
hallucinations may also appear. Simultaneously, necessary, cerebral angiography. If carotid sinus
the patient may also have manifestations of the massage induces sinus arrest longer than 3 s and/
primary disease. Bădilă et al. [44] analyzed 217 or a systolic blood pressure decrease of more than
cases of syncopal patients and found that the 30 mmHg, hypersensitive carotid sinus syndrome
most common causes of syncope were orthostatic can be diagnosed. Additionally, the upright tilt
hypotension and cardiac and vasovagal causes; table test is relatively sensitive for the identifica-
some patients had multiple factors. tion of unexplained recurrent syncope. In patients
Convulsive syncope and epileptic seizures are with abnormalities found upon examination of the
very similar clinically; therefore, it is very dif- nervous system, considerations should include
ficult to differentiate them. Many patients with peripheral neuropathies, such as diabetes, nutri-
convulsive syncope may receive long-term anti- tional disorders, and amyloidosis, and lesions
epileptic treatment because they were misdiag- of the central nervous system, such as multiple
nosed with epilepsy at their first clinical visit, system atrophy. Sometimes, autonomic function
and many patients undergo operations due to tests such as the Ewing’s ­batteries may contribute
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 19

toward the investigation of a patient with syncope had convulsions. Manger [49] found that patients
by diagnosing autonomic dysfunctions. with paroxysmal hypertension accounted for
50% of patients with this disease. Paroxysmal
1.4.5.2 Pheochromocytoma-Induced hypertension may, through hypertensive enceph-
Convulsion alopathy, lead to convulsions that manifest as
Pheochromocytoma is a type of tumor that is generalized tonic–clonic events. These events
derived from pheochromocytes of the adre- last for 1–2 min before self-alleviation but may
nal medulla or extra-adrenal paraganglia and be as brief as several seconds or as long as several
secretes large amounts of catecholamines. hours, as reported in some studies. Recurrence is
Pheochromocytoma may occur at any age, common, and the frequency of paroxysm varies
most commonly between 20 and 50 years, and from once per several months to a few times per
the incidence is slightly higher in males than in week. The patients are easily misdiagnosed with
females. Approximately 10% of pheochromocy- epilepsy and thus receive antiepileptic therapy or
tomas are malignant. The first report of convul- even suffer serious consequences from surgical
sions induced by pheochromocytoma was from treatment. Therefore, the issue of misdiagnosis
Becker [46]. Later, Leiba et al. [47] reported a should be adequately addressed [46–51].
case with only a slight increase in blood pressure The main cause of convulsions is a large
(170/100 mmHg) but with loss of consciousness amount of norepinephrine secreted by the pheo-
and limb convulsions as the primary manifesta- chromocytoma. The sudden release of norepi-
tions. During convulsions, the patient’s blood nephrine not only elevates blood pressure but
pressure was only mildly elevated, while CT and also promotes the occurrence of convulsions.
MRI showed no abnormalities; in the absence of Auxiliary examinations available for pheo-
antihypertensive treatment, the attack was ter- chromocytoma can be divided into two catego-
minated by active anticonvulsant therapy. The ries. The first is biochemical testing. Because
possibility of cerebral tumors had been excluded metanephrine (MN) and normetanephrine
by cranial MRI. Thus, the authors believed that (NMN), metabolites of catecholamines, are not
the convulsions were induced by the pheochro- associated with the stimulated secretion of cate-
mocytoma. Anderson et al. [48] retrospectively cholamines, blood and urine screens for MN and
analyzed 93 patients with confirmed pheochro- NMN have become the first choice for the bio-
mocytoma, five of whom showed convulsions chemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma. The
as manifestations. Manger [49] summarized the second category is imaging methods. Adrenal
clinical features of nonepileptic convulsions tumors greater than 1 cm and extra-adrenal
induced by pheochromocytoma based on the lit- tumors greater than 2 cm can be discovered by
erature, noting the great danger of this condition, CT scans, which serve as an important means of
the extreme difficulty of diagnosis, and the near noninvasive imaging. More than 90% of adrenal
certainty of fatal cardiovascular complications or tumors can be precisely located. MRI does not
metastasis without timely treatment. In 2016, the require the injection of contrast agents and is
first human genetic screen for pheochromocy- highly valuable for the diagnosis of extra-adrenal
toma was performed [50, 51]. tumors. Ultrasound examinations are convenient,
Patients with pheochromocytoma often have simple, cheap, and noninvasive but are less sen-
headache, palpitations, tachycardia, pallor, sitive than CT and MRI and less likely to find
chest and abdominal pain, nausea, and vomit- small tumors. A functional metaiodobenzylgua-
ing; however, the most typical clinical symp- nidine (MIBG) scan, which has high specificity,
tom is paroxysmal hypertension. Anderson et al. helps distinguish pheochromocytoma from other
[48] analyzed the clinical manifestations of 93 space-occupying lesions and can be used to iden-
patients and found that 68 (73%) had paroxysmal tify multifocal tumors and metastatic tumors [49]
neurological symptoms, of whom 47 had head- and to perform further screening on patients with
aches, 24 had anxiety, 12 had nausea, and five otherwise negative findings.
20 Y. Chen and S. Li

The early diagnosis of pheochromocytoma-­ 1.4.5.3 Insulinoma-Induced Convulsion

induced convulsions is extremely important. Insulinoma is a rare type of pancreatic endocrine
However, the diagnosis is quite difficult as it tumor. It was first reported by Thorling [52] in
is easily confused with epilepsy. Misdiagnosis 1948. In 1954, Smyth et al. [53] noted that this
and mistreatment may endanger patients’ lives. disease could induce convulsions with peculiar
Therefore, patients with abrupt onset of gener- EEG changes. Subsequently, Ding et al. [54] ana-
alized tonic–clonic seizures should be highly lyzed 42 patients with insulinoma, 12 of whom
suspected of pheochromocytoma, especially were misdiagnosed with epilepsy because the
those with high blood pressure or tachycardia. main clinical manifestations were convulsions.
In senior patients and individuals with a history Current studies have recognized that coma fol-
of hypertension, if acute brain dysfunction arises lowed by recurrent involuntary convulsions is an
with significantly increased blood pressure, it is outstanding manifestation of fatal hypoglycemia,
imperative to determine the cause of hyperten- and a delay in diagnosis may lead to death of the
sion. In young individuals with sudden convul- patient [55, 56].
sions, inadequate blood pressure monitoring may Insulinoma-induced convulsions have a
result in missed diagnosis of pheochromocytoma. variety of forms. Although patients with mani-
For patients with positive findings in further bio- festations similar to complex seizures are not
chemical tests, such as blood and urine MN, uncommon, convulsion is still the main manifes-
NMN, and others, imaging should be performed tation in the majority of patients. Ding et al. [54]
to locate the tumors and confirm the diagnosis. analyzed 42 cases of insulinoma, of whom 25
Pheochromocytoma-induced convulsions are were misdiagnosed as neurological or psychiat-
easily misdiagnosed as epilepsy; they should be ric disorders and 12 were initially misdiagnosed
carefully differentiated from the latter. Although as epilepsy; of these 12 cases, three showed epi-
similar to epilepsy in some respects, they are not leptic discharges on EEG. Similar to epilepsy,
actual epileptic seizures and can be identified insulinoma-­induced convulsion starts suddenly;
with caution. First of all, pheochromocytoma-­ then, generalized or focal twitching or limb rigid-
induced convulsions are usually preceded by ity accompanied by loss of consciousness occurs.
severe headache, nausea, vomiting, palpita- The convulsion lasts from a few seconds to sev-
tions, tachycardia, anxiety, pallor, chest pain, eral hours and can be immediately terminated by
abdominal pain, and other symptoms. The exis- the ingestion of carbohydrates or an intravenous
tence of pheochromocytoma can be confirmed glucose drip [54–56].
by biochemical tests and imaging. Secondly, in Insulinoma-induced convulsions are similar
pheochromocytoma-­ induced convulsions, EEG to epileptic seizures and are not responsive to
findings are normal between attacks, while inter- antiepileptic drugs; therefore, they are likely to
ictal epileptic discharges on EEG are an impor- be confused with refractory epilepsy and mis-
tant diagnostic indication of epilepsy. Thirdly, diagnosed. Many reports have described the
the most common clinical manifestation of misdiagnosis of insulinoma as refractory epi-
­
pheochromocytoma is persistent or paroxysmal lepsy. Sympathetic excitatory symptoms and
hypertension, which tends to prompt the occur- neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with
rence of convulsions, leading to paroxysmal con- insulinoma-­ induced convulsions, in particular,
fusion, rigidity, or twitching. Finally, regarding should not be regarded as an aura or a postictal
other manifestations, despite the paroxysm of reaction of epileptic seizures [54].
symptoms, signs of pheochromocytoma, such The first issue in differential diagnosis
as hypertension, headache, and palpitation, are is the chronological pattern of convulsion.
still present between convulsive attacks. In this Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia is the underly-
regard, pheochromocytoma differs from the ing cause of insulinoma-induced convulsions.
interictal period of epilepsy, which shows almost Almost all of the energy used in brain cells is
no abnormalities. supplied by glucose. Hypoglycemia and the lack
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 21

of carbohydrate supplementation may result in • EEG: The differentiation between epilepsy

acute cerebral lesions. Paroxysmal hypoglycemia and convulsions induced by pancreatic islet
secondary to insulinoma mostly occurs at night cell tumors relies heavily on EEG. Interictal
or before meals. Correspondingly, insulinoma- epileptic discharges on EEG are critical evi-
induced convulsions mostly occur at dawn or dence of epilepsy.
during fasting at night. These convulsions can be • Blood glucose level: Because the clinical
induced by hunger, fatigue, mental stimulation, manifestations of patients are associated with
menstruation, fever, and other factors. If timely hypoglycemia, it is necessary to determine
treatment is not received, the frequency of attacks the blood glucose level. Particularly, patients
may gradually increase to several times per week. with onset during fasting or unexplained
Intake of carbohydrates or an intravenous glucose resistance to antiepileptic drugs should be
drip can immediately terminate an attack [57]. In examined promptly to determine whether
comparison, epileptic events are more frequent at hyperinsulinemia-­induced hypoglycemia is a
night and are not associated with eating. possibility. Nevertheless, random blood glu-
The second issue in differential diagnosis is cose levels can be normal as hypoglycemia
concomitant symptoms. In patients with insuli- secondary to insulinoma may be paroxysmal;
noma, a rapid decline in the blood glucose level therefore, frequent and dynamic blood glu-
is generally followed by sympathetic activa- cose monitoring is necessary, especially for
tion syndrome and later cerebral dysfunction. detecting blood glucose levels during attacks,
Therefore, before the onset of convulsions, which may help clarify the diagnosis [53, 57].
patients often experience symptoms of sympa- • Insulin release index and corrected insulin
thetic hyperfunction, such as sweating, trembling release index: The insulin release index (the
of the extremities, hunger, palpitation, anxiety, ratio of fasting insulin to blood glucose) has
pallor, and emotional agitation. Symptoms of more significance in the determination of
hypoglycemic brain dysfunction may also be inappropriate insulin secretion. An insulin
present, such as loss of concentration, dizziness, release index higher than 0.3 is a reliable indi-
blurred vision, and gait instability. Between con- cation of insulinoma [55].
vulsive attacks, patients may also have other neu- • Fasting and exercise tests: When fasting hypo-
rological symptoms, such as confusion, coma, glycemia is strongly suspected in a patient
hemiplegia, paraparesis, monoparesis, visual whose blood glucose level is normal or above
disturbances, headache, dysarthria, ataxia, stra- the cutoff value, fasting and exercise tests can
bismus, and hypothermia [54–57]. In contrast, be used to confirm the diagnosis. After 24–36 h
epilepsy mostly exhibits preictal manifestations, of fasting, hypoglycemic symptoms will appear
such as visual hallucinations and numbness, as in almost all patients with insulinoma, accom-
well as normal interictal manifestations. This dif- panied by inappropriate insulin secretion, which
ference is helpful for the differentiation of these increases plasma insulin to 100–220 U/mL.
two types of disorders. • Imaging: Imaging techniques such as abdomi-
The third issue is the stereotype of attacks. nal ultrasound and CT examination still play
Unlike epileptic events, insulinoma-induced con- an important role in locating insulinomas, but
vulsions are not stereotyped, and their clinical positive findings are unlikely to be obtained
manifestations, which evolve as the blood glucose when the tumor has a diameter less than 2 cm
level changes, are often diverse and dramatic. or a signal intensity close to that of normal tis-
Detailed investigations and close observation sue. Therefore, in the case of negative imaging
regarding whether a stereotype can be found for findings, an exploratory laparotomy should be
attacks can facilitate the clinical diagnosis. promptly performed for the histopathologi-
The fourth issue is auxiliary examinations. The cal diagnosis of patients highly suspected of
main purpose of auxiliary examinations is to con- insulinoma based on the results of laboratory
firm the presence of epilepsy and hypoglycemia. examinations.
22 Y. Chen and S. Li

1.4.5.4 Hypertensive Encephalopathy-­ blood pressure is controlled, the symptoms often

Induced Convulsion disappear completely within 1–2 h.
Hypertensive encephalopathy (HE) is global Because the clinical manifestations of
cerebral dysfunction caused by a sharp increase HE-induced convulsions and epilepsy are very
in blood pressure, with convulsions, disturbance similar, the main purpose of identification is to
of consciousness to varying degrees, and severe exclude the possibility of HE. The following
headache as primary manifestations, in addition conditions should prompt a suspicion of HE: (a)
to transient hemiplegia, hemianopia, and hemi- sharply increased blood pressure in patients with a
dysesthesia. HE may be induced by nephritis, history of primary or secondary hypertension plus
eclampsia, hypertensive crisis, pheochromocy- exacerbating factors, such as fatigue, nervous-
toma, Cushing’s syndrome, renal artery thrombo- ness, and excitement, especially if the diastolic
sis, or the sudden withdrawal of antihypertensive blood pressure is >120 mmHg; (b) the clinical
drugs. As one of the common neurological mani- emergence of neurological abnormalities mainly
festations of HE, convulsion is caused by isch- manifesting as increased intracranial pressure and
emia and hypoxia of the cerebral hemispheres, focal lesions of brain tissue, particularly the fol-
which is usually considered a consequence of lowing three types of global cerebral manifesta-
cerebral arteriovenous spasm and collapse of the tions: sudden onset of severe headache, nausea,
mechanism of cerebral vascular autoregulation. and vomiting, varying degrees of disturbance of
The incidence of HE-induced convulsions is consciousness, and convulsions; and (c) the rapid
not clear. Batouche et al. [58] found that 33.3% disappearance of global cerebral manifestations
of 66 children with severe hypertension had following a decrease in blood pressure with no
hypertension-induced convulsions. In a retro- sequelae. There is an overlap between hyperten-
spective study, McEnery et al. [59] discovered sive encephalopathy and posterior reversible leu-
that 31% of 48 children who had received renal koencephalopathy syndrome, both of which may
transplantation experienced convulsive seizures, contribute to seizures, but the latter is associated
and 60% of them had convulsions as the only with hypertension, the use of immunosuppressive
manifestation. agents, preeclampsia, and chronic renal failure.
As reported, HE can be observed in all age
groups, from children to the elderly, but it is most 1.4.5.5 Convulsive Psychogenic
common in youth or middle age. The typical Nonepileptic Seizures
symptoms are severe headache, nausea, vomit- Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES) are
ing, disturbance of consciousness, and convul- defined as changes in behavior or consciousness
sions, along with sudden elevation of blood resembling epileptic seizures but which have a
pressure [58–62]. psychological origin and are not clinically char-
Convulsions induced by HE are mainly mani- acterized by epileptic seizures or epileptiform dis-
fested as generalized tonic–clonic events with charges on EEG [63]. By 1800, psychiatrists had
loss of consciousness, falling, upward turning recognized the existence of this entity and regarded
of the eyes, gazing, and limb rigidity followed it as a form of hysteria. In 1996, Schachter et al.
by clonus. During an episode, respiratory arrest, [64] surveyed the American epilepsy specialists
pupil dilation, and sometimes tongue biting and regarding the terminology for this disorder, and
incontinence can occur. The convulsions, which most experts believed that nonepileptic seizures
last for 1–2 min, are often recurrent. In some were a better summarization of the characteris-
cases, they may evolve into status convulsivus, tics of the attacks because this term more accu-
which easily induces heart failure. Between epi- rately described the clinical manifestations and
sodes, patients show other common symptoms the pathophysiological process. Therefore, non-
of HE, such as irritability, nausea, vomiting, dis- epileptic seizures have been adopted as the new
orientation, delirium, stupor, and coma. After the diagnostic terms for such disorders.
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 23

Nonepileptic seizures can be classified as movements, vocalization, and other symptoms.

either physiological or psychogenic. The former Clinical manifestations of PNES in adolescents
include panic attacks, paroxysmal dystonia, and are not significantly different from those in
nonepileptic myoclonus; the latter are mainly adults and include seizure-like motor, sensory,
associated with psychological factors and are autonomic, or behavioral abnormalities, with
more likely to be confused with epileptic seizures. one or more of these as the primary manifesta-
The prevalence of PNES varies in different tion. Second, various forms of motor symptoms
reports. In the general population, the incidence occur, such as trembling, clonus, intermittent
of PNES confirmed by EEG or VEM is approxi- rigidity, and dyssynchrony of limb movements.
mately 1.4–3 per ten million [65, 66]. However, Using a cluster analysis, Groppel et al. [69] clas-
the actual incidence is much higher. Szaflarski sified PNES into three clusters. Cluster 1, called
et al. [66] conducted a retrospective survey of “psychogenic motor seizures,” consists of clonic
the population of Hamilton County, Ohio, USA, and hyper-motor movements of the extremities,
in which the mean incidence of PNES was pelvic thrusting, head movements, and tonic pos-
3.03/100,000. turing of the head. Cluster 2 comprises trembling
Silva et al. [67] classified PNES into five dif- of the extremities and was termed “psychogenic
ferent types: (a) tonic–clonic mimicking move- minor motor or trembling seizures.” Cluster 3
ments, such as generalized tonic, clonic, or is characterized by falling to the floor and was
tonic–clonic movements and myoclonus activi- termed “psychogenic atonic seizures.” Third,
ties; (b) falling/syncope, characterized by gradual PNES may manifest as one or several types of
slipping to the floor or the bed, with unrespon- sensory abnormalities, such as symptoms of irri-
siveness or decreased responsiveness sustained tation, including numbness, pain, foreign body
for a certain period; (c) unresponsiveness/com- sensation, or electric shock sensation, or symp-
plex partial mimicking events, characterized by toms of sensory deficit, such as hypesthesia or
apparent unresponsiveness or decreased respon- anesthesia. Other manifestations can occur, such
siveness with or without partial seizures; (d) other as emotional outbreaks, rage, chest thumping,
event types; and (e) more than one event type. feet stamping, rolling on the ground, tearing
Of the clinical features of PNES, three main clothes, and hair pulling. Typically, ictal crying
aspects are noteworthy. First, PNES may occur is thought to be one of the characteristic symp-
at any age, with typical onset generally between toms of PNES and can be evidence favoring the
10 and 40 years of age and a peak incidence diagnosis of PNES [70]. Autonomic symptoms,
between 25 and 40 years. PNES is more com- such as urinary incontinence, fecal incontinence,
mon in females than males, and the ratio of shortness of breath, breath holding, and cough-
male to female cases is 1:3. Cases are rare ing, may also be present.
among the elderly and children under 3 years The differentiation between nonepileptic
old. Childhood onset is mostly due to the con- seizures and epilepsy is very difficult, and the
version of an unconscious psychological conflict difficulty is particularly increased by the pos-
into somatic symptoms, which acts as a method sible coexistence of both disorders [71]. Long
of self-protection from stressful emotions. The duration of seizures, closed eyes, asymmetric
symptoms are relatively simple, mostly involv- movement, frequent recurrence, the presence of
ing motor symptoms, primitive reactions, or sig- consciousness during and after attacks, and the
nificant autonomic dysfunction. Chinta et al. [68] lack of a postictal state are all useful indications
studied PNES in children (mean age of 10 years) in the differentiation of nonepileptic seizures
and found that most patients showed prolonged from epilepsy. Mental complications, drug abuse,
gazing and u­ nresponsiveness, with less than one- cognitive impairment, and multiple nonspecific
third of patients presenting with pelvic thrust- somatic symptoms facilitate the identification of
ing, upper and lower limb ­ movements, head nonepileptic seizures. However, confirmation of
24 Y. Chen and S. Li

the diagnosis relies on the capture of the seizure VEM is the most important method used to
event by VEM [72]. distinguish epilepsy from nonepileptic seizures.
The following conditions support the diagno- Hupalo et al. [74] monitored 202 patients with
sis of PNES: (a) risk factors including anxiety, paroxysmal disorders and found that the diagno-
depression, posttraumatic stress, somatization, ses of 36% of patients were changed based on
anxiety sensitivity, life adversities, suggestibility, the results of VEM. However, the duration of
attention deficit, family/relationship problems, EEG monitoring should be taken into consider-
defense mechanisms, disorders of emotional ation because epilepsy and nonepileptic seizures
regulation, alexithymia, and affective disorders; are both paroxysmal disorders without patterns
female gender, young age, significant previous of onset. Hupalo et al. [74] also conducted EEG
traumatic experiences, and attacks induced or monitoring on 117 females and 85 males for
aggravated by memories or suggestion of previ- 3–9 days and found that 62% of patients with
ous traumatic events are all indications of non- nonepileptic seizures had clinical onset during
epileptic seizures [73]; (b) all types of strange the first 24 h of monitoring, while the rate for
feelings, unilateral or bilateral limb numbness, patients with epilepsy was only 15%; thus, they
tonic or clonic seizures, and other clinical mani- believed that patients with a probable diagnosis
festations that cannot be explained by neuroanat- of epilepsy should be monitored for at least 72 h;
omy, physiology, or other medical knowledge, for nonepileptic seizures, the duration of moni-
in addition to clear purposefulness of displaying toring could be shortened to 49 h. Shen et al.
symptoms; (c) diverse symptoms and violent, [75] summarized the VEM evidence supporting
dramatic behavior often accompanied by groan- the diagnosis of nonepileptic seizures as follows:
ing or weeping without emotional elements; (a) observation through VEM of onset similar to
paroxysmal weeping, in particular, is strongly previous attacks in the same patient without epi-
supportive of PNES; and (d) evidence against the leptiform discharges; (b) nonepileptic seizures
presence of epilepsy: nonepileptic seizures rarely are indicated when alteration of consciousness
occur at night, and they do not have the stereo- or bilateral limb movement and sensory symp-
typed or transient nature of epileptic seizures. toms appear during onset in the absence of EEG
The onset and termination of PNES are rela- changes; (c) significant alpha rhythm on EEG
tively slow. Once the seizures are terminated, the simultaneous with consciousness alteration; and
patient’s response is immediately resumed, and (d) normal background activity on continuous
no postictal state occurs. Although PNES may electroencephalogram (cEEG) records in differ-
be similar to SE, no lip cyanosis, mydriasis, or ent physiological states. However, EEG findings
loss of light reflex occurs, and patients have clear may be normal for some types of epileptic sei-
consciousness. The motor symptoms are neither zures, such as simple partial seizures, complex
synchronous nor symmetrical, such as nonsyn- partial seizures, and especially frontal lobe epi-
chronous and nonsymmetrical limb swinging or lepsy, in which it is difficult to detect epileptiform
head twisting from side to side, pelvic thrusting, discharges deep within the brain. In these cases,
and biped pedal-like movements, which differ the medical history, clinical manifestations, and
significantly from the regular motor symptoms results of other auxiliary examinations should
of epilepsy. During PNES, patients keep their be integrated into the process of diagnosis [76,
eyes closed and are resistant to opening them. 77]. Studies have found that 5–10% of patients
Additionally, paroxysmal stuttering and whisper- with nonepileptic seizures also have epilepsy,
ing can occur after the attacks, which is evidently and epileptiform discharges may appear on EEG
different from epileptic seizures. Tongue biting, during psychogenic seizure events. Therefore, an
urinary incontinence, self-mutilation, and bodily abnormal EEG cannot exclude the possibility of
injury are common in epileptic seizures but are epileptic seizures combined with psychogenic
rare in nonepileptic seizures. seizures.
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 25

In addition to VEM, studies have shown Rigidity, clonus, and limb ­ convulsion are
that serum PRL, serum CPK, NSE, and other considered primary manifestations. The most
­
biochemical markers play an important role in important features of HVS are hyperventilation,
the differential diagnosis between nonepilep- decrease in the carbon dioxide level to the lower
tic seizures and certain types of epilepsy. First limit of the normal range, and patterns of symp-
of all, serum PRL is generally thought to peak toms that can be partially or completely repro-
within 1 h after generalized tonic–clonic seizures duced during hyperventilation [79]. Acute HVS
(GTCS) and complex partial seizures (CPS) but accompanied by significantly accelerated breath-
soon returns to normal. The sensitivity values ing accounts for only a very small number of
for the diagnosis of GTCS and CPS are 60% cases, while 99% of patients have chronic HVS
and 46%, respectively, but the specificity is not that is accompanied by increased tidal volume
high. The serum PRL level does not significantly but not accelerated respiration.
change after frontal lobe seizures, myoclonic The incidence of HVS in the general popula-
seizures, CPS without motor symptoms, or other tion is 6–11%; it occurs more often in females
simple partial seizures. Therefore, the postictal than in males, with a male-to-female ratio of
serum PRL level has some significance only in 1:(2–7) [80]. In HVS with neurological symp-
the differential diagnosis between nonepilep- toms, 50–87% of patients are females. Cases of
tic seizures and some types of epilepsy, such as HVS have also been seen in children and ado-
GTCS and CPS. Secondly, serum CPK has also lescents, many of which are accompanied by
been found to significantly increase after GTCS chronic anxiety [81].
in most patients, but not after the absence sei- The exact cause of hyperventilation is not yet
zures, tonic seizures, CPS, or nonepileptic sei- clear, and multiple causes may exist. Five percent
zures. Serum CPK usually begins to increase of cases are caused by organic factors, 60% of
12 h after seizures, peaks at the 40th hour after cases are associated with psychological factors,
seizures, and persists for 3–8 days. Its sensitiv- and the remaining cases result from the interac-
ity and specificity for the diagnosis of epileptic tion of multiple factors. The main pathogenic
seizures are 75% and 86%, respectively, mak- process involves hyperventilation leading to a
ing serum CPK a useful index in the differential reduction in the carbon dioxide level, which trig-
diagnosis. Petramfar et al. [78] found that post- gers a series of acid-base and/or ion imbalance
ictal serum CPK helped distinguish nonepileptic disorders [82].
seizures from GTCS. Due to its diversity and instability, the clinical
manifestations of HVS are very complex. During
1.4.5.6 Hyperventilation Syndrome a single episode, manifestations may involve
and Its Differentiation multiple systems; additionally, each attack may
from Epilepsy differ. A comprehensive understanding of the
Hyperventilation syndrome (HVS) is the most manifestations, both systemic and neurological,
common type of disordered respiratory syn- is beneficial for the diagnosis of this disease.
drome. HVS is a complex of symptoms induced Systemic manifestations include fatigue,
by dysfunctional hyperventilation, featuring vari- nausea, palpitations, precordial pain, shortness
ous physical and psychological manifestations. of breath, inspiratory difficulties, suffocation,
Increases in the respiratory rate and tidal volume anxiety, neuroticism, a sense of non-reality,
can both result in hyperventilation. The clinical and disorientation. In addition, cognitive and
manifestations include dyspnea, chest tightness, memory disorders, shouting, confusion, panic,
sighing, chest pain, and changes in respiratory and nervousness can be observed. Williamson
patterns and rate. Despite the diversity of clinical et al. [83] analyzed 207 cases, 55% of whom
manifestations, its related symptoms are all asso- had spontaneous hyperventilation, and found
ciated with respiratory alkalosis and ­hypocapnia. that common non-neurological manifestations
26 Y. Chen and S. Li

included ­ pneumonia, neurogenic myocardial often appear in various forms that involve mul-
injury, ­systemic inflammatory response syn- tiple organs and systems, and they seldom com-
drome, and radiographic vasospasm. Perkin pletely coincide with those of other episodes.
examined 78 patients who were diagnosed with Epileptic seizures are stereotyped, and the mani-
HVS without any neurological disorder accord- festations of each attack are consistent in most
ing to a complete neurological examination. The cases. Fourthly, the disturbance of consciousness
distribution of various neurological symptoms in HVS is shorter and milder. It often manifests
was as follows: dizziness in 36 cases (59%), par- as reticence, meditation, and a lack of response
esthesia in 28 cases (36%), loss of consciousness when called. Patients have a better understanding
in 24 cases (31%), visual impairment in 22 cases of their surroundings than those with epilepsy,
(28%), ataxia (including tremor and tinnitus) in while most patients who have epileptic seizures
14 cases (18%), and headache in 17 cases (22%) with disturbance of consciousness do not remem-
[84]; vertigo was also among the most common ber events that occur during the seizure attack.
manifestations [85]. Generalized convulsions After the attack, some patients experience apnea
of the extremities are not common clinically. and hypoxemia, which can also lead to distur-
Loss of consciousness is not frequent in HVS; bance of consciousness [87]. Fifthly, paresthesia
it is generally not associated with posture, but in HVS, especially unilateral asymmetric pares-
patients with frequent attacks may suffer from thesia, may be mistaken for frontal lobe epilepsy.
head injury due to falling. If the patient simulta- Paresthesia may be associated with increased
neously shows loss of consciousness, convulsion axon excitability of peripheral neurons resulting
of the limbs, or generalized tonus, HVS should from hyperventilation-induced acid-­base imbal-
not be considered. ance and ion disorders. It may appear alone or be
As HVS often manifests as a paroxysmal combined with other symptoms. When paresthe-
mental disorder, paresthesia, transient loss of sia emerges as the only symptom, careful identi-
consciousness, or limb twitching, HVS is eas- fication is required. Epileptic paresthesia is brief
ily misdiagnosed as epilepsy or another disorder. and is mostly lateralized with consistent symp-
HVS can also induce CPS, convulsive seizures toms; this is a key point in the differentiation of
and NCSE, which increases the difficulty of dif- paresthesia from HVS. Sixthly, generalized con-
ferentiation from epilepsy [86]. However, HVS vulsions of the upper and lower extremities are
can be distinguished from epilepsy based on the uncommon in HVS. Twitching often manifests as
factors of age, sleep, stereotype, disturbance of trembling of the limbs, and the patient simulta-
consciousness, paresthesia, twitching, parox- neously has clear consciousness. The trembling
ysmal psychiatric symptoms, EEG, and so on. exhibits a low amplitude and a high frequency,
Firstly, HVS is common between the age of 15 which is significantly different from epileptic
and 55 years, while epilepsy onset occurs before convulsions of the limbs, which are accompanied
20 years of age in 60% of cases. The incidence by loss of consciousness. With careful observa-
of HVS is significantly higher in women than tion, it is not difficult to differentiate these symp-
in men, while the incidence of epilepsy shows toms from epilepsy [86]. Seventhly, paroxysmal
no significant gender difference. Secondly, over psychiatric symptoms include anxiety, neuroti-
half of epileptic seizures are associated with cism, a sense of non-reality, and orientation
the sleep–wake cycle, including onset at awak- disorders. The psychiatric symptoms are more
ening in the morning. Generalized tonic–clonic diverse in epilepsy and include various types of
seizures mostly occur after awakening or before amnesia, emotional abnormalities, illusions, and
sleep, while infantile spasms arise during sleep. complex hallucinations. Eighthly, although some
The onset of HVS occurs during a sober and calm patients of HVS exhibit global slow waves, occa-
state but rarely occurs during sleep. Thirdly, the sional cases of abnormal focal or global delta
manifestations of HVS are complex and highly waves during awakening have been observed
variable. In a single episode, the s­ymptoms on EEG. However, no obvious epileptiform
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 27

discharge is seen on EEG either during or after s­ ynaptic ­transmission, ­leading to the occurrence
attacks, while the EEGs of patients with epilepsy of eclamptic ­convulsions [60, 88].
often show epileptic discharges (such as typical Eclampsia involves convulsions that cannot be
spikes, spike-and-wave complexes, or sharp-and- explained by any other reason than the existence
wave complexes). Hyperventilation is a technique of preeclampsia. Primiparas are more susceptible
often used by neurologists to induce epileptiform to eclampsia, which often occurs in the middle or
discharges. If epileptiform discharges occur dur- late stage of pregnancy. In approximately 10% of
ing hyperventilation, it should be determined patients, eclampsia occurs before the 28th week
whether they are induced by the latter. Finally, of pregnancy, with a few cases of onset before
the hyperventilation provocation test (HVPT) is the 20th week. Eclampsia arises with acute onset.
a routine examination for HVS. In the HVPT, Some patients may have auras, such as severe
hypocapnia should be sustained for 3 min, and it forehead pain, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision,
should be ensured that the end tidal partial pres- photophobia, or epigastric pain, which are fol-
sure of carbon dioxide is lower than 1.9 kPa or lowed by convulsions. The convulsions manifest
50% of the baseline. Partial or complete replica- as a sudden loss of consciousness, falling, upward
tion of onset in daily life is key evidence in the turning of the eyes, locked jaws, and tonus–clo-
differentiation of HVS from epilepsy; low partial nus of the limbs. After a few minutes, the patient
pressure of carbon dioxide in blood gas analysis recovers but cannot recall the attack. The seizures
is another key point of identification. may be recurrent.
Eclamptic encephalopathy is acute global
1.4.5.7 Eclampsia cerebral dysfunction induced by the onset of
Convulsive epileptic seizures during pregnancy eclampsia. Posterior reversible encephalopathy
mainly involve epileptic convulsions intensified syndrome is a type of eclamptic encephalopathy
during pregnancy or existing specifically during that is reported to have an extremely high inci-
pregnancy. The former is caused by a reduced sei- dence in patients with eclampsia [89]. The clini-
zure threshold and aggravation of epileptic seizures cal manifestations of eclamptic encephalopathy
due to poor compliance of medication during preg- include severe headache, blurred vision, epileptic
nancy or specific physiological conditions, such seizures, nausea, vomiting, and disturbance of
as nausea, vomiting, sleep disorders, and others; consciousness or coma in severe cases. Elevated
the latter involve a particular pathophysiological blood pressure (≥170/100 mmHg) can be found
condition that occurs during pregnancy. Although on physical examination. Laboratory findings
eclampsia and epileptic seizures have similar man- may include proteinuria and thrombocytope-
ifestations, they are two separate disorders. nia. With timely treatment, full recovery can be
Globally, eclampsia is a public health issue expected; otherwise, patients may suffer from
and a major cause of pregnancy-related mater- irreversible damage or even death.
nal mortality. It occurs in approximately 6–8% For sudden convulsions accompanied by high
of pregnancies, and it is the direct cause of blood pressure or proteinuria during the middle
12.3% of maternal mortality. In low-income or late stage of pregnancy, the first consideration
and middle-­ income countries, eclamptic con- should be eclampsia, but other causes of convul-
vulsions are directly associated with 10–15% sions should be excluded. For an atypical course
of maternal deaths. The cause of convulsions of onset, such as onset before the 20th week of
in eclampsia is not clear. The general view is pregnancy or late onset of postpartum eclampsia
that cerebral edema, hypertension, and cere- without hypertension or proteinuria, the diagno-
bral ischemia in eclampsia trigger the massive sis should be made with caution; relevant exami-
release of neurokinin B, inflammatory cyto- nations should be completed to reveal evidence
kines, endothelin, tissue plasminogen activator, of preeclampsia.
and other bioactive molecules. These molecules Misdiagnosis is not uncommon due to the
stimulate excitatory neuronal receptors and alter similar clinical manifestations of eclampsia and
28 Y. Chen and S. Li

epileptic seizures as well as the abnormal EEG after convulsive seizures and ­comatose patients
findings in both. However, eclampsia is different with epileptiform discharges. The second aspect
from epileptic convulsions in that the convul- is EEG changes as a prerequisite for establish-
sions are accompanied by hypertension and pro- ing the diagnosis of NCSE (please refer to Chap.
teinuria, which occur during pregnancy and can 5). The third aspect is the duration of clinical
be terminated with magnesium sulfate. manifestations or EEG changes, which should
be sufficiently long, although the specific length
remains to be defined. Traditionally, an epi-
1.5 Diagnosis of NCSE sode of NCSE is defined as longer than 30 min
or recurrent without complete interictal recov-
NCSE is SE without generalized convulsion. Due ery of consciousness, but some studies support
to its complex etiology, diverse clinical manifes- the thought that treatment should be initiated as
tations, and frequent complication with other early as 5–10 min after onset [91]. Therefore, if
diseases, NCSE is easily masked by the primary a patient shows more than 10 min of continuous
disease or misdiagnosed as other disorders (such clinical and EEG changes that suggest NCSE, the
as hysteria, encephalitis, metabolic disease, or presence of NCSE should be considered.
postictal state). NCSE may cause irreversible
damage to the nervous system with delayed
treatment. 1.5.2 Incidence of NCSE

The incidence of NCSE is high, but a specific

1.5.1 Definition of NCSE value is difficult to estimate. According to epi-
demiologic surveys and other clinical stud-
Controversy remains over the definition of ies, the estimated incidence is approximately
NCSE. It is currently considered a series of non- 18.3–85 per ten million person-years [92–95],
convulsive epileptic events that result from con- and Towne et al. [96] suggested in a prospective
tinuous epileptiform electroencephalographic study that 8% of all patients treated in an ICU
activities [16, 17]. NCSE describes a continuous had NCSE. Although these data suggest a rela-
nonconvulsive clinical condition associated with tively high incidence of NCSE, some research-
continuous epileptiform discharges on EEG, and ers still believe that the incidence of NCSE is
it may involve changes in behavioral and/or men- underestimated because the absence of timely
­
tal–psychological processes, disorders of con- diagnosis results in numerous missed cases [97].
sciousness, or visceral dysfunction. Clinically, NCSE accounts for 25–50% of SE cases [98] and
NCSE is mainly characterized as an episodic of patients who had tonic–clonic seizures, more
disorder of sensation, thinking, consciousness, than 14% experienced postictal NCSE [99].
behavior, or visceral function or a decline in
arousal level. To understand the definition of
NCSE, three aspects should be considered. The 1.5.3 Etiology of NCSE
first aspect is symptoms, especially changes in the
psycho-behavioral state and/or the state of con- The etiology of NCSE is complex. NCSE may
sciousness. Niedermeyer et al. [90] described the originate from primary dysfunction of the cen-
two stereotypes of NCSE: the walking wounded tral nervous system or may be an aggravation of
and the ictally comatose. The walking wounded preexisting seizure events. Other common causes
refers to patients with absence status or focal SE, include metabolic disorders, systemic disorders,
with only a slight disturbance of consciousness and drugs.
or behavioral abnormalities. The ictally coma- NCSE often occurs in patients with a his-
tose mainly includes patients with subtle SE tory of convulsions or epilepsy. It has been
who are often left with slight motor symptoms reported that before the occurrence of NCSE,
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 29

a­ pproximately 1/3 to 2/3 of patients have a his- of antipsychotic therapy, such as serotonin syn-
tory of ­convulsions or epilepsy [96, 100–102]. drome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome,
Improper withdrawal and improper use of anti- may also lead to the occurrence of NCSE [138].
epileptic drugs are important factors in the inci- Reports have also described NCSE associated
dence of NCSE in these patients [16, 101, 103]. with chemotherapeutic drugs for malignant
Compared to adults with epilepsy, patients under tumors, immunosuppressive agents, and alcohol-
18 years of age are more prone to NCSE [100– ism [139–143].
102, 104]. In addition, Shorvon et al. [105] sum-
marized the characteristics of NCSE, finding that
NCSE is associated not only with age and brain 1.5.4 Clinical Manifestations
maturity but also with epileptic encephalopathy of NCSE
and epilepsy syndrome.
Hypoxic–ischemic encephalopathy [106, The clinical manifestations of NCSE are some-
107], intracranial infection [108–112], ischemic times atypical. Jirsch et al. [144] summarized
stroke [113, 114], intracranial hemorrhage [115– the common positive and negative symptoms
117], cerebral sinovenous thrombosis [112], of NCSE and noted that manifestations such as
brain tumors [118, 119], traumatic brain injury anorexia, catatonia, nystagmus, amnesia, leth-
[120], and autoimmune encephalitis [121] are all argy, blinking, crying, and laughter are all indi-
common causes of NCSE. Alroughani et al. [122] cations of NCSE. These symptoms are very
found that before the onset of NCSE, 38.1% of common in the NICU but are easily overlooked
patients had a history of hypoxic–ischemic brain by healthcare providers.
injury, which indicates that this type of acute
brain injury is a common cause of NCSE. Little 1.5.4.1 G  eneralized Typical Absence
et al. [117] found that after subarachnoid hem- in NCSE Without Coma
orrhage, 2.8% of patients had NCSE, while the Typical absence status is a type of epileptic activ-
incidence was even higher in other studies [115, ity with specific clinical manifestations. It is
123]. Greiner et al. [124] analyzed data from an common in patients with idiopathic generalized
11-year follow-up of 73 patients with traumatic seizures, especially absence seizures or juvenile
brain injury and found that 27.4% of patients had myoclonic absence seizures. Typical absence sta-
nonconvulsive seizures and 4.1% had NCSE. tus is often induced by inappropriate antiepileptic
Disorders of metabolism and the internal therapy, fever, hyperventilation, sadness, excite-
environment may induce NCSE. For example, ment, or fatigue. The primary manifestation is
NCSE may occur in patients with dysglycemia disturbance of consciousness of varying degrees,
and electrolyte imbalance [125, 126]. There are which is sometimes accompanied by slight eyelid
also reports of NCSE during the terminal stages twitching. It lasts a few seconds, several days, or
of systemic disorders, such as hepatic failure several weeks and is often followed by secondary
[127, 128]. NCSE may also occur in patients generalized convulsive SE. The overall prognosis
with reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy is good.
syndrome and HE [129].
Drugs are also important factors that induce 1.5.4.2 G  eneralized Atypical Absence
SE [130]. Antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins or in NCSE Without Coma
quinolones) often induce NCSE [131, 132]. In an From a clinical point of view, it is difficult to
analysis of 117 patients, Misra et al. [133] found distinguish between typical and atypical absence
that approximately 3.4% of the cases were asso- status in the absence of a reliable medical history,
ciated with the use of antibiotics. Antipsychotics, clinical features, aura, and other information. In
such as lithium, olanzapine, and tricyclic anti- atypical absence status, the level of disturbance
depressants, are also common causes of convul- of consciousness is deeper, and blinking, gri-
sion and NCSE [134–137]; some complications macing, and other manifestations are present.
30 Y. Chen and S. Li

The ­prognosis is poor, and a tendency toward nuclei, including areas far from the epileptic foci
recurrence and drug resistance has been observed. or speech areas, show high signal intensity on
The EEG changes of atypical absence SE DWI after onset [147].
are similar to the ictal EEG changes of typical
absence status, but the interictal background 1.5.4.6 F  ocal NCSE with Impairment
EEG activity is often slowed. of Consciousness
The main clinical manifestations of this type of
1.5.4.3 M yoclonic Absence in NCSE NCSE include varying degrees of disturbance of
Without Coma consciousness and mental–behavioral abnormali-
Myoclonic absence status is common in children ties. Disturbance of consciousness includes confu-
with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. It manifests sion, indifference, somnolence, or stupor; its main
as frequent rhythmic limb myoclonus with dis- characteristic is the inability to recall the attack.
turbance of consciousness during absence events; Mental–behavioral abnormalities include silence,
the elements of myoclonus are more obvious than dullness, loss of concentration, fear, impulsive-
the elements of absence. ness, delusion, and automatism of the mouth or
hands. During an attack, patients are often unable
1.5.4.4 F ocal NCSE Without to take care of themselves, recognize their fam-
Impairment of Consciousness ily, or understand speech. After the attack, patients
This type of NCSE primarily involves the neo- have no memory of the event and often feel tired.
cortex and is similar to the previous notion of An attack may last several hours, several days, or
simple partial NCSE. The main manifestations even over a month but can be alleviated spontane-
are aphasia and disorders of hearing, speech, ously. In some patients, focal NCSE may be com-
gustation, olfaction, vision, autonomic nerve plicated by other types of seizures.
function, sensation, mental state, and behavior.
Focal NCSE without impairment of conscious- 1.5.4.7 N  CSE Failure of Classification
ness is different from complex partial SE in as Generalized or Focal Status
that the patient’s consciousness is not impaired. Among the most common subtypes of this cat-
As the attacks originate from focal discharges, egory of NCSE is autonomic SE, which is com-
they are easily overlooked because the lack of mon in Panayiotopoulos syndrome [148, 149] but
characteristics of generalized convulsions can rare in other epilepsy syndromes. Patients often
be misleading. If the patient has only subjective have autonomic symptoms, such as nausea, vom-
experiences that have not been witnessed, it is iting, hiccups, tachycardia, bradycardia, pallor,
called aura continua. flushing, increased or decreased blood pressure,
fever, and frequent micturition.
1.5.4.5 Focal NCSE with Aphasic Status
Aphasic status is a rare type of SE character-
ized by speech disorders. This concept was first 1.5.5 Diagnosis of NCSE
proposed by Bender [145] in 1966. In addition
to continuous or fluctuating sensory, motor, or The diagnosis of NCSE requires comprehensive
mixed aphasia, most patients experience mild consideration of clinical manifestations and EEG
myoclonus, hemianopia, or hemiplegia. The changes. Repeated clinical events are important
lesions are often in the dominant hemisphere, clues. If EEG shows typical epileptic discharges,
especially the temporal and frontal regions. the diagnosis is easy. However, considering that
cEEG monitoring is very helpful for the diagno- EEG changes of NCSE are often confounded
sis and treatment of aphasic status [146]. Imaging with those of other encephalopathies, verifica-
studies suggest that in SE with aphasic manifes- tion of the effectiveness of antiepileptic drugs
tations, the temporoparietal cortex and thalamic (AEDs) on clinical presentation and EEG are
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 31

needed [150]. The diagnosis can be divided into ences generalized convulsive SE or an aggravated
three steps as follows. ­disturbance of consciousness during this period,
monitoring can be extended to 72 h.
Step 1: Identify patients with suspected NCSE. To read about the evaluation of the diagnosis
Step 2: Perform EEG monitoring with a definite of NCSE based on patient history and EEG as
duration. well as the intravenous AED test, please refer to
Step 3: Assess whether the diagnosis of NCSE Chap. 5.
is supported by the medical history and EEG;
if the diagnosis is difficult, tests with intrave-
nous AEDs may be performed. 1.5.6 Treatment of NCSE

Since the clinical symptoms of NCSE are Identification of the primary disorder should be
nontypical, theoretically, patients with continued actively sought to treat NCSE based on etiology.
alterations of mental state, behavior, or state of con- Meanwhile, the stability of vital signs should be
sciousness and those with similar previous mani- maintained. For specific solutions, please refer to
festations should be suspected of NCSE. In the Chaps. 6, 7, and 8.
NICU, sustained disorder of consciousness after The goal of SE treatment is the clinical ter-
a generalized tonic–clonic event, especially those mination of attacks and epileptiform discharges
lasting over 10 min after the attack, is a warning of on EEG. As a type of SE, NCSE is not funda-
the possible development of NCSE [151–153]. In mentally different from other types in terms of
patients with severe neurological disorders, NCSE methods of termination. However, due to the
should be considered in cases of coma or aggra- insignificant clinical manifestations of NCSE,
vated disturbance of consciousness [96, 103, 116]. much of the diagnosis relies on EEG, and the
The European Society of Intensive Care treatment is also dependent on EEG guidance.
Medicine and the Neurocritical Care Society of
the US recommend cEEG monitoring as a rou-
tine procedure for patients with critical neurolog- 1.6 Diagnosis of RSE
ical disorders [16, 123]. Regarding the duration
of monitoring, Claassen [102] and colleagues A principle characteristic of epilepsy is that it
performed cEEG monitoring on 570 patients self-terminates. Epileptic seizures terminate as
and observed epileptic attacks in 110 of them, a result of the refractory period that occurs fol-
of whom 88% had their first attacks observed lowing seizure activity. If the refractory period
within the first 24 h of cEEG monitoring and is disrupted, the seizure will continue, resulting
93% were found to have epileptic attacks when in status epilepticus. Although RSE has not been
the monitoring was prolonged to 48 h. However, uniformly defined, one of its major characteris-
Shafi et al. [154] monitored 242 patients without tics is that it is resistant to first-line antiepileptic
prior generalized convulsive seizures or active drugs, especially benzodiazepines, and therefore
seizures and discovered that in the majority of requires special treatment. Despite the effort to
patients with observed seizure attacks, the attacks define RSE, no international agreement has been
occurred during the first 30 min of monitoring reached regarding how many types of drugs a
(52 cases in 70 patients; 74.3%). If no epilep- patient must be resistant to for their seizures to be
tiform discharges were detected within the first defines as “resistant.” The current view is that if
4 h of monitoring, the likelihood of a subsequent an epileptic seizure does not stop or begins again
seizure was very low. This evidence suggests the after 2–3 types of antiepileptic drugs have been
necessity of cEEG monitoring in NICU patients, used, it is considered RSE [155–174].
and we advocate cEEG monitoring within 48 h The first person to propose the concept
after admission if possible. If the patient experi- of refractory status epilepticus was Lebedev
32 Y. Chen and S. Li

[175]. Then, Vajda et al. [176] reported the use The mortality rate is the proportion of total
of valproate to treat refractory status epilepti- deaths resulting from a specific disease among
cus in patients who were resistant to diazepam. all patients or animals suffering from that dis-
When valproate was administered at a dose of ease during a certain period of time. If refrac-
200–800 mg every 6 h, it produced satisfactory tory status epilepticus is not controlled, a patient
results. In 1980, Young et al. [177] explored the can die from a severe fever, internal distur-
use of barbiturates to treat refractory status epi- bances, respiratory depression, or cardiac arrest.
lepticus. In 1984, Orlowski [178] began to use Rohracher et al. [186] found that the mortality
low temperature therapy to treat refractory status rate in patients with refractory status epilepticus
epilepticus in children, and three such patients who were hospitalized in an intensive care unit
showed improvements. In recent years, treat- was 38%, similar to the 39%~65% mortality rate
ments using electro-convulsion and a ketogenic reported in other studies. Sinha et al. [187] found
diet have received increased attention, and these that mortality in older patients with refractory
results have enriched the study of this condition status epilepticus was 34%. The highest reported
[179, 180]. mortality rate reached 60% in patients with high
blood pressure, hypoxia, and intracranial infec-
tions [181, 183]. In a retrospective cohort study,
1.6.1 Epidemiological Investigation Juhasz et al. [188] found that the mortality rate
of RSE in patients with refractory status epilepticus
was 30–50% and was influenced by the pres-
The incidence rate is the frequency at which new ence of different etiologies. Tumors, hypoxia,
cases of a disease appear in a population dur- infection, and onset age were the main risk fac-
ing a specified period of time. The prevalence tors for death, and the mortality was two–three
is the proportion of the total population that has times higher in patients with these risk factors
a certain disease during a given period of time. than in other patients. Delaj et al. [181] found
Because the definition of persistent refractory that 25% of patients with refractory status epi-
status epilepticus is not clear, and because medi- lepticus died and 44% experienced subsequent
cal level and social factors are different in each serious neurological disease. Lai et al. [189]
study area, an accurate incidence of the disease studied 78 patients with refractory status epilep-
has not been obtained. Epidemiological inves- ticus, of whom 41 died, resulting in a mortality
tigations have shown that the status epilepticus rate of 52.5%. Twenty-six of the patients died
incidence rate is between 100/1 million and 160/1 of infection and multiple organ failure (33.2%),
million [99]. Retrospective studies showed that two died of cardiac arrest (2.5%), and one died
in adults, the rate of refractory status epilepticus of malignant intracranial hypertension (1.3%).
in patients with status epilepticus was 14–46% Liberalesso et al. [190] conducted electroenceph-
[155, 181–183]. Rossetti et al. [184] evaluated alography monitoring in 15 patients with refrac-
127 instances of refractory status epilepticus in tory epilepsy. Nine of these patients (60%) died,
107 patients and found that the rate of refractory including all of the patients over 80 years old and
status epilepticus was 39% in patients with sta- 50% of the patients over 50 years old. One patient
tus epilepticus. Barzegar et al. [185] investigated (6.6%) had a sequelae, and five patients (33.3%)
132 children with status epilepticus and found had a good prognosis. Therefore, the mortality
that the incidence of refractory status epilepticus rate in patients with refractory status epilepticus
was 40.15%. Because of the aging of society and is generally between 30 and 60%. Because there
ongoing increases in a variety of diseases, the is currently no accurate definition for refractory
incidence of refractory status epilepticus may be status epilepticus, it is difficult to make compari-
higher. sons between data in different studies.
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 33

1.6.2 Relative Factors of RSE cal symptoms and ­epilepsy that became difficult
to control.
1.6.2.1 Age
The incidence rate of refractory status epilepticus 1.6.2.3 Etiology
has a bimodal distribution and peaks in patients Etiology plays an important role in the formation
less than 1 year old and over 60 years old. of refractory status epilepticus. Epidemiological
Additionally, 49.1% of patients are older than surveys have shown that common causes of
50 years old, and 24.2% of affected patients are refractory status epilepticus include anti-epilepsy
older than 80 years old, indicating that its inci- drug withdrawal, central nervous system infec-
dence increases with age [99]. Studies have also tions, stroke, hypoxia, and metabolic disorders
suggested that the bimodal distribution has peaks [186, 187]. Other causes include acute cranio-
at less than 5 years old and more than 60 years old cerebral injury, brain malformations, encepha-
[191]. In addition, other studies have shown that litis, autoimmune diseases (e.g., systemic lupus
the distribution of the incidence of this condition erythematosus), Kufs disease, mitochondrial
exhibits a “J” type, with a smaller peak in patients myopathy, acute drug poisoning, periodic stroke,
less than 5 years old (incidence, 10.2/100,000) cancer, and paraneoplastic syndrome, in addition
and a lager peak in those more than 60 years old to genes and genetic factors, such as mutations
(incidence, 13.9/100,000) [191]. in mitochondrial DNA [193–195]. A multivariate
analysis showed that central nervous system infec-
1.6.2.2 T  ype of Onset of Status tions, metabolic encephalopathy, and hypoxia are
Epilepticus the most common risk factors for refractory status
Nonconvulsive status epilepticus is more likely epilepticus. Encephalitis and meningitis are the
to develop into refractory status epilepticus than most common causes of refractory status epilep-
convulsive status epilepticus. Previous stud- ticus in children [185]. Glaser et al. [196] studied
ies have shown that approximately 8% of criti- 1151 patients with encephalitis at the California
cally ill patients in hospitals have nonconvulsive Encephalitis Research Center and found that the
status epilepticus. In patients with nonconvul- incidence rate of refractory status epilepticus was
sive status epilepticus without a history of epi- 4% in patients with encephalitis. Fever caused by
lepsy, the mortality rate is as high as 80% [97]. respiratory or digestive system disease is typi-
Liberalesso et al. [190] conducted cEEG moni- cally observed prior to status epilepticus. Sutter
toring in 15 male patients with refractory status et al. [197] found that in 260 patients with refrac-
epilepticus and found that in 14 of these cases tory status epilepticus, the condition was caused
(93.3%), it developed from CPS. A multivari- by hypoxia, intracranial tumors, and stroke in
ate analysis showed that nonconvulsive status 54%, 32%, and 18% of the cases, respectively,
epilepticus and partial motor status epilepticus and in more than 40% of the patients, it had
were independent risk factors for refractory sta- an additional cause, such as metabolic disease,
tus epilepticus. Cardoso et al. [192] conducted a hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or chronic con-
retrospective study of 15 hospitalized patients, gestive heart failure. Lingappa et al. [35] con-
including children and adolescents, with refrac- ducted a retrospective study of 73 children who
tory status epilepticus (11 with convulsive status were 2–12 years old and suffered from status epi-
epilepticus and four with nonconvulsive status lepticus in developing countries. They found that
epilepticus). Six of these 11 patients developed 45.2% of the included children with convulsive
nonconvulsive status epilepticus, and the aver- status epilepticus developed refractory status epi-
age status epilepticus duration was 10.2 days. lepticus. In all, 60.3% of the cases were caused
After treatment, one patient became drug resis- by intracranial infection, and affected patients
tant, one died, and 13 developed new neurologi- had a poor prognosis over a short period of time.
34 Y. Chen and S. Li

1.6.3 Clinical Features of RSE 1.6.3.3 Special Types of RSE

This type of RSE is symptomatic of a primary
Refractory status epilepticus is different from epi- disease, and improvement in the primary dis-
lepsy. Epilepsy is a chronic disease that requires ease should lead to improvement in RSE without
long-term treatment, while refractory status epi- additional treatment. If the primary disease con-
lepticus is a critical and severe condition. Drugs tinues to develop but the epilepsy is controlled,
are not needed to prevent the recurrence of epi- its prognosis will not change. Overemphasis
lepsy if status epilepticus is stopped. However, on controlling its onset can result in iatrogenic
status epilepticus will inevitably develop into injury. Therefore, a reasonable strategy should
epilepsy. Many cases of status epilepticus do not be applied that targets both RSE and the primary
recur or develop into epilepsy if status epilepticus disease.
is stopped and the cause is eliminated. Therefore,
the classification of refractory status epilepticus
is not consistent with that of epilepsy. Although 1.6.4 Treatment for RSE
there is currently no consensus regarding the
classification of refractory status epilepticus, the The management principles for treating RSE
literature divides it into new-onset, preexisting include controlling its clinical symptoms, elimi-
epilepsy with initial treatment failure and special nating epileptic discharges on EEG, avoiding or
types of refractory status epilepticus. reducing iatrogenic injury, and effectively con-
trolling complications.
1.6.3.1 N  ew-Onset Refractory Status The major characteristic of RSE is resistance
Epilepticus to benzodiazepine drugs, such as diazepam
Refractory status epilepticus can occur in patients and lorazepam, which are commonly used as a
who have no history of epilepsy but are resistant treatment option. It therefore requires anesthe-
to first-line anti-status epileptic drugs. This is sia, hypothermia, or electroconvulsive therapy.
called new-onset refractory status epilepticus. The risk of iatrogenic injury is substantially
Its exact cause is unknown, but most affected increased in affected patients. The use of anes-
patients have an elevated temperature, suggesting thetics can cause rhabdomyolysis, and the risk
that it may be associated with an infection in the of drug-­ induced heart pulmonary dysfunction
central nervous system or an immune response. is also significantly increased. Additionally,
the patient’s internal environment is disrupted.
1.6.3.2 R  efractory Status Epilepticus Electrolyte disorders, coma-associated malnu-
in Patients with Preexisting trition, and combined infections that result from
Epilepsy with Initial Treatment refractory status epilepticus can endanger the
Failure lives of affected patients. Correcting disorders
Most of these patients have a history of epilepsy, in the internal environment should therefore be
and acute withdrawal is an important cause of an important component of strategies to manage
its occurrence. If treatment is not administered refractory status epilepticus.
quickly, alterations to the internal environment
may occur, including changes in synaptic mem-
brane receptors and neurotransmitter release. 1.6.5 Prognosis of RSE
These changes result in drug resistance in these
patients and lead to refractory status epilepticus. Elderly patients have a higher mortality rate.
An epidemiological survey that examined refrac- Even when survivors are treated with endotra-
tory status epilepticus found that only 3.4–6% of cheal intubation and managed in an intensive care
patients with refractory status epilepticus have a unit, their functional status will be significantly
history of epilepsy. This type of refractory status reduced [196]. A study by Sutter et al. [197] found
epilepticus can be prevented by treatment prior to that affected patients (60%) with periodic lateral-
hospital admission. ized epileptiform discharges all died, and 2/3 of
1 Epilepsy, Status Epilepticus, and Refractory Status Epilepticus 35

these deaths occurred in patients who were over value when it is longer than a few hours [200].
50 years old. Therefore, age and the type of epi- Webster et al. [201] studied two patients with
lepsy are closely associated with the prognosis. refractory status epilepticus that was induced by
In addition to its association with increased partial lung virus infection. In these patients, the
age, prognoses are worse in patients with a com- disease was controlled by antiviral drug treat-
plex partial type of refractory status epilepticus ment for 2 weeks.
than in patients with other epilepsy types [190].
Patients with a disturbance of consciousness
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 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status
Epilepticus 2
Zhifang Dong and Zhong Chen

Abstract
The most significant characteristic of seizures is self-limitation, which is
associated with the postictal refractory period that follows a seizure. The
endogenous anticonvulsant mechanism is one of the most important rea-
sons that seizures self-terminate. However, the most significant character-
istic of refractory status epilepticus (RSE) is that it is more drug resistant
to first-line anti-status epilepticus drugs than are other forms of status epi-
lepticus (SE). In general, RSE represents a severe form of SE. Because it
has high mortality and is associated with increased neuronal damage, RSE
should be terminated as soon as possible. In this chapter, we discuss a
potential mechanism by which SE may transform into RSE, beginning
with seizure termination.

2.1  echanism of Seizure

M
Termination

2.1.1  he Characteristics of Seizure

T
Self-Limitation
Z. Dong
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical In contrast to the onset of neurological diseases,
Research in Cognitive Development and Learning
most seizures are self-limiting. Seizure termina-
and Memory Disorders, Children’s Hospital of
Chongqing Medical University, tion may be caused by activation of the endoge-
Chongqing 400014, China nous anticonvulsant system. However, the
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child underlying mechanism for this phenomenon is
Development and Disorders, Children’s Hospital of not completely understood [1, 2]. The mecha-
Chongqing Medical University, nism of seizure termination may be more com-
Chongqing 400014, China
plex than that of the origin or even the seizure
Z. Chen (*) itself [1]. The studies of seizure self-limitation
Department of Neurology and Epilepsy Center,
are advantageous for seeking new methods to
Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China prevent and treat epilepsy. There are three main
e-mail: [email protected] characteristics of seizure self-limitation: the

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 43

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_2
44 Z. Dong and Z. Chen

t­ ransience of seizures, the postictal r­ efractoriness, efficacy of antiepileptic drugs was significantly
and the inhibition after seizures exhibits a syner- increased during this period [9]. Löscher et al.
gistic relationship with antiepileptic drugs. found that the efficacy of carbamazepine (15 mg/
Non-status epilepticus is usually very short in kg) was significantly increased during epileptic
duration. A study of 579 seizures across 159 tolerance using four different stimulation meth-
adults by Jenssen et al. [3] showed that the aver- ods, which suggested that the inhibition after sei-
age duration of simple partial seizures, complex zures exhibits a synergistic relationship with
partial seizures, and secondary generalized antiepileptic drugs [10].
tonic–clonic seizures were 28 s, 78 s, and 130 s,
respectively. In a study of general tonic–clonic
seizures, which were first described by Theodore 2.1.2  actors Related to Seizure
F
et al. [4], 120 seizures in 47 epileptic patients Self-Limitation
lasted an average of 62 s. Recently, a large-­
sample retrospective study showed that the aver- Seizure self-limitation is related to many factors.
age duration of generalized tonic–clonic seizures At present, a tendency exists to consider that age,
was 74.6 s [5]. These results show not only that sex hormones, structure, and gene abnormalities
most seizures are self-limiting in the absence of will affect the duration of seizures, and disrup-
intervention but also that seizure termination can tion of the equilibrium state will lead to repeated
occur rapidly. occurrence of epileptogenesis.
It has long been known that postictal refracto- A study by Jenssen et al. on adult patients with
riness following seizures is an important feature epilepsy found that the average durations of com-
of seizure self-limitation. In the treatment of plex partial seizures and secondary generalized
depression, more current stimulation is required tonic–clonic seizures are 78 s and 130 s, respec-
after the first electroconvulsive shock (ECS) to tively [3]. However, a study by Shinnar et al. on
trigger the occurrence of the next electric convul- 407 children with epilepsy found that 50% experi-
sion [6]. This is consistent with a study by enced a seizure lasting no less than 5 min, and 29%
Löscher W. and colleagues [7], who found that had a first seizure that lasted no less than 10 min
seizure susceptibility was decreased following a [11]. It is well-established that the seizure termina-
few hours of spontaneous tonic–clonic seizures tion mechanism is highly correlated with age.
in an idiopathic generalized epilepsy genetic In 1857, a study by Locock et al. of 52 patients
model. The period of decreased seizure suscepti- with epilepsy suggested that sex hormones might
bility is called postictal refractoriness [6, 8]. For have an effect on seizures. In addition, different
a short duration, the threshold for subsequent sei- hormones had various effects [12]. Estrogen
zures is increased. Nutt et al. performed ECS could reduce the seizure threshold, whereas pro-
daily for 10 days and found that the seizure gesterone had an antiepileptic effect. Due to the
threshold was increased for 5–60 min after sei- presence of progesterone and estriol, seizure
zures and then returned to normal over a short duration is significantly reduced during preg-
time [6]. Löscher found that the increased seizure nancy [12]. Factors affecting epilepsy have been
threshold returned to normal within 24 h after confirmed by patients with menstrual period epi-
seizures [7]. lepsy and animal models and were interpreted as
The increase in the threshold for subsequent evidence of neurotransmitter regulation [13–15].
seizures is called epileptic tolerance, and the Kaminski and colleagues [16] found that andro-
effect of antiepileptic drugs will be significantly gen metabolites can regulate the γ-aminobutyric
increased during this time. Using different ani- acid (GABA) receptor and shorten seizure
mal models, Mace et al. compared the curative duration.
effects of phenobarbital, phenytoin, and carbam- Investigations of cranial magnetic resonance
azepine during epileptic tolerance according to imaging (MRI) scans of 36 temporal lobe
different seizure types, and they found that the ­epilepsy patients with cortical atrophy and white
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus 45

matter disruption by Kemmotsu et al. showed Moreover, our team recently found that
that cortical atrophy is closely related to seizure extracellular pH-sensitive acid-sensitive ion
­
self-limitation, and the severity of white matter channels (ASICs) can, through the synaptic
integrity damage is closely related to onset age mechanisms of interneurons, play an important
[17]. Meanwhile, these authors found that com- role in seizure termination in pilocarpine and
pared to right temporal lobe epilepsy, left tempo- pentylenetetrazole-­induced rat epilepsy models
ral lobe epilepsy produces more severe structural [24]. Velisek et al. found that when the pH was
damage. This may be due to the greater suscepti- reduced to 7.1, a slight impairment in synaptic
bility of the left hemisphere to early damage and transmission and decreased long-term potentia-
seizures [17]. According to a study on children tion (LTP) occurred [25]. Inhibition of carbonic
undergoing their first febrile SE episode, the sei- anhydrase can also lead to cell acidification and
zure duration is not only influenced by factors exert an anticonvulsant effect [26].
including age, temperature, and sex but also tem- Intracellular acidification may also contribute
poral lobe structure abnormalities [18]. to the termination of seizure discharges. Seizures
Single gene interactions can influence the can produce a brain pH ranging from 7.35 to 6.8
severity and prolong the duration of epilepsy and by producing lactic acid and utilizing a carbon
increase the frequency of seizures. Bergren et al. dioxide retention mechanism, which will termi-
found that congenic C57BL/6J.Q 54 mice exhibit nate seizures [27]. In vitro experiments using
a decreased incidence of spontaneous seizures, hippocampal slices, Xiong et al. found that alka-
delayed seizure onset, and longer survival than lization can induce seizure discharge [28]. If
[C57BL/6J × SJL/J]F(1).Q 54 mice [19]. A study acidification is increased pharmacologically, the
of absence seizures using a Gria4 knockout seizure discharge is terminated. Interestingly, this
mouse model revealed that the intracisternal method is also effective in vivo in a febrile con-
A-particle retrotransposon (IAP) of the C3H sub- vulsion rat model [29]. Ventilation induced by
strain had a significant effect on the duration and super heating can cause alkalization, seizures,
incidence of spike-wave discharges [20]. and chronic stress changes. These changes can be
terminated by ending mechanical ventilation
with CO2, which will prevent alkali poisoning
2.1.3 Potential Mechanism [29]. However, perfusion with ammonium chlo-
of Seizure Self-Limitation ride to prevent intracellular acidification can
increase the excitability of neurons, resulting in
The ionic environment plays an important role on seizure discharges [29]. In addition, when
seizure termination via the accumulation of vari- patients with epilepsy inhaled CO2 for a few sec-
ous factors at an effective concentration over a onds, the brain pH was significantly reduced,
very short time. Extracellular acidification may resulting in an antiepileptic effect [27]. Recently,
contribute to termination of seizure discharges. some researchers have found that treatment with
During the process of seizure discharge, pro- CO2 can not only terminate seizures but also pre-
longed neuronal activity can lead to an increase vent long-term damage to the hippocampus dur-
in carbon dioxide or anaerobic metabolism, ing febrile seizures [29]. This rapid and simple
which can cause extracellular or intracellular aci- method of carbon dioxide inhalation may be an
dosis [21]. In vitro experiments have illustrated interesting anticonvulsant treatment. Therefore,
that the hippocampal extracellular can pH it is possible to provide an effective method for
reached 6.7 at the termination of seizure-like the prevention and treatment of seizures and SE
burst firing. This phenomenon is likely to occur that is focused on the mechanism related to acidi-
within a few minutes in the case of low pH [22]. fication after seizures [30].
In vivo experiments by Caspers et al. also suggest Heinemann et al. found that focal seizure
that mechanical ventilation with CO2 (to ensure activity results in an approximately 50% decline
acidification) can also terminate seizures [23]. in extracellular calcium activity [31]. Because
46 Z. Dong and Z. Chen

synaptic vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter during the interictal period; the level of ­adenosine
release are dependent on calcium inward current, was significantly increased in the onset period
extracellular Ca2+ depletion has an antiepileptic during seizure activity, and it remained higher
effect. Using functional multi-neuron calcium-­ than baseline during the postictal refractory
imaging technology in animal models, Hongo period [38]. The level of adenosine is regulated
found that the antiepileptic drug phenytoin can by adenosine receptors and adenosine kinase
significantly reduce the peak and amount of cal- in vivo. A study using electrical stimulation of a
cium influx, which plays an important role in the rat model by Young et al. showed that adenosine
seizure termination [32]. Furosemide can termi- plays a role in neuroprotection and improves the
nate seizure discharges by regulating the chloride threshold of epilepsy by activating adenosine
ion concentration. Some researchers have sug- receptors [39]. Adenosine kinase is a key enzyme
gested that furosemide blocks neuronal action in the regulation of the adenosine level [40].
potentials by affecting chloride ions. Lado stated Boison et al. indicated that increased expression
that the reduced level of intracellular chloride of adenosine kinase (ADK) in the hippocampus
ions can increase the GABA function in an is an important reason for decreases in the ade-
activity-­dependent manner [2]. Thus, disrupted nosine level. Adenosine receptor agonists, ade-
regulation of intracellular chloride ions may nosine transport inhibitors, and adenosine kinase
cause antiepileptic drugs that act via GABA, such inhibitors play an important role in the process of
as phenobarbital, to be ineffective. seizure termination, which may provide a new
Neuromodulators are likely the most interest- field for the treatment of epilepsy [40].
ing part of the seizure termination mechanism. NPY is the most abundant peptide in the cen-
They are substances that are released endoge- tral nervous system. It is enriched in GABAergic
nously and act as nonclassical transmitters or interneurons and can regulate seizure termination
alter synaptic transmission. In contrast to extra- and the electrical activity of neurons [2, 35, 41].
cellular K+ and pH, they are easily subjected to A study by Marksteiner et al. in 1989 found that
drug interventions. Among them, adenosine and endogenous NPY release was increased during
neuropeptide Y (NPY) have most extensively seizures and played a role in seizure termination
been addressed [2, 33–35]. Adenosine is thought [42]. The activity of NPY is regulated by five
to be a type of endogenous neural modulator with types of NPY receptors. Using animal models of
an anticonvulsive effect, and it is also a type of epilepsy, Meurs et al. [35] suggested that the acti-
seizure terminator [33, 34, 36]. Increasing the vation of Y2 and/or Y5 receptors, in addition to
level of adenosine can prevent seizures, inhibit blocking the Y1 receptor in the central nervous
seizure discharge, and exert a protective effect in system, can terminate seizures.
neurons, whereas reducing the level of adenosine Synchronization over the short distance
can increase seizure discharge and neuronal between neurons and interneurons plays an
death. If its function is altered, adenosine may important role in the initiation of seizures and
promote SE [37]. In a study of epilepsy patients may lead to seizure termination. The core mecha-
and animal models by Gompel Van et al., the nism of seizures is highly synchronized abnormal
average concentrations of adenosine in the extra- discharges by tens of thousands of neurons. The
cellular environment were increased up to 260%, premise of highly synchronized abnormal dis-
indicating that adenosine plays an important role charges is that the epileptic signal is passed on to
in seizure termination [36]. During et al. investi- other neurons quickly, and, if signaling is inter-
gated changes in adenosine using microdialysis rupted, the seizure is terminated. As a gap junc-
probes implanted in the hippocampus of patients tion, the electrical synapse plays an important
with intractable complex partial epilepsy and role in seizure termination. Gap junctions are
showed that reduced levels of adenosine in hip- formed by the connection protein, which exists in
pocampal epileptic foci result in a lower seizure different subtypes in inhibitory neurons [43]. The
threshold than in the contralateral hippocampus opening and closing of gap junctions is regulated
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus 47

by various forms of proteins. Connexins are sepa- hippocampus, although action potential bursts
rated at an acidic pH, leading to reduced conduc- had a long duration (10–20 min), it was not pos-
tance of the gap junction, while a pH level sible to induce an increase in postsynaptic gluta-
corresponding to alkali poisoning can promote mate transmission [50]. The most likely
connexin binding to increase gap junction con- possibility for this phenomenon is that another
ductance [44]. In vitro experiments illustrate that antiepileptic mechanism is initiated, which
gap junctions are in a state of decoupling when increases of the storage of glutamic acid during
the paroxysmal discharge is stopped [45]. In vivo the process of epileptiform discharge. Therefore,
experiments based on a 4-aminopyridine cortex the role of glutamatergic failure in seizure termi-
injection-induced epilepsy model suggests that nation requires further study.
gap junction-blocking agents (including nonspe- GABAergic inhibition continues during epi-
cific blockers such as raw stomach ketone, octa- leptic activity. Epileptic foci produce both recur-
nol, and the connection protein 36-specific rent and surround inhibition of neighboring areas,
blocker quinine) may inhibit seizure discharge and, in the long term, this activity appears to be
[46]. In vitro experiments by Jahromi verified unable to effectively limit seizures, either tempo-
that gap junction-blocking agents, such as gastric rally or spatially [51]. It is well established that
ketone, can terminate seizures in the hippocam- synaptic inhibition is regulated by the presynap-
pal CA1 region [47], suggesting that gap junc- tic neurotransmitter GABA, which acts on post-
tions play a role in the maintenance and synaptic neurons via GABA-A and GABA-B
termination of seizures. receptors. Chen et al. suggested that seizure
One of the mechanisms that limit synaptic activity is suppressed by a GABA-B receptor
transmission during epileptiform activity is the agonist (baclofen), and it is reversed by a
loss of synaptic vesicles containing the neu- GABA-B receptor antagonist in the pentylenetet-
rotransmitter glutamate. In vitro experiments in a razole (PTZ)-kindled epilepsy model [52]. This
hippocampal slice model of high-K+-induced phenomenon has also been confirmed by in vitro
activity by Staley et al. investigated the correla- experiments [52]. A report by Zivanovi et al.
tion of seizure-like burst duration with the subse- showed that GABA-B receptor antagonists
quent interburst interval length. Based on the reduce the after-discharge threshold in an electri-
results, they hypothesized that the duration of the cal stimulation model, which indicates that
seizure discharge depends on the new release of GABA-B receptors play an important role in sei-
glutamate. In the same article, they showed that zure arrest [53]. However, Vergnes et al. found
interburst intervals of 3 s or longer may ensure that GABA-B receptor antagonists microinjected
maximum discharge duration (more than in the thalamus can suppress absence seizures,
420 ms). Even when the GABA-A and GABA-B whereas microinjection of antagonists in cortical
were blocked, this phenomenon still occurred and limbic structures can promote seizures in a
[48]. By replacing Ca2+ in the extracellular solu- spontaneous nonconvulsive absence seizure
tion with Sr2+, Jones et al. found that the rate of model [54]. Therefore, it is difficult to determine
glutamate release at CA3 axon terminals was the effect of GABA-B receptor activation on sei-
reduced, which prolonged bursts in a zure arrest due to the mixed findings involving
concentration-­dependent manner [49]. Therefore, anticonvulsive and proconvulsive activity [52].
the supply of releasable glutamate is an impor- GABA-A receptors are closely related to seizure
tant stimulant that maintains the process of epi- termination. In epilepsy animal models, the elec-
leptiform activity. In the clinical situation, troconvulsive shock threshold is enhanced by
although the interval of bursts (e.g., clonic in microinjection of GABA-A receptor agonists,
tonic–clonic seizures) is regulated by vesicular such as muscimol, into the subthalamic nucleus
recovery, the duration of the seizure might not be [55], which is consistent with the results found in
regulated. Other reports using the same model a substantia nigra reticular nucleus-kindled
have also shown that in different regions of the model by Iadarola et al. [56]. Chen et al. found
48 Z. Dong and Z. Chen

that the sensitivity of GABA-A receptors is Namba et al. also found that the glucose disposal
decreased during SE, resulting in seizure termi- rate in most brain areas is decreased after seizure
nation [57]. Changes in subunit composition may kindling in rats, which indicates that energy fail-
also lead to decreased GABA-A receptor sensi- ure may be related to seizure arrest [68]. However,
tivity [58]. Chudomel et al. suggested that energy failure caused by hypoxia or hypoglyce-
changes in the maturation of extrasynaptic mia often leads to coma and neuronal necrosis.
GABA-A receptors can lead to changes in sei- Therefore, it is possible that energy failure may
zure susceptibility [59]. In vivo experiments by be more closely related to the onset of the seizure
Stell et al. have shown that mutation of the activity than seizure termination [69].
GABA-A receptor delta subunit plays an impor- Presynaptic glutamate uptake by astrocytes is
tant role in preventing the occurrence and termi- the main mechanism for the accumulation of glu-
nation of epileptic seizures by affecting the tonic tamate at the synapse [70]. A study by Tian
GABA current [60]. Inhibitory activity is similar showed that glial release of glutamate contributes
to the glutamate release involved in the formation to the maintenance of the paroxysmal depolariz-
of the discharge rhythm [61] that maintains epi- ing shift that is the hallmark of “epileptic”
leptic activity [62]. The finding that electrical ­neurons [71].
activity begins only when the inhibitory current The remote interaction between neurons is
is not active has been affirmed using a kainic closely related to the increased synchronization
acid-induced epilepsy model [61]. A study of of the cerebral cortex, and the long-term effects
brain tissue in patients with temporal lobe epi- may include changes in the regulation loop of the
lepsy found that spontaneous activity was subcortical nuclei that affect the seizure thresh-
blocked when the GABA-A receptor was dys- old, duration, severity, and termination of epi-
functional [63]. In a mild, single seizure model leptic seizures. Studies of patients with epilepsy
(such as the kindling model), it was found that suggest that vagal nerve stimulation can activate
the inhibition after a double pulse (i.e., inhibition certain nuclei in the brainstem such as the nucleus
of 50–500 ms after the second action potential) of the solitary tract, reduce the frequency of sei-
was increased, indicating that GABA activity is zures, and promote seizure termination [72]. On
upregulated after epilepsy [64]. Consistent with July 16, 1997, the Food and Drug Administration
the in vivo study of Lawrence et al. [65], research- (FDA) approved the neurocybernetic prosthesis
ers have also found that endogenous neuros- as refractory adjuvant treatment of refractory par-
teroids can terminate seizures by strengthening tial seizures for adults and children 12 years of
GABA-mediated inhibitory transmission [60]. age or older. However, the mechanism of seizure
Some researchers believe that a decreased reduction is still unclear. Theoretically, the treat-
level of extracellular glucose and hypoxia can ment affects vagal nerve stimulation of cortical
terminate seizure activity [66, 67]. A study of activity and brainstem nuclei (such as blue spots)
Doman et al. found that energy failure caused by that contain catecholamine. Albala et al. [73]
lack of glucose or hypoxia can lead to ion pump found that the depletion of norepinephrine in the
dysfunction and then seizure termination [67]. In forebrain can contribute to seizures, which indi-
a model using hippocampal slices without mag- cates that the release of norepinephrine can lead
nesium, Kirchner et al. found that the use of arti- to seizures. Blue spot stimulation can spread to
ficial cerebrospinal fluid with low glucose can the thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and cere-
decrease the discharge frequency by 50% and the bral cortex, resulting in termination of seizures
discharge amplitude by 25% in 24 min. When [72]. Vagal nerve stimulation increases the levels
using solution with normal blood glucose levels, of catecholamine metabolites and GABA in cere-
the effects on both the frequency and amplitude brospinal fluid [74], which affects the synchro-
were reversed [66]. These findings showed that nization of the cerebral cortex [75]. An increase
hypoglycemia has a significant but not immedi- in cerebral cortical synchronization can acti-
ate effect on seizure discharges. A study by vate sodium- and calcium-activated p­otassium
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus 49

c­ hannels and silence electrical activity in ­neurons, Several studies have shown that the STN,
resulting in termination of seizures [76]. which is adjacent to the SNR, is also capable of
Numerous subcortical anatomical regions modulating seizure activity. In an electrical stim-
mediate anticonvulsant effects, such as the sub- ulation animal model, Lado found that electrical
stantia nigra pars reticulata (SNR) and the sub- stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus increases
thalamic nucleus (STN). Anticonvulsant circuits the seizure threshold and has an anticonvulsant
may limit seizures by reducing the recruitment effect [80], which is consistent with a study con-
and spread of seizure activity from the seizure ducted in epileptic patients by Chabardes [81]. A
onset zone to “naive” areas of the brain by recent small sample study of patients with medial
decreasing excitatory feedback and amplifica- temporal lobe epilepsy showed that coordination
tion [2]. The SNR is a key area for GABA- of the thalamus and cortex through the regulation
mediated anticonvulsant activity and affects of cortical synchronization leads to seizure termi-
activity in the brain via the brainstem, thalamus, nation. One of the possibilities is that the subtha-
superior colliculus, and pedunculopontine lamic nucleus receives inhibitory GABA input
nucleus [56]. In a pentylenetetrazole-induced from spiral efferents [82].
epilepsy model, Okada et al. found that the SNR
could be silenced by microinjection of the
GABA antagonist muscimol, which suppressed 2.1.4 Conclusion
epileptic seizure occurrence and development;
microinjection of the GABA antagonist bicucul- Postictal refractoriness has been widely studied
line also produced a similar anticonvulsant effect in variety of epilepsy animal models (such as
[77]. The regulation of excitation and inhibition electric/chemical-induced and kindling models).
by subcortical nuclei appears to vary with sex During this period, the threshold of recurrence
and developmental age. SNR is an example of a and the effect of antiepileptic drugs are increased.
subcortical region that is capable of modulating Age, sex hormones, and structural and genetic
seizure thresholds. Application of GABA ago- abnormalities are closely related to seizure termi-
nists to the substantia nigra can induce anti- or nation. The self-limiting characteristic of sei-
proconvulsant effects that vary by sex and devel- zures indicates that the mechanism of seizure
opmental age [78]. Male rats have two regions in termination is likely to be established in a rela-
the SNR, the anterior and posterior regions, tively short time. Endogenous anticonvulsant
which produce anticonvulsant and proconvulsant mechanisms, including the ionic microenviron-
effects in seizures, respectively [79]. However, ment, various endogenous neuromodulators, gap
female rats have no equivalent proconvulsant junctions, synaptic transmission (including
posterior region [2]. A study found that three depletion of glutamate and increased inhibition),
episodes of SE in the anterior region of the SNR energy failure, glial buffering of glutamate, and
of rats within 6 days of birth indicate an abnor- remote interaction of neurons, are likely to be
mality [79]. During development and matura- new treatment strategies for seizures. In particu-
tion, the SNR loses its anticonvulsant effects, lar, pH changes, adenosine, and NPY are the
which indicates that this area is mainly involved most promising pharmacological therapeutic tar-
in seizure control. Shinnar et al. suggested that gets. Changes in pH can occur in a short time,
during the development of the brain, the effect of while the exogenous pH can affect the endoge-
the SNR on seizures can be explained by the nous environment. Therefore, although the alter-
reduced ability to increase or decrease seizure ation of pH may have no significant effect on
susceptibility in early childhood epilepsy. This preventing or prolonging postictal refractoriness,
finding indicates that the SNR not only exerts an it is likely to play a decisive role in the seizure
anticonvulsive effect but also produces differ- termination. The release of adenosine and NPY
ences in the seizure termination effect between occur during seizure activity (NPY can have an
mature and immature brains [11]. effect even after a few months); however, these
50 Z. Dong and Z. Chen

substances can regulate the excitability of GABA and decrease glutamate release in basal
neurons. Therefore, pharmacological interven-
­ cells [88].
tion based on adenosine and NPY may also The main manifestation of SE stage 2 (from
reduce the frequency of spontaneous seizures and seconds to minutes) is the change in receptor
prolong postictal refractoriness. The next step composition, including a reduction of inhibitory
will focus on the temporal and spatial changes of GABA-A receptor subunits regulated by endocy-
these mechanisms and the signaling pathways tosis and an increase in excitatory N-methyl-d-­
involved in them. aspartic acid (NMDA) and
α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-­
propionic acid (AMPA) receptors. A study found
2.2 The Pathogenesis of SE that the aggregation of GABA-A receptors in
cells is increased following SE [89], but the
2.2.1  hanges in the Internal
C expression of GABA-A on the cell surface is
Environment During SE reduced [90], which was consistent with immu-
nofluorescence data [91, 92]. An anatomical
Over the past 20 years, a number of studies have study conducted by Naylor et al. in an SE model
elucidated a series of changes that are involved in induced by lithium-pilocarpine showed that the
the progression from a single seizure to SE. These amount of GABA-A β2/3 and γ2 receptor sub-
changes can be divided into the four stages. units was decreased, and the percentage of these
The main manifestations of SE stage 1 (from a subunits inside dentate gyrus granular cells was
few milliseconds to seconds) are abnormal phos- increased. Additionally, they found that the
phorylation of proteins, the opening and closing amplitude of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic
of ion channels, and the release of neurotransmit- currents (mIPSCs) in GABA-A receptors of den-
ters [57]. Using an SE animal model induced by tate gyrus granular layer cells was decreased.
kainic acid, Yamagata et al. found that during the This is not consistent with the amplitude of mIP-
process of SE, the phosphorylation level of syn- SCs at the synapses; the extrasynaptic GABA-A
aptic protein 1 decreased rapidly. After the cessa- current was increased in SE. The establishment
tion of SE, the level of phosphorylation returned of a mathematical model also showed that the
to normal [83]. Lee et al. also found that the change in mIPSCs reflects the decrease in the
phosphorylation of p65-Ser276 NFκB in the piri- postsynaptic functional GABA-A receptors in SE
form cortex decreased rapidly in a rat SE model [91]. An in vitro study showed that mIPSCs,
[84]. Moreover, Oliveira et al. found that in a which reflect the postsynaptic function of GABA,
pilocarpine-induced acute epilepsy animal decreased by 20% during SE. Kapur et al. found
model, small-conductance (SK) Ca(2+)-activated that recurrent seizures can lead to sustained inhi-
K+ channels are dysfunctional [85]. Wu et al. bition of GABA function [93]. Regulation of
showed that in the acute stage following SE, the GABA-A receptors can lead to the tolerance of
acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) of the piri- benzodiazepines, which makes these receptors
form cortex cannot be regulated normally in ani- very important for the regulation of the SE dura-
mal models [86]. A study found that the tion [94, 95].
expression of Na (V) 1.2 and Na (V) 1.6 subunits On the other hand, Naylor et al. found that in
declines continuously for 30 days after SE [87]. an SE model induced by lithium chloride and
Certain evidence has shown that in an animal pilocarpine, the re-localization phenomenon, in
model of SE induced by pilocarpine, the increased which the NMDA receptor subunit NR1 translo-
release of GABA and glutamate (120% and cates from the inner side of the cell to the cell
182%, respectively) in the hippocampus were surface, occurred in dentate gyrus granular cells
closely related to SE. They also found that tran- and CA3 pyramidal cells at 1 h following
scranial electrical stimulation at low current SE. They also found NMDA miniature excitatory
intensities (<2800 A) will increase the release of postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) were increased
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus 51

in hippocampal slices following SE, and during in receptor transport provide the ­foundation for
the process of SE, the amount of the functional long-term seizures [57]. The pathogenesis of the
postsynaptic NMDA receptors increased by 38% refractory period will be discussed in detail in the
per synapse [96]. next section of this chapter.
SE stage 3 (from a few minutes to day) Protein phosphorylation is involved in the
includes the increased expression of excitatory pathogenesis SE. Using a pilocarpine-induced
neuropeptides and decreased expression of inhib- SE animal model, Kim et al. found that NF-κB
itory neuropeptides; thus, the hyperexcited state phosphorylation regulates SE-induced astrocyte
is maintained [97]. Liu et al. found that SE sig- reactive hyperplasia and neuronal degeneration
nificantly increased substance P and mRNA lev- in the hippocampus [105]. Using the same model,
els of the substance P precursor (preprotachykinin one study found that the enhancement of p65-­
A) in hippocampal mossy fibers. They also found Ser536 NF-κB phosphorylation in the hippocam-
that in brain slices, substance P accelerated the pus may increase the susceptibility to SE [106].
release of glutamate. An increasing number of Moreover, Lerche et al. found that voltage and
researchers believe that increasing the level of ligand-gated ion channel dysregulation (defi-
substance P may promote hippocampal excitabil- ciency of sodium ion channels in inhibitory neu-
ity and maintain SE [97]. On the other hand, rons and dysfunction of different types of ion
inhibitory NPY is present in inhibitory channels in the initial part of the axon) led to
GABAergic interneurons and is a regulator of increased excitability of neurons and plays an
neuronal excitability. NPY plays an important important role in SE [107]. In vivo and in vitro
role in the pathogenesis of SE [98]. O’Loughlin data show that silencing K+ channels reduces
et al. found that the expression of NPY was neuronal excitability and alleviates the develop-
decreased following SE in animal models [99]. ment of SE [108]. Kv4.2 is the most important
Genetic and epigenetic analyses show that the type A potassium channel in the hippocampus
expression of many genes changes during SE and cortex. Much evidence suggests that Kv4.2 is
stage 4 (from a few days to weeks) [100, 101], an important regulator of neuronal excitability,
which may lead to epilepsy. Studies of an SE ani- and Kv4.2 abnormalities are found in different
mal model showed that the epigenetic changes types of human epilepsy or epileptic animal mod-
occurred in the fourth stage of SE episodes and els. Studies have shown that decreased function
included whole-genome changes in DNA meth- of Kv4.2 may be an important mechanism of
ylation of hippocampal cells [102]. Reschke et al. increases in local neuron loop excitability [109].
found that the regulation of micro RNA plays an Some researchers have established an in vitro
important role in epilepsy and neuronal injury-­ spontaneous epileptic brain slice model using
induced by SE [103]. 4-AP and magnesium-free artificial cerebrospi-
nal fluid. They found that sodium ion-gated chan-
nel changes affect neuronal depolarization and
2.2.2 The Pathogenesis of SE neuronal excitability and may also play an impor-
tant role in SE [110].
The persistence of seizures is due to an imbalance Release of presynaptic neurotransmitters also
in neuronal excitability and inhibition or inhibi- has an effect on SE. Upreti et al. showed using
tory mechanism abnormalities [104]. Pharma­ FM1–43 two-photon imaging, electron micros-
cological studies of animal models show that SE copy, and other techniques that increased presyn-
has two distinct phases: the initial and mainte- aptic transmitter release and increased release
nance periods. The refractory period occurs dur- area accelerate SE in hippocampal slices [111].
ing the late stage of the maintenance period. Studies have confirmed that extrasynaptic NMDA
During the initial and the early maintenance receptors rarely open in the physiological state
period, protein phosphorylation, changes in ion and can abnormally open in pathological states
channels, neurotransmitter release, and changes such as SE. Glutamate secreted by astrocytes
52 Z. Dong and Z. Chen

may lead to synchronous neuronal discharge by SE is the result of highly synchronized

activating synaptic NMDA receptors. Activation n­ euronal firing. At present, an increasing number
of extracellular NMDA receptors can mediate of studies have found that maximum synchroni-
excitotoxicity and may result in neuronal death zation of neurons on a micro- and macroscopic
after SE [112]. It has been suggested that extra- level may result in seizure termination. Thus,
cellular NMDA receptor abnormalities may be failure to achieve sufficiently high synchroniza-
involved in the pathogenesis of SE. At present, tion may cause SE or transition from SE to post-
some researchers have confirmed that dysfunc- ictal refractoriness [124]. Schindler et al.
tion of the entire GABA transmitter system can evaluated synchronous electroencephalograms
lead to abnormal neuronal excitation, which can (EEG) of six patients with SE and found that the
then progress to SE [113]. Volgushev et al. found pre-SE EEG showed a gradual increase in neuro-
that different temperatures have various effects nal synchronous discharges, which was highly
on neurotransmitter release; the release of excit- consistent with SE [125]. They suggested that
atory neurotransmitters in the presynaptic mem- the enhancement of neuronal synchronization
brane is reduced at low temperature [114]. might be a self-regulating mechanism for the
Motamedi et al. found that sustained hypother- ­initiation of SE.
mia can affect the development of SE through the
release and transmission of GABA in interneu-
rons, which can explain the current clinical appli- 2.2.3 Conclusions
cation of mild hypothermia during SE [115].
With respect to receptor transport, some Self-limitation is the most significant characteris-
researchers have found that short-term changes in tic of a seizure. However, in contrast to most sei-
classical receptors can lead to inhibition and zure types, the self-limiting ability of SE
imbalances in excitatory neuropeptides after SE disappears. Most researchers speculate that the
[116]. Vadillo et al. proposed that glutamate-­ main causes for seizures to develop into SE
mediated excitability is the initiation factor of SE include the failure of the endogenous mechanism
[117]. Using an SE model, Grosshans et al. found of seizure termination, the disappearance of post-
that NMDA receptors in the cytoplasm translo- ictal refractoriness following seizures, and a
cated to the surface of the neuronal membrane, mechanism that causes seizures to be sustained in
which led to SE [118]. In addition, studies have humans. The key factor is the change in neu-
shown that calmodulin kinase II can regulate glu- rotransmitters on the membrane, which changes
tamate and GABA receptor transport [119], and the excitatory and inhibitory process of neurons
this process is closely related to the neuropathol- and causes seizures to be sustained. Additionally,
ogy of SE [120]. The increase in the number of other mechanisms of human SE, such as abnor-
glutamate receptors on the cell surface and the mal protein phosphorylation, abnormal ion chan-
reduction of GABA receptors during SE [121, nels, and the release of neurotransmitters, are the
122] leads to a decrease in GABAergic activity. basis of long-term epilepsy. Understanding of the
Previous studies have shown that the transport of significance of the SE mechanism lies in the
GABA receptors is reduced in both in vivo and identification of new targets for potential anti-­
in vitro models of SE [119, 123]. Reducing status epilepticus drugs and is conducive to
GABA receptor sensitivity and decreasing chlo- improving SE control.
ride influx by activating chloride ion channels
accelerates SE [123]. Using a self-sustaining SE
model, some researchers found that repeated acti- 2.3 The Pathogenesis of RSE
vation of GABA-A receptors in dentate granu-
losa cells and interneurons leads to GABA-A There are two main characteristics of SE: the per-
receptor endocytosis in the synaptic loop of the sistence and the time-dependent drug resistance.
hippocampus, which plays an important role in Most seizures are self-limiting. However, SE rarely
SE [116]. undergoes spontaneous termination before the
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus 53

onset of fatigue and brain damage, which is called GABA inhibition, patients with SE show partial
self-persistence. One study found that in a SE or complete resistance to benzodiazepines [130].
model induced by electrical stimulation and drug Naylor et al. studied a SE model induced by pilo-
administration, the seizures could be sustained carpine and found that the number of GABA-A
even when predisposing factors are removed, and receptors in the synapses of the granule cells
RSE could occur. Clinical research has shown located in the dentate gyrus was significantly
that seizures lasting for more than 30 min rarely reduced [91]. Goodkin found the activity-­
exhibit spontaneous termination [57]. dependent rapid internalization of the β2/β3 sub-
On the other hand, drug resistance during SE unit of GABA-A receptor occurred in the
development is time-dependent. Pharmacological hippocampal neuron model; therefore, they pro-
studies in animal models have suggested that two posed that the increase in activity-dependence of
distinct phases are present in SE, the initial and GABA-A receptor internalization in the synapses
maintenance phases. In the late maintenance during SE causes decreased inhibitory transmis-
phase, a refractory period may emerge. In the sion [131]. Prolonged SE can quickly change the
early stages of SE, many drugs that can increase function of GABARs in granule cells in the hip-
inhibition or reduce excitability may prevent epi- pocampal dentate gyrus [132]. Studies have
lepsy from developing [116]. However, once found that the decrease in expression of the β2/β3
RSE occurs, only a few drugs that inhibit gluta- subunit of GABA-A receptors on the cell surface
mate neurotransmitter can effectively terminate leads to RSE [90]. To a certain extent, the inter-
this condition [91]. Studies have found that in the nalization and reduction of GABA-A receptors in
RSE model, the antiepileptic effect of the same the synaptic cleft can explain the lack of GABA-A
dose of benzodiazepines was significantly inhibition in RSE and the progressive and time-­
decreased in the late stage of SE. A study using dependent drug resistance of benzodiazepines
an animal model showed that when SE lasted for [126, 132].
30 min, the therapeutic effect of the benzodiaze- Glutamate is the most common excit-
pines was 20 times lower. The effect was reduced atory neurotransmitter, and it modulates
more slowly for phenytoin [126]. However, neuronal excitability through the NMDA
NMDA blockers are continuously effective for receptor. Aggregation of AMPA and NMDA
preventing SE [127]. The critical transformation receptors occurs on the synaptic membrane
from SE to RSE occurs at 30–60 min after the [133], resulting in epilepsy. This will further
beginning of SE, and a delay in treatment of SE is increase excitability during epileptic seizures.
an important risk factor in this transition [128]. Immunohistochemical data have shown that the
NR1 subunit of NMDA receptors is transported
from the subsynaptic area to the synaptic surface
2.3.1  ranslocation of GABA
T at 1 h after SE, and physiological data have also
and Glutamate Receptors shown that the number of functional NMDA
receptors in dentate gyrus granule cell synapses
SE is continuous and uninterrupted, which can be increases during this phase.
explained by receptor transport. During this GABA and glutamate receptor transportation
period, the number of glutamate receptors on the are important for drug effects on SE [90].
cell surface increases, and the number of GABA ­First-­line antiepileptic drugs such as benzodiaz-
receptors decreases [121, 129], which causes the epines interact with GABA-A receptors, and the
GABAergic activity decrease. Many studies have therapeutic effect decreases when status is pro-
suggested that the internalization of GABA-A longed. Drugs that are effective for RSE, such as
receptors in the hippocampus plays an important propofol, interact with another binding site that
role in the transformation from a single seizure to differs from the site of benzodiazepines and bar-
RSE. GABA is the most common inhibitory neu- biturates [134]. Isoflurane is associated with the
rotransmitter, preventing hyperexcitability of suppression of inward flow of ions through post-
neurons by activating GABA-A receptors. Due to synaptic GABA-A receptors [135].
54 Z. Dong and Z. Chen

2.3.2 Neuronal Injury and Death MRI findings in patients with SE, and the autopsy
reports showed that neurons were decreased in
The state of SE is continuous and uninterrupted, the brain [148]. Cendes et al. reported a decrease
and the accompanying neuron damage and drug in neurons in an 84-year-old male with SE
resistance are obvious when SE lasts more than induced by domoic acid poisoning [149].
30 min. Fujikawa DG evaluated the percentage of Therefore, drug resistance in RSE can also be
eosinophils in a pilocarpine-induced animal explained by the loss of normal physiological
model and found that if SE lasts for 40 min or function after neuronal injury.
longer, mild or more irreversible injury can occur
in hippocampal neurons. This view is also con-
sistent with the results of an animal model study 2.3.3  hanges in the Expression
C
by Mazarati [136]. Consistent with the results of of Neuropeptides
a study by Sloviter [137], Meldrum et al. found
that epilepsy itself can lead to neuronal death RSE is related to brain neuropeptides in the hip-
[138], and neuronal necrosis caused by SE is an pocampus; for example, it is closely related to a
important factor for recurrent epileptic seizures decrease in the expression levels of galanin [150],
[139]. In the past century, mild hypothermia has dynorphin [151], somatostatin, and NPY [152]
been found to have a protective effect on neurons and an increase in the expression of substance P,
and has been used for the treatment of brain tachykinin, and neurokinin [97]. These changes
injury in perinatal infants with hypoxic-ischemic may play an important role in the maintenance of
encephalopathy. Subsequent investigations have RSE. One study showed that hippocampal fibers
shown that this protective effect induced by mild rich in galanin were decreased 3 h after the initia-
hypothermia has an inhibitory effect on early sei- tion of RSE [153]. Galanin and its agonist effec-
zures [140]. tively prevent RSE via galanin receptor 1 (GalR1)
A wide range of neuronal necrosis caused by and galanin receptor 2 (GalR2), and a galanin
RSE occurs in the form of “programmed necro- antagonist accelerates the development of RSE
sis” [141]. Apoptosis occurs in the immature [154]. A study using animal models showed that
brain. One of the major genes that promote apop- rats in which galanin was overexpressed do not
tosis is Bax, and Bcl-X is a gene that inhibits develop RSE, and galanin knockout mice exhib-
apoptosis. In RSE, the expression of Bcl-X is ited increased susceptibility to RSE [155].
decreased, and Bax expression is increased in NPY is expressed in GABAergic inhibitory
hippocampal neurons, which induces apoptosis interneurons and is a regulator to neuronal excit-
[142]. A study on humans found that the density ability [98]. In a transgenic mouse model of RSE
of hippocampal neurons in the brain of patients induced by kainic acid, the lack of NPY signifi-
who died from RSE was reduced [143]. This cantly increased the mortality [98] and sponta-
study showed that the expression of neuron-­ neous seizures after initiation of RSE [156]. A
specific enolase, a marker of neuronal death, was study on isolated rat hippocampal nerve terminals
increased in the serum of patients with SE [144]. found that blocking NPY could promote neuronal
In vivo data from Cock et al. showed that neuro- excitability by the release of glutamate [157].
nal death is closely related to the mitochondrial Injection of substance P in the hippocampus
dysfunction after SE [145]. A study using MRI can lead to RSE, and substance P antagonists can
found that patients have brain edema and chronic block RSE [158]. Glutamate release was exac-
brain atrophy after SE [146], and the area where erbated by substance P in hippocampal slices.
epileptic activity was strongest shows local brain An increasing number of researchers have pro-
atrophy [147]. This evidence further supports a posed that the increased levels of substance P
causal relationship between seizures and neuro- in refractory status epilepsy may promote excit-
nal loss. J. Nixon also reported brain atrophy on ability of the hippocampus and maintain SE [97].
2 Pathogenesis of Refractory Status Epilepticus 55

A ­previous study also found that preprotachykinin 2.3.6 Conclusions

mRNA that encodes substance P is expressed in
dentate gyrus granule cells in patients with RSE, Epilepsy induced by RSE is a widespread
while it is almost undetectable in normal subjects­phenomenon that occurs in different species and
[159]. Compared to the receptor transport men- at different ages. However, less research has been
tioned previously, these peptide networks change conducted on humans. A retrospective study
more slowly, but they tend to promote excit- showed that 31–43% of patients with SE devel-
ability in the balance between excitability and oped RSE [128]. In a prospective study of RSE,
inhibition in the hippocampus: therefore, these approximately 23% of patients with SE become
peptides may be involved in the occurrence and nonresponsive to first-line and second-line anti-
development of RSE. epileptic drugs and developed RSE [128].
Therefore, some cases of RSE evolve from SE,
while other RSE cases directly evolve from a
2.3.4 Inflammatory Process single seizure, without a transitional period of
SE, and may progress to epileptogenesis. Existing
Studies have shown that inhibiting the inflamma- studies have found that translocation of GABA
tory process can promote the integrity of the and glutamate receptors, neuronal injury and
blood brain barrier and reduce the severity of SE death, changes in the expression of neuropep-
[160]. Friedman A. and Dingledine R. found that tides, inflammatory process, and changes in gene
inflammatory factors, such as IL-1-beta, TNF-­ expression are related to the development of
alpha, and toll-like receptor 4, were involved in RSE, which may play an important role in the
the occurrence of RSE [161]. Juhász et al. understanding of the pathogenesis of RSE and in
reported that in a 56-year-old male patient with preventing or reversing the development of RSE.
new onset RSE, in addition to the seizures being
controlled by surgical removal of the epileptic
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 Brain Damage Caused by Status
Epilepticus 3
Zhen Hong

Abstract
In this chapter, we describe the results of clinical studies and animal
model experiments aimed at exploring brain damage induced by status
epilepticus (SE). Evidence from autopsies has indicated that epileptic
brains exhibit morphological abnormalities, including neuronal injury,
glial activation, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), mossy fiber
sprouting, and vascular injury. Many affected individuals also exhibit
behavioral abnormalities. The molecular mechanisms and related signal-
ing pathways that potentially underlie SE-induced brain damage are also
discussed. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain these effects
of SE. These include but are not limited to an imbalance between the
excitatory and inhibitory transition systems, disturbances in brain metab-
olism and inflammation, dysfunction of the mTOR pathway, and the reg-
ulation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). These detailed
investigations will accelerate the development of promising strategies to
treat SE in the future.

3.1 Introduction term, significant, complex, and extensive brain

damage that includes neuronal death, nerve dam-
Status epilepticus (SE) becomes a life-­threatening age, and other changes in neuronal networks. The
neurological emergency if treatment at the neuro- severity of damage depends on several factors,
logical unit is delayed. SE usually leads to long-­ including the type, intensity, duration of attack
and the age of patient. SE has a sustained onset
that alters GABAergic neuron-based inhibitory
systems and other neurochemical synaptic trans-
Z. Hong mission. Here, a number of studies aimed at clari-
Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital,
fying mechanism underlying these changes and
Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road,
Shanghai 200040, China exploring target-specific drugs to improve the
e-mail: [email protected] prognosis of SE.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 61

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_3
62 Z. Hong

3.2 Clinical Evidence increase in T2 signaling that was associated

and the Chronology of Brain with ­seizure-­induced cytotoxicity and vasogenic
Damage During and After SE edema. This result was subsequently confirmed
by Kim [5]. In 8 patients with SE, MRI showed
As early as 1825, Bouchet provided an autopsy that signal intensity and swelling in the cortical
report that described 18 epileptic cases in which gray matter, subcortical white matter, or hippo-
8 of the patients exhibited hippocampal injury campus on periictal T2-weighted and diffusion-
and 4 experienced cerebellar softening. In 1880, weighted images transiently increased.
Sommer and Pfleger firstly described the patho- In 1999, Oe [6] reported that at 10 months
logical changes observed in the autopsy epileptic after SE, a patient showed gradual hemiplegia
brain, especially damage to the hippocampus and and mental retardation. MRI of this patient
limbic system in detail. Their study marked an revealed high signals in T2-weighted images that
important milestone in the history of epilepsy, were indicative of lesions representing atrophy in
and the results have been broadly confirmed the cortex, white matter, caudate nucleus, and
lately. They identified hippocampal sclerosis as hippocampus. SPECT imaging showed the pres-
the pathological hallmarks of refractory tempo- ence of reduced blood flow lesions, which may
ral lobe epilepsy (TLE).This type of neuropatho- be related with cytotoxic injury and vascular
logical damage includes segmental loss of edema caused by SE.
pyramidal neurons, granule cell dispersion, and In 2003, Fujikawa [7] demonstrated that 3
gliosis. These changes were thought to result post-mortem patients with NCSE who had no
from epileptic seizure which has a significant history of seizures exhibited cell death in the hip-
effect on the mortality and morbidity, and the pocampus, amygdala, piriform cortex, dorsome-
neuronal loss was attributed to disturbances dial nucleus, and cerebellum. These neuronal cell
in local metabolism and circulation caused by deaths were mainly distributed in the glutamate
seizures [1]. receptor-dense region of the limbic system, sug-
In 1966, Margerison and Corsellis [2] found gesting that excitotoxic injury may be involved in
that in 55 autopsies performed in patients with brain injury mechanisms caused by SE.
epilepsy, approximately 70% exhibited hippo-
campal CA1 neuronal loss and gliosis. It was
reported that in patients with SE, there was sig- 3.3 Animal Experimental
nificant acute neural damage in the CA1 area, Evidence of Brain Damage
thalamus, the corpus callosum, and cerebellar During and After SE
Purkinje cells. They defined two types of hippo-
campal damage. The first was “classical” In addition to autopsies in patients who died from
Ammon’s horn sclerosis, which was described SE, studies of brain damage in SE have princi-
previously, and the second was neuronal loss pally involved the use of animal experiments
confined in the hilus of the dentate gyrus, which which focused on several characteristics of the
is termed “end folium sclerosis.” central nervous system, as described below.
In 1992, DeGiorgio [3] and his colleagues
found that typical pyramidal neuronal necrosis
and loss were observed in the hippocampal CA1 3.3.1 Injury Sites
and CA3 areas in patients who died suddenly
from generalized clonic status epilepticus, and As early as 1994, J. M. Petras [8] described a
these patients exhibited progressive hippocampal mechanism by which SE could induce extensive
atrophy and sclerosis in addition to clear damage brain damage in the piriform cortex, striatum,
in the temporal lobe area on imaging. fornix fibers, hypothalamic cortical projection
In 1997, Meierkord [4] showed that on fibers, and spinal cord. These findings were con-
MRI, patients with SE exhibited a significant firmed in MRI studies later. Catherine Roch [9]
3 Brain Damage Caused by Status Epilepticus 63

found that at 2 days after pilocarpine-induced SE, markers, whereas tail-vein injections resulted in
the T2 relaxation time was significantly increased short-latency SE and predominantly necrotic cell
in the ventral and dorsal hippocampus, amyg- death. To some extent, these data indicated that
dala, thalamus, entorhinal cortex, and piriform latency to the onset of SE determined the apop-
cortex. Moreover, the change in hippocampal totic or necrotic mechanisms following SE [16].
volume was consistent with the change in the T2 (2) Spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRSs):
signal. In the chronic phase following SE, open-­ Animals exhibited latency after SE. In addition,
field tests confirmed that the T2 relaxation time SRSs, including secondary generalized tonic-­
in the amygdala was closely related with locomo- clonic seizures, occurred in most animals [17].
tor activity, suggesting that the T2 signal in the Neuronal loss in the hippocampus was usually
amygdala may be an early imaging marker of involved with the occurrence of SRSs. In the
epileptogenesis. Nevertheless, quantitative MRI pilocarpine-­induced SE model, significant neuro-
analysis revealed that a high T2 signal in the pari- nal loss was observed in the dentate gyrus and the
etal cortex and hypothalamus on day 2 after SE CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus.
was strongly linked with animal mortality [10, Animals that exhibited a greater degree of cell
11]. Interestingly, using a 2.35-T MRI system, loss in the CA3 region of the hippocampus had a
Choy [12] found that T2 signal in the parietal later onset of chronic epilepsy [18]. (3)
cortex increased only during the very early stages Neurogenesis: The role of neurogenesis in SE is
of SE, restabilized after 2 days, and exhibited no complex and controversial. In SE, neurogenesis
further changes. may be a mechanism that contributes to self-­
repair after injury. However, the recombination
of neural network during the process of self-­
3.3.2 Neuronal Damage repair may result in neuronal over-excitation and
thereby promote epileptogenesis. The data sug-
3.3.2.1 Neuronal Loss gested that SE could induce axon sprouting in the
In pilocarpine or kainic acid-induced SE, silver hippocampus, especially in the intramolecular
staining showed prominent neuronal loss in the layer which takes part in the generation of
amygdala, hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas, SRS. In the pilocarpine and KA-induced SE
entorhinal cortex, and hypothalamus that was model, granule cells proliferated with long den-
closely associated with the duration of epileptic drites, more dendritic spines were observed in the
seizures [13]. At 24 h after SE induced by an dentate gyrus, a small number of neuronal cell
intra-hippocampal injection of pilocarpine, bodies were large, and there was a reduction in
Fluoro-Jade staining revealed the neurodegenera- the number of newborn neuronal dendritic spines
tion in the hilus and CA3 and CA1 pyramidal cell rather than regular neurons. Moreover, approxi-
subfields [14]. In pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)- mately 14% of proliferating cells differentiated
induced SE, the same reduction in neurons was into inhibitory GABA energy basket cells [19].
observed at 24 h after SE and maintained for These evidences suggested that neurogenesis
10 weeks [15]. may play a neuroprotective role in the early stage
of SE. Nevertheless, these generated neurons
3.3.2.2 Influencing Factors may promote the development of chronic epi-
Many factors have been implicated in the neuro- lepsy after SE.
nal loss in the hippocampus following SE. (1)
Latency and methods of injection: In a kainic
acid (KA)-induced SE model, latency period was 3.3.3 Glial Cell Injury
different between animals administered intraperi-
toneal and tail-vein injections. Intraperitoneal SE induces the abnormal activation of glial cells,
injections provoked long-latency SE and induced and activated glial cells play an extensive and
the increased expression of caspase-generated complex role following SE. On the one hand,
64 Z. Hong

activated astrocytes release a variety of Disruption of BBB leads to increased excitability

­pro-­inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and in the brain. It is a chronic process that involves
TNF-α, which increase neuronal excitability, in increased interstitial protein concentrations,
leading to neuronal loss [20, 21]. On the other the activation of astrocytes, and an imbalance in
hand, glutathione is synthesized mainly by astro- K+ and Ca2+ homeostasis [25]. In the early stage
cytes. During the early stages of SE, glutathione of epileptic seizure, there is substantial albumin
levels significantly increase and then gradually extravasation by astrocytes and neurons after SE
decrease. However, there is no clear relationship [26], suggesting that the BBB was impaired dur-
between the synthesis of glutathione in hippo- ing epileptic seizures. This result was confirmed
campal astrocytes, neuronal loss, and frequency in electrical stimulation-induced SE animal mod-
of SRS in chronic stage during epileptogenesis. els. During the chronic period after an epileptic
To a certain extent, the EPO produced by astro- seizure, the degree of BBB structural damage
cytes may serve as neuroprotective factors in SE was positively correlated with the frequency of
by delaying neuronal cell death [22]. SRS. Moreover, artificially opening the BBB
In addition, microglial cells are the prominent during the chronic epileptic phase induced a per-
mediators for phagocytic cell activities in sistent increase in the number of seizures in a
CNS. Here, activated microglia has been shown majority of epileptic rats. These findings indicate
to induce inflammatory response, which could that BBB leakage occurs during epileptogenesis
play a key role in a variety of encephalopathies. and the chronic epileptic phase, suggesting that
There is a study demonstrated the changes of dysfunction of BBB contributes to the progres-
somatostatin receptor (SSTR) in the hippocam- sion of epilepsy. After 1–2 days of SE, albumin
pus of pilocarpine-induced SE model. SSTR2B had begun to exude from the piriform cortex,
and SSTR4 immunoreactivity were significantly entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus,
increased in microglial cells after epilepsy, and striatum, and olfactory bulb, and this change in
the expression of SSTR was unregulated evi- BBB permeability was sustained for 1 week after
dently in the hippocampal microglial cells. the initiation of SE. These data suggest that the
Increased expression levels of SSTR in neurons structural integrity of BBB plays a crucial role in
and glia may due to the enhanced inhibition of SE-induced brain injury.
the dentate gyrus and the regulation of reactive In addition, the destruction of BBB structural
microgliosis in the hippocampus [23]. integrity in SE leads to changes in the local blood
However, another study found that the level pressure, the formation of oxidative-free radicals,
of PLPP/CIN protein was significantly upregu- the immune response, and the loss of tight junc-
lated in astrocytes and granule cells. High levels tion proteins.
of PLPP/CIN protein participate in the regula-
tion of acid detergent fibers (ADFs) and F-actin,
leading to excitability and pulse suppression. 3.3.5 Mossy Fiber Sprouting (MFS)
These results indicate that the loss of astrocytes
during SE may partly result from a synergistic MFS is one of the most important morphologi-
effect involving PLPP/CIN-mediated actin cal features of hippocampal plasticity in tem-
kinetics [24]. poral lobe epilepsy. It was observed in several
SE animal models, including kainic acid model
[27], pilocarpine models [28, 29], and the kin-
3.3.4 Blood-Brain Barrier Injury dling model [24]. Sprouted mossy fibers diffuse
longitudinally along the hippocampus, which
The main function of the BBB is to maintain the increases longitudinal linking of their lamellae.
stability of the brain environment, to participate There is no clear evidence of the relationship
in regulation in cerebral blood flow and material between mossy fibroblast sprouting and the sever-
transport, and to protect the brain from inflamma- ity of SRS ­during the chronic phase. But in SRS
tory factors and other macromolecular damage. phase, mossy fibroblast buds exhibit abnormal
3 Brain Damage Caused by Status Epilepticus 65

e­ xcitatory associations between granule cells and 3.3.7 Vascular Injury

increased susceptibility to seizure. Studies have
shown that the intra-cerebroventricular injection One study about lithium-pilocarpine-induced SE
of nerve growth factor (NGF) accelerates the pro- model found that in the hippocampus, certain
cesses underlying the epileptic kindling model, treatment resulted in a significant reduction in
increases mossy fiber sprouting in the molecular SRS. This effect was mediated by an increase in
layer of the CA3 region, and protects against SE the transcription of hypoxia stress factor 1α
after hippocampal neuronal loss. These data sug- (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, HIF- 1α) after sei-
gest that MFS may be a direct consequence of zure and the regulation of the expression of
SE rather than a compensatory response to neu- erythropoietin and vascular endothelial growth
ronal death. Data support the notion that seizure- factor (VEGF). They also found that at 7 days
induced MFS can be primarily attributed to the after the termination of SE, recombinant human
combined effects of neuronal activation and the erythropoietin (rhEPO) significantly decreased
activation-induced upregulation of growth fac- BBB leakage, neuronal death, and microglial
tors [30]. However, more studies are needed to activation in the dentate hilus and in the CA1 and
determine whether MFS is a common cause of CA3 subfields and inhibited the generation of
SE seizures and neuronal loss [31]. It has been ectopic granule cells in the hilus [36]. VEGF is
speculated that in granule cells, MFS not only the key signal molecule that promotes angiogen-
establishes an excitatory loop but also restores esis. It not only changes the permeability of BBB
excitability in inhibitory interneuron afferents but also increases the infiltration of monocytes
during SE. Moreover, the increased inhibition of into the brain parenchyma. These effects directly
granule cells enables the brain to restore itself to
or indirectly regulate the excitability and plastic-
the homeostasis after injury [32]. ity of neurons. The expression of VEGF rapidly
increased during the early stages of SE, and this
effect lasted through the chronic stages of
3.3.6 Brain Function and Cognitive epileptogenesis.
Behavioral Injury In addition, activated TrkB significantly pro-
moted epileptogenesis, and the frequency of SE
In epileptic animal models, SE leads to a short-­ induced by chemoconvulsant was significantly
term decrease in activities which is accompanied reduced in TrkB knockout mice. Interestingly,
by impaired learning and memory. In amygdala-­ in post-SE model, sustained selective inhibition
kindled SE animal model, electrical stimulation of TrkB for 2 weeks using a chemical-genetic
resulted in impaired spatial cognitive ability method significantly reduced both the frequency
(Morris water maze test) in adult epileptic ani- of SRS and hippocampal neuronal loss dur-
mals. The pilocarpine-induced SE model mim- ing the chronic stages of epileptogenesis and
icked the behavioral and cognitive impairments alleviated anxiety in the mice [37]. These data
which was directly observed in SE patients [33]. suggested that the BDNF-TrkB signaling path-
Additionally, in open-field tests, SE rats exhib- way is involved in the mechanism underlying
ited a significant increase in excessive activity SE-induced neuronal injury.
and decrease in behavioral habituation, suggest-
ing that their spatial exploratory and spatial cog-
nition abilities were impaired [10, 34]. In 3.3.8 Others
PTZ-induced SE rats, T-maze and open-field
tests showed that the number of fecal boli Tau protein, phosphorylated microtubule-­
increased, and one-way escape latency was long associated protein is abundant in neurons, which
after SE, implying the emotional memory, learn- stabilize microtubules in the CNS. High concen-
ing, and behaviors were impaired which are tration of total tau and phosphorylated tau in the
related to unconditional fear. However, the abnor- cerebrospinal fluid is likely to indicate axonal
malities were not persistent [35]. and neuronal damage. Currently, Tau protein is
66 Z. Hong

used as a core biomarker for AD diagnosis in occur during the early stages of SE and promote
clinical trials [38]. An analysis of cerebrospinal epileptogenesis.
fluid in 20 patients with SE showed that in 14 of
the patients, levels of tau protein were evidently
increased and 6 patients have high levels of CSF 3.4.1 Metabolic Disturbance
phosphorylated-tau protein. Moreover, levels of
total-tau protein in the CSF were significantly In SE, both energy consumption and glucose uti-
higher in patients who developed to refractory lization are significantly increased, and the oxy-
SE in comparison to patients with drug-con- gen demands of the brain consequently outstrip
trolled seizure. Patients were inclining to develop the supply [43]. Under physiological conditions,
to chronic epilepsy when the CSF total-tau level the cerebrovascular system is self-regulatory, and
is high. These results suggest that CSF total-tau cerebral blood flow therefore does not fluctuate
values were positively correlated with the dura- with significant changes in blood pressure. During
tion of SE, and it may therefore serve as a clinical the early stage, SE interrupts this self-­regulation.
biomarker for assessing the severity and progno- In SE, there is initially a sharp increase in arte-
sis of SE [39]. rial blood pressure. It produces a significant
increase in cerebral blood flow, which aimed at
bringing more oxygen and glucose to the brain
3.4  rain Damage Mechanisms
B to compensate for its excessive oxygen demand.
During and After SE However, as SE developed, lactic acidosis and a
lack of sensitivity in peripheral blood vessels to
The pathophysiology of SE remains poorly plasma catecholamine induce continuous decline
understood. The pathogenic mechanisms under- in blood pressure that ultimately results in isch-
lying SE-induced brain damage are investigated emia and hypoxia in the brain, leading to damage
primarily using animal models, which induced including neuronal necrosis and glial activation.
by chemoconvulsion (e.g., pilocarpine with or
without lithium or using kainic acid) and elec- 3.4.1.1 Mitochondria
trical stimulation, as well as organotypic slice Mitochondria are the “power stations” of most
culture. However, animal models used currently cells, and their functions include supplying
rarely replicate the characteristics of NCSE. It energy to cells, maintaining calcium homeosta-
is of importance that numerous molecular and sis, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS),
cellular pathways should be paid attention when and regulating apoptotic cells. In the brain, mito-
studying the initiation, maintenance, and devel- chondria are mainly responsible for supplying
opment of SE. ATP and regulating ROS signaling pathways
Several studies have confirmed that in SE, and Ca2+ concentration in the synapse. Within a
phosphorylation of protein occurs during “on-­ few hours to several days following the onset of
off” changes of ion channel, and neurotrans- SE, mitochondrial dysfunction induces the acti-
mitters are released over a very short period of vation of caspase, which results in programmed
time and then followed by synaptic receptor cell death (including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and
trafficking. This process includes an increase in necroptosis), leading directly to brain damage.
excitatory synaptic receptors and a decrease in In brain slices, SE was induced by perfusing
inhibitory transmission. During the first week Mg2+-free medium. This caused the supply of
after the onset of SE, a large number of neurons NADH to neurons to be inconsistent with cellu-
are lost in the hippocampus and other fields of lar electrical activity and the generation of free
limbic system. The structural destruction of the radicals, resulting in neuronal death in the hip-
BBB results in vasogenic edema [40, 41], glial pocampus. In vivo, it has been suggested that a
activation, and inflammatory response [42]. It large amount of ROS is produced during chronic
manifested that a series of pathological changes epileptic seizures and SE, leading to neuronal
3 Brain Damage Caused by Status Epilepticus 67

death [44]. NADPH oxidase is the main ROS affect GABAA receptors (GABAARs), which
component generated during this pathophysiol- ­themselves play central roles in inhibitory neuro-
ogy. AEBSF, an NADPH inhibitor, significantly transmission in the forebrain [50]. Recently, exten-
reduced cell death. Furthermore, ROS produced sive studies have linked SE to GABA receptors. In
by NADPH contributes to seizure-induced cell the hippocampus, GABAR-mediated inhibition
death, which is accompanied by the release of is decreased during SE. The imbalance between
glutamate and the activation of NMDA receptors excitatory and inhibitory transmission plays an
[45]. NADPH is the main source of superoxide important role in epileptogenesis after SE.
production following NMDA receptor activation In SE animal models, it has been shown
[46], but the relationship between ROS produc- that GABA receptor-mediated neuroprotection
tion and mitochondria in SE remains unclear. effects are significantly attenuated in the hip-
Recently, a number of studies suggested that pocampus. In hippocampal slices obtained from
mitochondrial dysfunction-induced brain injury animals undergoing prolonged SE, the ampli-
played an important role in SE and might affect tudes of the mIPSCs in the pyramidal neurons
the activation of the excitatory neurotransmitter of DGCs and CA1 were significantly lower
system, which consequently induced epilepto- than controls at 30–60 min after SE [51–53].
genesis in the CNS. The amplitude of mIPSCs decreased prior to the
forelimb convulsions in SE animals. Besides,
3.4.1.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum the frequency of mIPSC was similarly reduced,
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle suggesting that GABA receptor-induced currents
that is important in protein synthesis and directly reacted rapidly upon SE initiation and it may be
contributes to cell survival by correctly folding and due to the reduction of cell membrane expression
classifying proteins. When calcium homeostasis of GABAA receptor subunits. Similar results
is disturbed, unfolded proteins aggregate, and this have also been reported in cultured primary hip-
can cause the ER to experience stress (character- pocampal neurons. These findings indicated that
ized by eNOS activation), potentially resulting GABA receptor-­ mediated synaptic inhibition
in its destruction [47]. In SE, ER stress-­induced was reduced during the very early stage of SE.
brain injury may be mediated by the PERK- Although changes were observed in GABA
Eif2α-CHOP signal transduction pathway [48]. receptor-mediated currents and the magnitude of
In a pilocarpine-induced SE model, SE-induced mIPSCs is known to be closely linked with the
eNOS activation induces BBB disruption through number of receptors in the synapse, the mecha-
the upregulation of GRP78 expression in piriform nism underlying the trafficking of surface recep-
cortex [49]. These finding suggested that modu- tors during SE should be further clarified. Data
lating ER stress may be a potential therapeutic from biotinylation assays have implied that in
strategy for impaired endothelial cell function the hippocampus, the distributions of GABA
resulting from vasogenic edema during SE. receptor subunits, including the γ2, β2/3, and α1
subunits, are significantly reduced in SE model.
Alterations of these subunits may result from
3.4.2 Neurotransmission-Induced regulation of the receptors at the transcription
Brain Damage During or translation level or the abnormal transport of
and After SE receptors. The rapid response of GABA receptor
subunits indicated that the differential modula-
3.4.2.1 Reduced GABAergic tion of the surface expression of GABA recep-
Neurotransmission During tors might play a central role in the brain damage
and After SE caused by SE.
GABA is the most important inhibitory trans- Culturing primary neurons on glass cover-
mitter in the CNS. Benzodiazepines are first- slips with Mg2+-free or high-potassium buffer
line drugs used to control SE, and they mainly induces SE-like burst discharges. During this
68 Z. Hong

process, the endocytosis of γ2 and β2/3 subunits into many types, including mGluR1-8, which
was ­significantly increased [54], but there was primarily couple with G proteins and function
no change in the δ subunit. These changes may via intracellular secondary messenger systems,
have resulted from the depolarization of neu- such as PLC (phosphatase C) and AC (adenylate
rons, the activation of NMDA receptors, or the cyclase).
ligand binding. Moreover, endocytosis of the A large body of evidence confirms that NMDA
GABA receptor reduces the expression of GABA receptors and AMPA receptors are involved in
receptors on the cell membrane. Nevertheless, it generating and maintaining SE [58, 59]. The
remains unclear whether the assembly of GABA excessive activation of NMDA receptors results
receptors and their anchorages on the cell mem- in increased neuronal damage and apoptosis dur-
brane are also affected. ing SE and modulates SE-associated epileptogen-
In addition, the phosphorylation and dephos- esis. NMDA receptor antagonists significantly
phorylation of GABA receptors determines the decrease excitotoxicity-induced neuronal dam-
stability and trafficking of GABA receptors on the age in CA1 and CA3 areas, as well as the mossy
cell membrane, which in turn affects the expres- fiber sprouting in KA-induced SE model. In vitro,
sion of GABA receptors on cells. When the iono- repeatedly stimulating glutamatergic neuronal
tropic NMDA receptor is activated, the resulting transmission pathways leads to cell death and
influx of Ca2+ activates the second messenger sustained epileptiform activity in SE brain slices.
protein kinase C (PKC) and calcineurin, which In organotypic hippocampal slice cultures,
regulates GABA receptor phosphorylation [55, SE was associated with an increase in the sur-
56]. The expression of PKCα, PKCβ, and PKCγ face expression of NR1-containing NMDAR,
were significantly reduced, and the phosphoryla- and an increase of NMDA synaptic and extra-
tion of the β3 subunit was greatly downregulated synaptic currents indicated functional NMDA
in SE animal model. Zn2+ is an allosteric regu- receptor accumulation to the cell surface in den-
latory factor of the GABAA receptor in hippo- tate granule cells. This coincides with the inter-
campal dentate granule cells. In whole-cell patch nalization of synaptic GABAA receptors [60].
clamp, GABA receptor currents from hippocam- NMDA receptors were recruited to the postsyn-
pal dentate granule cells were acutely altered in aptic membranes of granule cells in the DG and
rats undergoing SE. to pyramidal neurons in the CA3 area at 1 h after
Additionally, GABA receptor-induced cur- the induction of pilocarpine-induced SE. An
rents were less sensitive to diazepam, and Zn2+ NMDA-­ mEPSC variance analysis suggested
retained their sensitivity to GABA and pentobar- that NMDA receptors in the cell membrane were
bital [57]. It concluded that prolonged SE rapidly increased by approximately 38% during SE. In
mediated the plasticity of GABAA receptors in this study, SE-induced neuronal death was found
hippocampal dentate granule cell. to be dependent on extracellular Ca2+ entry that
entered primarily through the NMDA recep-
3.4.2.2 Excitatory Neurotransmission tor channel subtype [61]. Moreover, activated
Glutamate is the most important excitatory neu- astrocytes mediated the release of glutamate,
rotransmitter in the CNS and plays important resulted in the induction of slow inward currents
roles in synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, and in neurons. These currents are essential for neu-
neurodegeneration. There are two classes of ronal synchronization and the triggering of action
glutamate receptors, including ionotropic recep- potentials (APs).
tors and metabotropic receptors. The ionotropic GluA2-containing AMPAR is not permeable
receptors form the ion channel pore opens when to Ca2+. Rajasekaran and colleagues showed that
glutamate binds to its receptor. These receptors in acute isolated hippocampal slices, at 10 and
are divided into NMDA receptors, KA receptors, 60 min after SE induction, there was a signifi-
and AMPA receptors according to their selec- cant reduction in the GluA2 subunit, and AMPA
tive agonist. Metabolic receptors are divided receptors in CA1 of the hippocampus exhibited
3 Brain Damage Caused by Status Epilepticus 69

inwardly rectifying currents. These effects were 3.4.3.2 Interleukin-1β Pathway

also observed in the dentate gyrus region at The interleukin-1β/Toll-like receptor pathway
10 min, but not 60 min after SE. These finding indirectly regulates NMDA receptors in epileptic
suggest that AMPA receptor blockade may be a seizures. VX-765 is an inhibitor of IL-converting
possible anticonvulsant alternative for SE [62]. enzyme, which induces a potent anti-inflam-
In addition, these results suggest that gluta- matory effect. In kainic acid-induced SE rats,
matergic neuronal excitability and excitotoxic VX-765 inhibited seizure-induced secretion of
effects play important roles in initiation and IL1β from astrocytes in organotypic slices and
maintenance of SE. It could be proposed that led to delay of seizure initiation and 50% reduc-
inactivation of the GABAA receptor initiates SE, tion of seizure duration [71]. These data indicated
whereas rapid surface accumulation of NMDA that interleukin-­activated IL1β/Toll-like receptor
receptors promotes an abnormal increase in pathway was closely associated with SE.
excitotoxicity during SE, thereby contributing to Furthermore, the mechanism underlying IL1β
chronic epileptic seizure [51, 52, 63]. participates in SE including activation of neuronal
sphingomyelinase and Src kinase which induced
by IL1β, as well as the phosphorylation of NR2B
3.4.3 Inflammation and NMDA receptor-induced Ca2+ influx.

3.4.3.1 ATP Pathway 3.4.3.3 COX2

In the central and peripheral nervous system, In both KA- and pilocarpine-induced SE models,
ATP is released in an activity-dependent manner COX2 expression was significantly unregulated.
from different cell types and plays different roles COX2 is involved in a variety of neuroinflam-
as either a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator matory pathways, including the activation of
in astrocyte-to-neuron communication to propa- microglia. The upregulation of COX2 is closely
gate astrocytic responses and regulate microglial associated with the regulation of apoptosis in
responses [64]. Under normal physiological con- excitotoxicity-induced injuries. Cultured microg-
ditions, the extracellular concentration of ATP is lial treated with EP2 (PGE2) subtype antagonist
very low. The over-excitement of neurons acts as showed neuroprotective effects. These small
a “danger signal,” causing concentration of extra- molecular compounds could permeate BBB and
cellular ATP increased and ATP-gated purinergic significantly inhibit the upregulation of COX2
receptor (P2) activation in the CNS. mRNA. In SE animal model, administration of
In KA- and pilocarpine-induced SE models, COX2 inhibitor after SE significantly increased
P2X7R receptors were significantly increased the survival rate of hippocampal neurons and
at both the transcription and translation level on reduced the duration of SRS for 28–42 days. It
the hippocampal microglia but not astrocytes has been showed that COX2-selective inhibi-
and oligodendrocytes [65, 66]. P2X7R recep- tors significantly increase the risk of cardiovas-
tor activation is an essential step in microglial cular disease. It proposed that combination of
activation and proliferation. P2X7R may affect anti-­inflammatory factors and COX-2 and IL-1β
neuronal cell death by regulating the release of inhibitors may be an effective strategy to treat SE
the pro-­inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta in the future.
(IL-1β) [67, 68]. Moreover, the P2X7R inhibitor Furthermore, IL-18 was predominantly
A-438079 produced an anticonvulsant effect dur- expressed in the endothelial cells and astrocytes
ing SE. It not only reduced electrographic and sei- of injured neurovascular units, and IL-18 levels
zure severity during SE but also seizure-­induced in the piriform cortex, the hippocampus, and the
neuronal death in the neocortex and hippocampus hypothalamus were significantly increased in SE
[69]. During ATP signaling, adenosine, a product animal models [72]. However, the inflammatory
of the breakdown of ATP, plays an important role response initiated by epilepsy is strongly influ-
in terminating epileptic seizures [70]. enced by the age of the animal.
70 Z. Hong

3.4.4  he Mammalian Target

T of signaling pathways, including the activation
of Rapamycin (mTOR) of G-protein-coupled receptors, which have
Pathway recently been focused on as a novel target for
anticonvulsants. The anticonvulsant drug leveti-
mTOR, an atypical serine/threonine protein racetam was shown to regulate intracellular Ca2+
kinase, is a member of the phosphatidylinosi- influx. What’s more, single seizure resulted in
tol kinase-related kinase (PIKK) protein fam- continuous increase of T-type calcium channel
ily. mTOR is evolutionarily conserved and activity, suggesting that the continuous discharge
involves in many aspects of cellular proliferation observed in epileptic seizures could be enhanced
and growth, including gene transcription, pro- and maintained by the activation of calcium
tein translation, ribosome synthesis, apoptosis, channel.
neurite growth, and synaptic plasticity. Over-­ Finally, DNA methylation, microRNA regu-
activation of the mTOR pathway is involved in lation, post-gene transcriptional modifications,
the over-excitability of neurons and also plays a A-type K+ channels, HCN channels, and chlo-
critical role in the development, migration, and ride ion transporters have also been implicated
function of GABAergic neurons. In pilocarpine-­ in the mechanisms underlying SE-induced brain
induced SE, rapamycin was shown to reduce axon damage and epileptogenesis. In conclusion, fur-
sprouting by increasing the survival of soma- ther studies are necessary to solve this puzzle.
tostatin-positive interneuron [73]. Moreover, Understanding of these pathophysiology will
BDNF-mediated stimulation of neurons led to an provide new strategies to treat SE.
increase in the levels of mTOR pathway-medi-
ated mRNAs, including LIMK-1, eNOS, Pyk2,
Homer2, GluR1, NR1/3, and DLG2 [74]. References
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 Clinical Features of Refractory
Status Epilepticus in Various 4
Conditions

Xuefeng Wang, Yuehua Zhang,

and Howan Leung

Abstract
Refractory status epilepticus (RSE) is a group of clinical manifestations that
are caused by a variety of pathologies. Some cases of RSEs have no clear
underlying cause, and these include some hereditary epilepsy syndromes in
which the cause of RSE is unknown or has not yet been identified. Some
cases of RSE occur in patients with pre-existing epilepsy, and these may
represent epilepsy progression that occurs without disease-­modifying inter-
ventions. In children, epilepsy syndromes manifest in a diversity of ways,
including as RSE. Most cases of RSE involve multiple underlying causes,
and most result from acute serious brain injury, such as hypoxic ischemic
encephalopathy, autoimmune encephalitis, and infectious encephalitis.
RSE is associated with different clinical features under different condi-
tions, and different treatments are therefore required to treat each patient.
Additionally, prognoses in RSE are related to its underlying cause.
In this chapter, we describe the manifestations and summarize the clini-
cal features of RSE under a variety of conditions with the aim of i­ mproving
the prevention and timely diagnosis of RSE.

X. Wang (*)
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, 4.1  ew-Onset Refractory Status
N
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Epilepticus (NORSE)
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University,
1 YouYi Road, Chongqing 400016, China
e-mail: [email protected] 4.1.1 Definition
Y. Zhang
Department of Pediatrics, Refractory status epilepticus is usually devel-
Peking University First Hospital, oped as a result of acute brain injury [1–3] such
No. 1, Xi’anmen Street, Xicheng District, as infection, trauma, or stroke [4]. However, RSE
Beijing 100034, China
also occurs in the population without a history
H. Leung of epilepsy or obvious causes. NORSE is used
Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine
to describe patients who develop RSE with no
and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong
Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong Special prior history of epilepsy or identifiable caus-
Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China ative factors. Wilder-Smith et al. [4] described

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 75

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_4
76 X. Wang et al.

patients who develop RSE with no prior his- According to Ismail et al. [14], these reports
tory of epilepsy or identifiable causative factors may be describing the same entity and reflect
as having NORSE. The term has been used to the same disease phenomenon, despite the dif-
describe a group of diseases with similar clinical ferences in terminology. In 2005, Wilder-Smith
characteristics. et al. [4] published a descriptive, semi-­prospective
Kortvelyessy et al. [5] further described NORSE review of all cases of NORSE syndrome that
and noted that NORSE has often been described were monitored at a tertiary care public hospital
as RSE in healthy adult patients (18–53 years), in Singapore between 2000 and 2004. Initially,
which included more women (20–32 years) than seven patients with NORSE syndrome were iden-
men (4:1). Although patients may have a fever, in tified and were young females in previously good
some cases, no febrile illness was present prior health with a precedent febrile illness (in five)
to the seizures. Electroencephalogram (EEG) and extraordinarily prolonged intractable SE
shows multifocal seizures, suggesting that the (average 32 days). A large number of negative
discharge originates from a non-specific location. investigations and catastrophic outcomes were
More researchers have used fever-induced refrac- the characteristic features. Although five patients
tory epileptic encephalopathy syndrome (FIRES) presented with a fever-like infection before sei-
to describe a group of diseases with the charac- zure onset, the etiology and immunology tests
teristics described above in school-aged children were negative, and the results of brain autop-
2–17 years old. In addition to the difference in sies of two cases showed a lack of evidence of
the age of onset, the incidence of FIRES in males an inflammatory infection. Subsequently, many
(57%) was slightly higher than in females. Based case reports of NORSE have been published.
on EEG results, epileptic discharges mainly orig- In 2008, Costello et al. [15] explored the cause
inate from focal seizures in the frontal and tem- of the disease in six patients with NORSE and
poral lobes. proposed the possibility of noninfectious causes.
NORSE is etiologically heterogeneous, with a
proportion of cases caused by noninfectious fac-
4.1.2 Historical Evolution tors. In 2010, Mathieu et al. [16] reported a case
of a school-­aged child who suffered from severe
In 1961, Lyon et al. [6] described patients with- new-onset SE a few days after a common viral
out previous seizures or a family history of epi- infection, which confirmed that some NORSE
lepsy who had refractory seizures. The authors cases are associated with serum neuropil auto-
reviewed 47 cases and described 16 cases of chil- antibodies. In 2012, Claire and colleagues [17]
dren who experienced acute-onset refractory sei- assessed the results of five patients with NORSE
zures and consciousness disorder in the absence who had used immunotherapy early in the seizure
of obvious causative factors after a febrile illness. course and confirmed that early immunotherapy
As shown in the prospective and epidemiological is associated with good outcomes in patients
population-based study by Delorenzo and col- with NORSE. In the same year, Judy et al. [18]
leagues [7], 58% of patients with SE had no his- proposed the early use of plasma exchange (PE)
tory of epilepsy, indicating that healthy people can therapy in patients with NORSE of an unknown
experience SE in the absence of a history of epi- etiology to prevent the complications of SE and
lepsy. Subsequently, many similar cases have been prolonged hospitalization.
reported with different names, including de novo
cryptogenic refractory multifocal febrile status
epilepticus [8], idiopathic catastrophic epileptic 4.1.3 Prevalence
encephalopathy [9], severe refractory status epi-
lepticus owing to presumed encephalitis [10], dev- Although many studies and cases of NORSE
astating epilepsy in school-aged children (DESC) have been reported, the limited diagnostic ability
[11], acute encephalitis with refractory repetitive and number of NORSE patients, difficulty in per-
partial seizures (AERRPS) [12], and FIRES [13]. forming prospective studies, uncertain ­treatment,
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 77

removal of the patient from intensive care by n­eurological findings, seizures, cerebrospinal
family members, and cessation of treatment fluid (CSF) alteration, an EEG abnormality, a
have greatly increased the number of uncertain neuroimaging alteration, and screening tests,
factors, hindering our understanding of NORSE exclude systematic autoimmune disorders, meta-
epidemiology. Therefore, the exact incidence is bolic encephalopathy, and intoxication [22].
still unknown. Jayalakshmi et al. [19] performed According to published reports, autoimmune
a retrospective analysis of patients with new- encephalitis exhibits a substantial association with
onset SE who were admitted between May 2005 NORSE [15, 23, 24]. In the analysis of NORSE
and October 2013. Among the 114 patients with causes by Gaspard et al. [20], the most commonly
new-onset SE, 52 patients (45%) progressed to identified etiologies were autoimmune (presence
RSE. A cryptogenic etiology was the most sig- of an autoantibody in the absence of a neoplasm)
nificant determinant of the progression of new- and paraneoplastic (newly diagnosed neoplasm,
onset SE to RSE. Gaspard et al. [20] examined with or without the presence of an antibody)
675 patients with RSE between January 1, 2008, encephalitis, which accounted for 19 and 18%
and December 31, 2013, in a retrospective study, of patients, respectively. Encephalitis with anti-
and 130 cases were identified as NORSE. The N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR)
incidence was 19.3%. antibodies was the most frequent ­ etiology, of
which half of the cases were related to an ovarian
teratoma, and anti-voltage-gated potassium chan-
4.1.4 Potential Etiology nel (VEKC) complex antibodies, of which a third
and Possible Pathogenesis of the cases were paraneoplastic. Other antibod-
ies may also be involved, such as anti-glutamate
The etiology of NORSE is unknown, and a defi- decarboxylase 65 kDa (GAD65), anti-α-amino-
nite etiology has not been defined in a clinical 3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-­p ropionic
reference for diagnosing the disease. In the study acid receptor (AMPAR), anti-γ-­aminobutyric
by Vivek et al. [21], no cause was identified for acid receptor (GABAR), anti-Hu, anti-voltage-
11 patients who had serious seizures among 67 gated calcium channel (VGCC), anti-collapsing
patients with super RSE. Gaspard et al. [20] con- response mediator protein 5 (CRMP5), anti-Ro,
ducted a retrospective study. Of the 130 cases, etc. Hainsworth et al. [23] reported a case study
52% remained cryptogenic. Jayalakshmi et al. of a 23-year-old, previously healthy patient with
[19] studied 52 patients with NORSE. A crypto- bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) who was
genic etiology accounted for 63.5% of the cases. ultimately diagnosed with GABA receptor limbic
When the cause remains unknown following encephalitis; the patient presented super refrac-
extensive laboratory tests and imaging analyses, tory epilepsy SE. Killian Hurley [25] reported
this type of NORSE is designated as cryptogenic a case study of a 64-year-­old patient with pul-
RSE; epidemiological surveys have reported that monary squamous cell carcinoma who exhibited
approximately 10% of patients with SE are diag- personality changes, cognitive impairment, com-
nosed with cryptogenic RSE. plex partial seizures, ataxia, and language barri-
Although the extensive laboratory and imag- ers to movement 2 weeks prior to being admitted
ing examinations performed at the first visit may to the hospital for generalized tonic-clonic sei-
not clearly define an etiology, NORSE has causes. zures (GTCS) and decreased consciousness. The
According to a large series of investigations of serum tests did not detect immune antibodies.
patients with NORSE, NORSE is most likely The disease may be paraneoplastic encephalitis.
associated with encephalopathy or some infection. Infection-related factors account for 16% of
Encephalitis is defined as encephalopathy the NORSE causes. Herpes viruses, excluding
(depressed or altered level of consciousness last- herpes simplex virus 1, were the most frequent
ing for over 24 h, with mental and behavioral infectious agents (50%). In addition, Epstein-­
abnormalities), and one or more of the follow- Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV),
ing clinical or diagnostic findings, fever, focal varicella-­zoster virus (VZV), and West Nile
78 X. Wang et al.

virus (WNV) have been detected. Rajesh et al. promoting repeated epileptic seizures. The
[26] described a woman who presented with rise of the body temperature of the animal can
NORSE. Investigations confirmed the diagnosis increase seizure susceptibility, and drug interven-
of herpes simplex encephalitis, and she exhibited tion or knock of IL-1β expression in young rats
a dramatic response to acyclovir and complete decreases epilepsy susceptibility. These support
control of her seizures. the view of Nabbout et al. [34]. Unfortunately,
The possible mechanisms underlying NORSE van Baalen et al. [13] did not report pathological
are not clear. Costello et al. [15] contend that changes in the inflammatory response in autopsy
NORSE is etiologically heterogeneous. To specimens of brain tissue. The inflammatory
explain the pathogenesis of NORSE, a large num- mechanism that induces NORSE remains to be
ber of hypotheses have been proposed, but none discussed.
have proven to be conclusive. Tests of the CSF
from patients with SE detect oligoclonal bands
and anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and 4.1.5 Clinical Features
anti-glutamic acid receptor 3 (GluR-­3) antibodies,
and anti-GluRε-2 and anti-voltage-­gated potas- 4.1.5.1 Prodromal Symptoms
sium channel complex antibodies are detected In the study by Gaspard et al. [20], 75 of the
in some patients [12, 27]. NORSE may be asso- 125 cases (60%) exhibited prodromal symp-
ciated with immune disorders, similar to acute toms preceding the onset of NORSE, including
disseminated encephalomyelitis and Guillain- fever (34%), confusion (45%), headache (22%),
Barre syndrome. NORSE may result in an abnor- fatigue (26%), symptoms of a gastrointestinal
mal immune response produced by molecular (18%) or upper respiratory (13%) tract infection,
stimulation by a benign infectious disease. The and behavioral changes (16%). In addition, some
effectiveness of immunotherapy in some patients patients may experience the following symp-
supports this hypothesis [28–30]. However, these toms: memory complaints, language difficulties,
autoimmune antibodies are detected in some hallucinations, rash, and arthralgia.
patients with epilepsy, which suggests that it is
not a unique feature of NORSE. Thus, the pres- 4.1.5.2 Seizure Types
ence of autoimmune antibodies does not support Gaspard et al. [20] analyzed 125 patients with
the NORSE immune hypothesis. NORSE, and 90% had seizures before admission,
Nabbout et al. [31] proposed “the acute enceph- of which 13 patients (10%) experienced simple
alopathy induced by inflammation” hypothesis partial seizures, 36 (29%) experienced complex
that inflammatory factors (such as IL-1, TNF- partial seizures, and 83 (67%) experienced tonic-­
α, and IL-6) induce the occurrence of NORSE clonic seizure. Thirty-five patients (28%) pre-
in different stages of brain development. When sented SE before admission, 16 (15%) presented
inflammatory mediators cause patients to enter complex/simple partial SE, and 19 (13%) pre-
the proconvulsive state, IL-1β and TNF-α block sented generalized convulsive SE. According to
glutamate reuptake by astrocytes and increase the the reported cases and studies, the patient’s sei-
extracellular glutamate concentrations [32, 33]. zure type is complicated and changeable during
Simultaneously, both cytokines affect GABA the progression of NORSE. Simple partial sei-
receptor endocytosis, block the GABA-mediated zures can develop into complex partial seizures,
chloride ion current, and increase the Ca2+ per- and simple or complex partial seizures may be
meability of N-methyl-d-­aspartic acid (NMDA) generalized to tonic-clonic seizures (Table 4.1).
and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-­methyl-4-isoxazole-
propionic acid (AMPA) receptors to enhance Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures
neuronal excitability [12]. Patients can show generalized tonic-clonic sei-
On the other hand, seizures lead to the for- zures (GTCS) in the first episode. Of all types
mation of an aseptic inflammatory state, thus of SE, generalized convulsive status epilepticus
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 79

Table 4.1 Clinical characteristics of NORSE

No. of Age Duration
Authors/years cases (years) Prodromal symptoms Seizure type (days)
Van Lierdo/ 6 18–30 Febrile illness (6) Multifocal seizures and 6–191
2003 [13] refractory partial seizures
Wilder-Smith/ 7 20–52 Antecedent febrile illness (5) Multifocal/GTCS (6) 7–92
2005 [4] Multifocal/nonconvulsive status
epilepticus (NCSE) (1)
Costello/ 6 24–36 Mild febrile illness (4), fever, Serial convulsive seizures (4), 9–76
2009 [15] and coryzal (nasal congestion, abrupt onset of nonconvulsive
sore throat, myalgias) complex partial SE (2)
Claire/2012 5 22–34 Headache (3), vomiting (2), GTCS interspersed with complex Unknown
[17] myalgia (1), acute confusion partial seizures
(2), and pyrexia (2)
Judy/2012 3 39–51 Two patients had a preceding GTCS (2), complex partial Unknown
[18] flu-like illness, 1 presented seizure (1)
with a febrile illness
Khawaja/ 11 21–90 Fever(3), encephalopathy (7) GTCS (10) 12–110
2015 [35] NCSE (1)

(GCSE) is most urgent and serious type, presenting secondary generalization within days; the sei-
persistent limb rigidity and clonic or tonic-­clonic zures recurred every few minutes and persisted
seizures with dysfunction of consciousness. Judy for weeks. Four patients displayed simple partial
et al. [18] described two patients who initially seizures with twitching/rotation of their arms;
presented GTCS. One was a 43-year-old woman the seizure frequency increased within 1–3 days
with no history and risk factors for epilepsy who and ultimately resulted in erratic myoclonus and
experienced an antecedent flu-like illness and ini- tonic seizures. The patients developed RSE. Van
tially presented GTCSs. The initial EEG showed Lierde et al. [8] reported a study of a 30-year-old
background slowing, and the brain magnetic res- woman who presented a simple partial seizure,
onance imaging (MRI) was normal. She was dis- including right facial twitching, left eye devia-
charged with phenytoin treatment and allowed to tion, blinking and hypersalivation, and clear con-
return home, but was readmitted with increased sciousness. The EEG showed right temporal lobe
seizure frequency within 3 days. The initial EEG seizures.
showed bitemporal independent focal seizures.
The other patient was a 39-year-old, previously Complex Partial Seizures
healthy woman who presented with a flu-like ill- Mathieu et al. [16] reported a study of a 5-year-­
ness 5 days prior to her first GTCS. Wilder-Smith old patient with NORSE who experienced an
et al. [4] reported six cases among seven patients upper respiratory tract infection with fever 3 days
who presented a ­generalized seizure-type status, before the occurrence of the first epileptic sei-
and the EEG showed multifocal seizures. In the zure. Clinical manifestations were characterized
study by Khawaja et al. [35], 90% of patients by a disturbance of consciousness and abnormal
experienced GTCS. EEG. Seizures were initially brief (1–2 min), but
their frequency gradually increased. The patient
Simple Partial Seizures was eventually diagnosed with refractory TLE
This type of seizure is described as a part of the associated with serum neuropil autoantibodies. A
body or side that presents tonic-clonic seizures 51-year-old Hispanic male presented a suspected
with clear consciousness. Peter et al. [9] reviewed complex partial seizure and a preceding febrile
six children aged 5 months to 6 years who pre- illness. However, his CSF findings and routine
sented with focal seizures that ­ progressed to EEG were normal. He was initially treated with
intractable multifocal seizures with or without carbamazepine, but 2 weeks later, he stopped the
80 X. Wang et al.

medication on his own. Four months later, he females was 4:19, suggesting that adult women
returned with a 5-day history of confusion and are more likely to develop NORSE. As shown
lethargy [18]. Costello et al. [15] reported a case in the study by Jayalakshmi et al. [19], women
study of six patients with NORSE. Two patients accounted for 51.5% of 33 patients with cryp-
showed an abrupt onset of nonconvulsive com- togenic NORSE. However, men accounted for
plex partial SE without generalized convulsive 63.2% of patients with symptomatic NORSE.
activity. Confused behavior with obtundation and
intermittent focal motor seizure activity were the Main Concomitant Symptoms
main clinical manifestations. Patients with NORSE not only have various types
of seizures but can also present many concomi-
Secondary GTCS tant symptoms, including affective disorders such
Many publications have described patients with as apathy, obtuseness, and anger. In the study
NORSE who initially present partial seizures, by Khawaja et al. [30], one patient had seizures
followed by GTCS that are designated as sec- accompanied by an excited state.
ondary GTCS. Van Lierde et al. [8] examined
six young patients and showed that five patients
exhibited partial seizures, such as head and eye 4.1.6 Disease Evolution
deviation, facial twitches, aphasia, blinking, and
hypersalivation. Later, the patients developed Figure 4.1.
secondary GTCS.
Gianfranco et al. [36] described a 41-year-old
man who presented with a parainfectious syn- 4.1.7 Auxiliary Examination
drome characterized by a low-grade fever and
vomiting. Within 3 days, the patient experienced 4.1.7.1 Laboratory Examination
increasingly complex partial epileptic seizures Metabolic and infectious investigations should be
that rapidly changed from tonic-clonic seizures considered for all patients who are suspected of
to generalized SE. having NORSE.
Routine examinations include blood, urine,
Absence Seizures electrolyte, and blood biochemical tests. CSF
Absence seizures have not been reported in the examinations include leukocyte counts and
literature to date. protein levels. Infection-related tests include
bacterial and fungal blood cultures and viral
4.1.5.3 Related Factors polymerase chain reaction to determine the lev-
els of herpes simplex virus (HSV), EBV, VZV,
Age CMV, WNV, and human immunodeficiency
Jayalakshmi et al. [19] analyzed 52 patients with virus (HIV). Immune-related tests include
NORSE and the average age was 28.7 + 20.2 years measurements of the serum levels of immuno-
old. Individuals less than 18 years old, adults, and globulins (EBV, VZV, WNV, HSV, and CMV),
elderly people (greater than or equal to 60 years autoantibodies (antithyroid peroxidase and anti-­
old) accounted for 28.8%, 57.7%, and 13.5% of thyroglobulin), and paraneoplastic autoantibod-
the population, respectively. The average age of ies (anti-NMDA receptor, anti-VGKC complex,
adult sufferers is 28.3 years [15]. This promoted anti-Hu, anti-VGCC, and anti-Ro).
NORSE mainly appeared in adults. Gaspard et al. [20] studied 125 patients with
NORSE and 91 presented abnormal CSF, which
Gender accounted for 73% of the population. CSF pleo-
Costello et al. [15] summarized the clinical fea- cytosis was observed 52%, and the CSF leuko-
tures of cryptogenic new-onset RSE in adults. cyte counts were 5 mμ/L (1–14 mμ/L) on average.
Among 23 patients, the ratio of males and Increased CSF protein levels were observed in
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 81

Fig. 4.1 Disease

Patient characteristics: young, previously healthy individuals (more females)
evolution of NORSE

1.Symptoms of febrile illness, accompanied by fatigue (most common).

2.Prodromal Symptoms: an upper respiratory tract or gastrointestinal infection.
3.Symptoms of Meningitis: headache, photophobia (rare).
4.Behavioral or cognitive changes, amnesia, apathy, agitation, hallucinations, etc.

After a few days or weeks

Initial seizures: tonic clonic seizures and complex partial seizures, simple partial
seizures. The seizures are initially intermittent but become increasingly more
frequent and the patient’s consciousness declines as they transition into SE and
RSE, uncluding generalized convulsions SE, complex or simple partial SE.

A few weeks or even months

Patients are admitted into the intensive care unit with continuous video EEG
monitoring, tracheal intubation, mechanical ventilation, and maintenance of vital
signs. RSE is treated with drugs.

Effective treatment: Ineffective treatment:

seizure cessation, death.
recovery of consciousness,
neurological dysfunction.

64% of the patients, and the CSF protein levels observed in 72% of patients. Lateralized dis-
were 39 mg/dL (26–91 mg/dL). charge (39%) is more common than the bilateral
independent (24%), generalized (22%), or multi-
4.1.7.2 Image Examination focal discharge (2%).
Most of the early magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) are normal, but then brain structural dam-
age appears. In retrospective review by Gaspard 4.1.8 Treatments
et al. [20], 62% of the patients had an abnormal
MRI. The statistical analysis identified dominant Due to the complexity of the NORSE condition
abnormalities in limbic (19%) and neocortical and unknown mechanism, an effective and specific
structures (22%) or both (16%). treatment is not available for patients. Currently,
the conventional treatments include seizure con-
4.1.7.3 Electrophysiological trol, vital sign support, and treatments for related
Examination complications. Candidate antiepileptic drugs
In the retrospective review by Gaspard et al. [20], (AEDs) for seizure control include pentobarbital,
88% of patients undergoing continuous EEG midazolam, propofol, ketamine, and inhalation
monitoring exhibit epileptiform discharges: 46% anesthetics. In addition, considering the causal
exhibit unilateral, 24% exhibit bilateral, 15% role of inflammation in NORSE, researchers
exhibit complete, and 8% exhibit multifocal dis- have attempted to use various methods to regu-
charges. Periodic or epileptiform discharges are late the immune system, including intravenous
82 X. Wang et al.

steroids, intravenous ­ immunoglobulin, plasma a vegetative state, or an ­inability to care for one-
exchange therapy, and a number of inflammatory self) compared with zero of the three patients
cell monoclonal antibodies (such as rituximab). who did not receive immunotherapy. The authors
Steroids reduce intracranial pressure, and the use believed that although the efficacy of immuno-
of large doses of steroids may be justified when therapy in randomized controlled trials of patients
the patient is unable to determine the cause and with NORSE is difficult to ­verify, early use of
rule out an infection. Some cases and clinical tri- immunotherapy in patients with NORSE of an
als support the use of immunotherapy. However, unknown etiology may prevent the incidence and
treatments that increase the permeability of the mortality of the associated complications.
blood brain barrier and GABA inhibition of cho-
lesterol may affect the maintenance of seizures.
Judy et al. [18] described three cases of 4.1.9 Prognosis
NORSE. All patients received an extensive evalu-
ation, including brain MRI, CSF studies, radio- Generally, patients with NORSE have poor out-
logical scans for malignancy, and serological comes. The use of multiple AEDs and general
autoimmune and infectious investigations, but anesthetics may lead to severe cardiac, respira-
no clear causes were identified. The use of vari- tory, and hemodynamic complications. One large
ous anticonvulsants and general anesthetics for at series reported poor outcomes in approximately
least 5 days was ineffective. Each patient began to half of the patients with RSE, including death
use plasma exchange therapy, and SE ceased on (35%), severe neurological deficits (13%), and
the fourth day. Based on this case series, plasma mild neurological deficits (13%); a minor frac-
exchange may be a beneficial treatment for patients tion of the patients recovered to baseline levels
with NORSE, even when etiology is unclear and (35%) [37]. The retrospective review of patients
anti-neuronal antibodies or typical paraneoplastic with RSE by Gaspard et al. [20] analyzed the
are not detected. Plasma exchange may reduce the prognosis of 125 patients with NORSE. Seventy-­
serum drug concentrations, and the drug concen- seven of the 125 patients (62%) experienced poor
trations should be monitored as necessary. outcomes, and 28 (22%) died. The duration of
Claire et al. [17] reported the outcomes of SE, use of anesthetics, and medical complica-
patients with NORSE who were treated with tions are the predictors of poor outcomes. In addi-
immunotherapy early in the course of the disease. tion, 63 patients were followed for an average of
Three of the five patients received the immuno- 9 months; 57% patients exhibited an improved
therapy, all of whom recovered without signifi- functional status, and 79% had good or fair out-
cant neuropsychological deficits. Two patients comes at the last follow-up, but 37% developed
returned to full-time employment, and the other epilepsy, with most survivors (92%) remaining
patient experienced a mild decrease in cogni- on antiseizure medications.
tive function. One patient who did not receive
immunotherapy died of five intensive care unit
(ICU)-related complications after 3 weeks, and 4.2  efractory Status Epilepticus
R
the outcome of the other patient was not known. in Pre-Existing Epilepsy
Thus, immunotherapy appears to be associated
with good neurological outcomes. Khawaja et al. 4.2.1 Definition
[30] analyzed the potential effect of immunother-
apy on NORSE. Of the 11 patients, eight were NORSE is usually associated with an uncertain
treated with IT (immunoglobulins, intravenous or cryptogenic etiology [35]. Refractory status
steroids, plasmapheresis, or a combination), and epilepticus in patient with pre-existing epilepsy
four received chemotherapy. Of the eight patients (PERSE) refers to the RSE occurred in patients
treated with IT, six experienced favorable out- with pre-existing epilepsy who come into SE that
comes (defined as any ­outcome other than death, is usually resistant to the initial treatment f­ ailure
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 83

RSE [3, 38–40]. The occurrence of PERSE is 52% of the patients required respiratory support,
attributed to genetic factors, drug resistance, and 36% died. In 1996, Walker et al. [47] studied
improper treatments with AEDs, new-onset 26 patients with RSE (15 males and 11 females)
­systemic infection or metabolic disorders, and who were referred to an ICU and whose seizures
inappropriate initial treatment regimens [41–44]. continued for more than 30 min. The median
age of the patients was 33 (17–73) years old.
Before referral, these patients were treated with
4.2.2 Historical Evolution benzodiazepines or phenytoin and other drugs.
All drugs failed to terminate SE. Among the 16
As early as 1980, Young et al. [45] described five patients who were treated with phenytoin, seven
adult patients (19–62 years) with SE. The early definitively had a deficient loading dose of phe-
use of first-line and/or second-line AEDs (e.g., nytoin, and four possibly had a deficient loading
phenytoin, diazepam, clonazepam, phenobarbi- dose. Eighteen (69.2%) of the 26 patients had a
tal) was ineffective at controlling SE. Two of the previous history of epilepsy. The etiology of five
patients in this study had a history of epilepsy. patients with RSE was an AED dose reduction or
One 19-year-old female patient had congenital withdrawal. Two of the five cases were caused by
right hemiparesis and underwent left hemisphere poor compliance. More studies of PERSE have
resection. She began to present seizures at the age been published since then, but it was not classified
of two. She experienced repeated generalized sei- as a special type of RSE and was not researched
zures for 5 consecutive days, which was proven in depth. Anesthetic drugs are required to control
to be caused by phenytoin poisoning (serum PERSE in a growing number of patients, some of
concentration: 50 μg/mL). The seizures rapidly whom even developed super-RSE. The disability
developed into SE, which continued for 3 h before rate and mortality were quite high [40, 43].
she was admitted to the hospital. After admis-
sion, the patient was administered diazepam,
phenobarbital, phenytoin, and polyacetaldehyde, 4.2.3 Prevalence
but SE was not terminated. Another 62-year-old
patient suffered from meningitis 20 years ago and Patients with pre-existing epilepsy often present
experienced recurrent lateral or generalized sei- with SE, which is often associated with treat-
zures in subsequent years. Before admission, he ment regimen. Although many cases have been
experienced 4 days of continuous seizures. The published [21, 43, 48, 49], PERSE has not been
phenytoin serum concentration was 16.2 μg/mL completely examined, and a specific, unified def-
at admission. Diazepam, phenobarbital, and par- inition has not been reported. Specific statistical
aldehyde treatments failed to stop the seizures. data for PERSE are not available; thus, the exact
The other three patients with no previous history morbidity is unknown. The overall curative effect
of epilepsy experienced RSE after acute inflam- of treatments for PERSE is also unclear.
matory brain damage. SE was quickly controlled The retrospective cohort study by Pugin et al.
in five patients with an esthetic barbiturate (pen- [40] included patients with SE from May 1997
tobarbital or thiopental). Meanwhile, the intrave- to April 2010, who were treated with continu-
nous barbiturate treatment must be maintained ous intravenous pentobarbital infusions. Overall,
for a few days, otherwise the SE would quickly 116 patients with RSE (61 ± 17 years, 38 males
recur. In 1985, Nouailhat et al. [46] retrospec- and 78 females) and 31 patients with super-RSE
tively analyzed 192 adult patients with SE who (48 ± 20 years, 14 males and 17 females) who
were consecutively admitted to two ICUs over were refractory to the initial treatment (first-
7 years. Fifty (26%) patients had a history of epi- and second-line AEDs) were included. Of these
lepsy. Two-thirds of the 192 patients were admit- patients, 38/116 (33%) with RSE and 8/31 (26%)
ted to the ICU because the initial treatment with with super-RSE had a previous history of epilepsy.
benzodiazepines and/or phenobarbital failed; The super-RSE group included two patients with
84 X. Wang et al.

Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and one patient with Among the 24 SE episodes that demonstrated
cortical dysplasia. The etiologies of 22 (19%) AED nonadherence, 4/24 (16.7%) episodes were
patients with RSE and five (16%) patients with RSE and 1/24 (4.2%) was super-RSE.
super-RSE were defined as epilepsy. The authors Jayalakshmi et al. [43] analyzed 177 patients
concluded that 31.3% of patients with RSE and an with convulsive SE. Among the 105 patients with
initial treatment failure were PERSE. The retro- non-RSE, 43 (41%) patients had pre-existing epi-
spective open cohort study by Jayalakshmi et al. lepsy, and in 16/105 (18.1%) patients, SE was
[43] included 177 patients (31.6 ± 19.2 years, 104 attributed to AED withdrawal. Among the 42
males and 73 females) with convulsive SE in a patients with RSE, 15 (35.7%) patients had pre-­
neurology intensive care unit (NICU) from 2005 existing epilepsy, and 3/42 (9.5%) cases of RSE
to 2013. Of these patients, 105 (33.8 ± 19 years) were attributed to AED withdrawal. Among the
cases were non-RSE, 42 (30.7 ± 14.8 years) cases 30 patients with super-RSE, 5 (16.7%) patients
were RSE, and 30 (24.6 ± 23.6 years) cases were had pre-existing epilepsy, and 2/30 (13.3%) super-
super-RSE. Patients with pre-existing epilepsy RSE cases were attributed to AEDs withdrawal.
accounted for 41% (43/105) of the non-refractory Hocker et al. [44] studied 63 episodes of
SE group, 35.7% (15/42) of the RSE group, and RSE in 54 adult patients (18–93 years old) from
16.7% (5/30) of the super-RSE group. In con- January 1999 to August 2011. Thirty-seven
clusion, the occurrence of PERSE was 11.3% in (59.7%) patients had history of seizures. Low
all patients with convulsive SE. The occurrence AED levels or missed doses caused eight (12.7%)
of PERSE was 27.8% in all patients with initial RSE episodes. A change in medication caused
treatment failure SE. The international multi- two (3.2%) RSE episodes. Drug intoxication or
center study by Ferlisi et al. [50] included 413 withdrawal caused two (3.2%) RSE episodes.
patients with RSE from 44 different cities, 181 Congenital or hereditary factors caused three
(38%) of whom had pre-­existing epilepsy. (4.8%) RSE episodes.

4.2.4.2 D  elays in the Initial Treatment

4.2.4 Potential Risk Factors of SE
Delays in the initial treatment (including prehos-
4.2.4.1 AED-Related Factors pital, diagnosis, and medication delays) of SE
AED-related factors include nonadherence, AED resulted in AED-resistant SE, and the delays were
withdrawal, below-reference AED serum con- associated with a poor prognosis for these patients
centrations, and drug poisoning [43, 44, 51]. In [52, 53]. Kamppi et al. [53] retrospectively stud-
patients with pre-existing epilepsy, AED-related ied 82 adult patients (16–85 years old, 42 males
factors are very common precipitating factors of and 40 females) with SE, of whom 51 (62.2%)
SE [51]. Lie et al. [41] retrospectively analyzed had previously diagnosed epilepsy. Twenty-nine
consecutive admissions for 124 patients with SE (35.4%) of 82 patients had symptomatic epilepsy,
who had pre-existing epilepsy from January 1999 14 (17.1%) had idiopathic epilepsy, and eight
to August 2012. One inclusion criterion was that (9.8%) had cryptogenic or unclassified epilepsy.
the patients should be treated with AEDs. In this The median time of the delay in SE treatment
study, 52 patients with 64 episodes of SE used an before admission was 2 h 4 min. The median time
objective evaluation index, therapeutic drug mon- of delay in treatment after a clear diagnosis of
itoring (TDM), to measure AED nonadherence. SE was made was 2 h 10 min. The median delay
The patients were designated as AED nonadher- between the diagnosis and the first medication
ence when concentration/dose (C/D) ratios were was 35 min. The long delay before the initial SE
<75% compared to the drug fasting control value. treatment (first- or second-line drugs) resulted in
AED nonadherence was observed in 24 (38%) SE treatment failure in 86.6% (n = 71) of patients
episodes, of which seven (11%) e­ pisodes were with SE that subsequently developed into RSE or
definite and 17 (27%) episodes were ­probable.
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 85

super-RSE. The incidence rate of super-RSE was 4.2.5 Clinical Features

48.8% (n = 40) in this study.
The prospective cohort study by Sanchez et al. 4.2.5.1 Onset Age
[52] included 81 pediatric patients (0.2–19.3 years Patients with PERSE had large range of onset
old, 44 males and 37 females) with refractory con- ages. Children, adults, and the elderly can all
vulsive SE in whom the initial treatment (benzo- experience PERSE. Power et al. [54] retrospec-
diazepines in 78 patients, levetiracetam in two tively analyzed 13 adult patients with RSE and
patients, phenobarbital in one patient) failed. a history of epilepsy ranging in age from 19.5
Thirty-eight patients had pre-­existing epilepsy, and to 65 years old. Miyahara et al. [55] retrospec-
14 patients had a previous history of SE. Before tively analyzed nine patients (six males and three
admission, 27 patients with pre-existing epilepsy females) with progressive myoclonus epilepsy
exhibited continuous seizures. Only 12 (44.4%) who had previous history of epilepsy, and the age
patients received the first dose of AEDs (benzodi- at the onset of RSE ranged from 3 to 28 years.
azepines) before arriving at the hospital: the fam- Sanchez et al. [52] studied 81 children with
ily administered the treatment to 7/12 patients, and refractory convulsive SE, and the onset age was
the emergency medical services administered the 0.2–19.3 years old. Of these patients, 38 chil-
treatment to 5/12 patients. The median time from dren had a previous history of epilepsy. Lie et al.
the start of SE to the first, second, and third doses [41] studied 64 admissions for SE in 52 patients
of AEDs was 28 (6–67) min, 40 (20–85) min, who were previously diagnosed with epilepsy
and 59 (30–120) min, respectively. The delay in and treated with AEDs. The study included
SE treatment before admission, the time at which ten children under the age of 16, five (50%) of
the first dosage of AEDs was administered after whom were included in the AED nonadher-
admission, and the delay time when changing to ence group. Among the 17 elderly patients over
different AEDs are all reasons for the failure of the 60 years old, 7 (44%) patients were included in
initial treatment for RSE. the AED nonadherence group. However, of the
37 adult patients between 16 and 59 years old, 12
4.2.4.3 Other Factors (32%) were included in the AED nonadherence.
Other factors included systemic infection, meta- Children and elderly patients with SE and pre-­
bolic disorders, cerebral vascular disease, and existing epilepsy represented the largest propor-
hypoxia. Power et al. [54] retrospectively ana- tion of the AED nonadherence group.
lyzed the inducement of 20 RSE episodes in 13
patients who had pre-existing epilepsy. Two RSE 4.2.5.2 Seizure Types
episodes in two patients were caused by mito- Patients with RSE who had a pre-existing epi-
chondrial disease, seven episodes in four patients lepsy diagnosis might experience a variety of
were caused by pneumonia, five episodes in three seizure types. Miyahara et al. [55] retrospec-
patients were caused by AED treatment failure, tively analyzed nine patients with RSE who were
one episode was caused by cerebral hemorrhage, diagnosed with progressive myoclonus epilepsy
one episode was caused by upper airway infec- before and had a pre-existing epilepsy diagno-
tion, one episode was caused by hypoxia/aspira- sis. The RSE types included in the study were
tion, and three episodes in three patients were myoclonic SE (n = 3), myoclonic generalized SE
caused by unknown causes. Lie et al. [41] studied (n = 4), and generalized SE (n = 2). Tassinari et al.
64 SE episodes in 52 patients with a pre-existing [56] studied five patients with Lennox-­Gastaut
epilepsy diagnosis who were treated with AEDs. syndrome (8–17 years old, three males and two
With the exception of RSE induced by treat- females) who had pre-existing epilepsy. After
ment nonadherence in 24 patients, 17% of the intravenous benzodiazepine (diazepam or nitraz-
SE attacks were induced by other factors, such epam) treatment, all these patients immediately
as alcohol withdrawal, excessive stress, sleep experienced tonic SE. In these patients, SE was
­deprivation, and fever. thought to be ­ precipitated by ­ benzodiazepine.
86 X. Wang et al.

The patients were then refractory to a vari- a previous history of epilepsy, and 17 (27.9%)
ety of drug therapies, such as the barbiturates, patients had previous episodes of SE. Fifty-five
primidone, and ethosuximide. Nobutoki et al. (87.30%) RSE episodes were treated with anes-
[57] reported seven refractory nonconvulsive thetic drugs. The statistical analysis of the data
SE episodes in five patients who had a history identified that a previous history of epilepsy, age,
of epilepsy. Two patients were diagnosed with a previous history of SE, SE type, and the anes-
Lennox-­ Gastaut syndrome. The other three thetic drug treatment had little connection with
patients were diagnosed with symptomatic gen- the patients’ prognoses.
eralized epilepsy, continuous spike-waves during An observational retrospective study by Lie
slow-wave sleep, and ring chromosome 20 syn- et al. [41] analyzed patients with SE who had a
dromes, respectively. pre-existing epilepsy diagnosis and were being
treated with AEDs. The study analyzed the AED
nonadherence of 52 patients with 64 SE episodes
4.2.6 Treatments using the TDM index. Among the 24 SE episodes
observed in patients with identified AED nonad-
Data describing special treatment options for herence, 4/24 (16.7%) episodes were RSE and
PERSE are currently lacking. The main treat- 1/24 (4.2%) episode was super-RSE. All patients
ment is the use of AEDs, anesthetics, and non- with AED nonadherence (n = 24) eventually
conventional treatments to terminate the seizures survived, including 21 patients with a complete
as soon as possible. The incidence rate of com- recovery and three patients with sequelae (includ-
plications in patients with PERSE is higher than ing cognitive impairment and malignant epi-
that in patients who effectively responded to lepsy). Among the patients with SE in the AED
the initial treatment. Patients with PERSE often adherence group, 4/40 (10%) episodes were RSE
require treatment in an ICU or even ventilation. and 3/40 (7.5%) were super-RSE. Ultimately,
These patients subsequently exhibit arrhythmia, six patients died (nonadherence group, zero;
respiratory failure, hypotension, pulmonary adherence group, six) due to the etiology, such
infection, and multiple organ dysfunction, sig- as juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. The
nificantly affecting the prognosis [54, 58]. The prognosis of patients with PERSE was related to
specific treatment scheme is described in Chaps. the underlying etiology, and AED nonadherence
6 and 7. might not affect the patients’ prognoses.
Poweret et al. [54] studied 20 RSE epi-
sodes in 13 patients with pre-existing epilepsy.
4.2.7 Prognosis-Related Factors Three RSE episodes left the patients with minor
sequelae. Two RSE episodes left the patients
The retrospective cohort study by Pugin with severe sequelae. Fourteen RSE episodes
et al. [40] analyzed 31 adults with super-RSE left the patients without sequelae and one
(48 ± 20 years old) who were intravenously patient died. Of the five episodes observed in
administered pentobarbital for treatment. Of five patients without pre-­existing epilepsy, two
these patients, eight (26%) had a previous his- episodes had severe sequelae, one episode had
tory of epilepsy, and the etiology of super-RSE no sequelae, and one episode had mild sequelae,
was epilepsy in five (16%) patients. The analysis and one patient died. Compared with patients
of the clinical data did not identify a correlation without pre-existing epilepsy, treatment was
between the patients’ previous history of epi- easier in patients with pre-­existing epilepsy, the
lepsy and the outcome upon hospital discharge. required time for the treatment was shorter, and
Hocker et al. [44] studied 63 RSE episodes in the prognosis was better. Half of the patients’
54 adult patients (18–93 years old, 36 males and sequelae were related to the basic etiology of
57 females). Thirty-seven (59.7%) patients had RSE [54, 59].
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 87

4.3  efractory Status Epilepticus

R 4.3.1.2 Potential Causes
in Children’s Epilepsy The underlying causes of this syndrome are
Syndrome considered to be caused by genetic factors.
Currently, researchers have identified eight patho-
Currently, more than 30 kinds of epilepsy syn- genic genes that lead to the disease: KCNT1,
dromes have approved by the International SCN1A, SCN2A, SCN8A, PLCB1, SLC25A22,
League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), and different TBC1D24, and SLC12A5 [68–75]. As shown
syndromes have different ages of onset [60]. The in the 2016 study by Saitsu and colleagues [74],
ILAE task force published a report describing the mutations in the SLC12A5 gene damage neuro-
definition and classification of SE in 2015 that nal KCC2 function and disrupted neuronal Cl−
listed SE in epileptic syndrome according to age extrusion to cause EIMFS.
[61]. In this paper, we describe SE course which
easily appears in some specific epilepsy syn- 4.3.1.3 Clinical Manifestations
dromes. RSE occurs readily apparent in epilepsy
in infancy with migrating focal seizures, Dravet Age of Onset
syndrome (DS), epilepsy with myoclonic-atonic According to the studies [62], the age of onset
seizures, and progressive myoclonus epilepsy. was within 6 months after the birth and in new-
All of the syndromes have their own clinical and borns at the earliest. The peak age was 3 months.
EEG characteristics; the types of SE and their In 2012, Barcia and colleagues [76] examined
relations with the prognoses of these epilepsy the EIMFS data from a hospital over nearly a
syndromes are also different. decade and found that the average age of onset
was 2 months (2 h–7 months).

4.3.1  pilepsy in Infancy

E Seizure Types
with Migrating Focal Seizures Additional reports of multiple continuous wan-
(EIMFS) dering focal seizures have been published [76].
McTague and colleagues [77] conducted a two-­
4.3.1.1 Historical Evolution year follow-up of 14 children with EIMFS. It is
EIMFS, which was previously called migrating found that most children (64%) exhibited focal
partial seizures in infancy (MPSI), was first pro- motor seizures, 59% exhibited focal seizures
posed by Coppola in 1995 [62]. In this study, affecting alternating sides of body, 17% exhib-
14 babies (both boys and girls) had epileptic ited secondary generalization, 8% exhibited
seizures that never been reported previously. GTCS, 43% exhibited autonomic features, and
The average age of the first attack occurred at 7% exhibited epileptic spasms.
a mean age of 3 months. The major clinical
manifestations were new, persistent, and mul- Progression
tifocal seizures and multiple irrelevant wan- Coppola [67] summarized the natural course of
dering epileptic discharges that persisted in an EIMFS and divided it into approximately three
EEG. From 1 to 10 months, seizures occurred stages. (1) The first stage usually starts within
frequently, and their clinical/EEG manifesta- 6 months after birth. Sporadic epileptic seizures
tions were variable. A clear etiology cannot be can appear at weeks or months after birth, even
determined, and the overall prognosis was poor. appeared within 1 day after birth. These patients
Since then, patients with the same type of sei- are mostly characterized by focal motor with sec-
zures have been gradually reported [63–66]. In ondary generalization seizures and autonomic
2010, the ILAE classified the disease as chil- symptoms, such as apnea, a flushed face, or cya-
dren’s epilepsy syndrome and renamed it as nosis. (2) The second stage has been described as
EIMFS [67]. “stormy phase,” ranging from 1 month to 1 year
88 X. Wang et al.

of age. The clinical features include various forms of the deep white matter, and one case was
of focal seizures that occur in clusters of attacks ­characterized by symmetrical abnormal signals
5–30 times a day, even a few days in a row; these in the bilateral putamen and caudate nuclei.
children may readily develop SE. Clinical mani-
festations include head and eyes turn to one side, 4.3.1.5 Treatments
eyelid blinking, one or both sides of the body
clonus or tonic-closure seizures, flushing and/or AEDs
cyanosis of face, chew swallow, and secondary EIMFS is an intractable epilepsy syndrome. Most
tonic-clonic generalization. (3) In the third stage, children do not respond to many types of AEDs,
the age span is larger, ages 1–5 years and over. either single drugs or a combination of old and
At this stage, seizures generally do not occur. new AEDs. Thus, the attacks are not easily con-
Alternatively, patients experience occasional trolled, particularly in the “flurry stage” [76].
clusters of epileptic seizures or SE caused by
spontaneous intercurrent disease. Drug Combination Therapy

4.3.1.4 Auxiliary Examination Bromide

Clinicians have utilized a combination of
EEG AEDs and bromide. The therapeutic dosage is
As reported in the study by Barcia et al. [76], the 30–80 mg/kg/d, and the best bromide treatment
EEG showed multiple focal wandering epilepsy concentration is 75–125 mg/dL [78]. The side
discharges on the side of the affected hemisphere effects mainly include vomiting, drowsiness, and
or between bilateral hemispheres that involve skin rashes, but a reduction in the bromide dos-
multiple sites, and the timing and location of the age can eliminate these side effects. Caraballo
clinical seizures and the EEG epilepsy discharge et al. [78] examined six patients with drug-­
were closely related. Coppola [67] divided the resistant EIFMS who suffered from daily attacks
natural course of EIMFS into approximately and were treated with the combination of potas-
three phases. The first phase of the EEG shows sium bromide with AEDs for 0.5–5 years. The
a diffuse slowing of the background activity at seizure frequency was significantly reduced in
the interphase of the attack, and the slow waves four children, and two cases were invalids. After
easily proceed from one brain hemisphere to the an average follow-up of 3.5 years, the seizure fre-
other. In the second phase, the ictal and interictal quency did not change in the four children, and
EEG performances always overlap. It can be the good nerve examination results were obtained.
wandering focal discharge, but it can also simul-
taneously show local fixed discharge and new Quinidine
discharge in other areas. The third stage of EEG The most common etiology of EIFMS is that a
does not show special features. KCNT1 mutation enhances channel activity.
The anti-arrhythmic drug of quinidine is partial
Head MRI KCNT1 antagonists; thus, quinidine significantly
The initial head MRI performed at onset is reduces the seizure frequency and improves
normal, but gradually becomes abnormal and mental and motor development. Bearden and
is characterized by gradual cortical and sub- colleagues [79] reported one case study of a
cortical atrophy. In the study by McTague and 3-year-old child with drug-resistant EIFMS who
colleagues [77], the abnormal MRI findings was still suffering from uncontrollable and suf-
were found in 8/14 patients, and the scan was focating attacks after being treated with a variety
normal in 4/8 at first. Seven cases of children of AEDS and a ketogenic diet. Without chang-
(4 months–3.5 years) were characterized by dif- ing the original treatment, the addition of quini-
fuse cerebral atrophy, five cases of myelination dine dosages that gradually increased from 2 to
delay were characterized by T2 ­hyperintensity 33 mg/kg/d stopped the attacks after 1 week of
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 89

­ aintenance dose treatment. The seizure ces-

m EIMFS occurred RSE which did not respond to
sation persisted for 6 months. When seizures a variety of AEDs, including sedation anesthetic
recurred, the child was treated with 42 mg/kg/d drugs, biotin, and hormones. After an intravenous
quinidine for 7 months and was again seizure free loading dose of 60 mg/kg levetiracetam for 30 min
and did not experience side effects. As shown and a subsequent intravenous administration of
in the study by Milligan and colleagues [80], 30 mg/kg levetiracetam for 15 min twice a day,
quinidine significantly decreases the increased the seizure was controlled. The infusions were
KCNT1 function, supporting the hypothesis that gradually replaced by an oral levetiracetam treat-
quinidine effectively inhibits KCNT1 and treats ment and maintained for a long time. Ultimately,
EIFMS. the two patients did not present with SE in the
follow-up. Shein et al. [82] reported one case in
Ketogenic Diet which SCN1A mutations caused EIMFS in chil-
In addition, early ketogenic diet therapy may help dren with RSE against midazolam, levetiracetam,
reduce the seizure frequency and severity in chil- barbitone, pyridoxal, and folic acid. Then the
dren and control SE, thus avoiding progressive child gradually used unconventional treatments.
cognitive impairment. Caraballo and colleagues The patient firstly used a low-­temperature treat-
[81] treated three sick children with a ketogenic ment that maintained the target rectal temperature
diet over 7 months. The seizure frequency was (target temperature 33.0–34.0 °C) and the sei-
reduced obviously, including one child with a zures terminated after 43 h. However, 10 h after
seizure reduction of 75–99%, one child with a the return to the normal temperature, seizures
seizure reduction of <50%, and one child with recurred and have been ineffective to the low-
seizure-free. Their neuropsychological perfor- temperature treatment. The following treatment
mance also improved significantly. of bumetanide did not show an obvious curative
effect. Within 48 h after the initiation of a keto-
4.3.1.6 SE in EIMFS genic diet, the attacks were controlled. Based on
this case report, low-­temperature treatments and
Age of SE Onset ketogenic diets are effective treatments for RSE.
SE is most commonly present in the “stormy
phase” from 1 month to 1 year of age in patients 4.3.1.7 Prognosis
with EIMFS. SE also occasionally occurs in Generally, the short- and long-term prognosis
other stages. Cilio and colleagues [75] reported of children with EIMFS is poor. Children with
a case study of two children with EIMFS whose EIMFS tend to develop SE which the traditional
RSE onset ages were 2 months and 9 months, AEDs and narcotic drugs are ineffective. The dis-
respectively. ease is not easily controlled and ultimately devel-
ops into RSE, which has a high mortality rate.
Types of SE Most surviving children have a gradual regres-
Patients with EIMFS SE experience various sion of intelligence and motor development. The
types of attacks and often present a variety of psychomotor ability is poor in many children,
overlapping attack types, including generalized and they inevitably develop disturbance intelli-
tonic-­clonic SE, laterality clonic SE, myoclonus gence [67, 76].
SE, partial SE, and mixed seizures SE [75, 82].

Treatment 4.3.2 Dravet Syndrome

Children with EIMFS readily develop RSE that
failed to respond to traditional AEDs such as 4.3.2.1 Historical Evolution
clonazepam, phenobarbital, phenytoin, mid- Dravet syndrome was previously designated
azolam, and lamotrigine. Cilio and colleagues severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy (SMEI); the
[75] reported a case study of two children with disease was first reported in 1978 by the French
90 X. Wang et al.

doctor Dravet. It is an infantile form of epileptic c­ hildren older than 5 years of age. The convulsive
encephalopathy and a type of refractory epilepsy ­epilepsy frequency reduces and occurs mainly in
syndrome [83, 84]. sleep. Simultaneously, motor development and
behavior improve, but the cognitive impairment
4.3.2.2 Potential Etiology continues.
Mutations in the SCN1A gene cause Dravet
syndrome in approximately 70–80% of children 4.3.2.5 Auxiliary Examination
[83]. A few, restricted cases were reported in An EEG performed before the age of 1 year
children from a few women with disease-causing appears grossly normal; after the age of 1 year,
mutations in genes encoding the original calcium multiple atypical EEG patterns appear. The
mucin PCDH19. The other genes as well as the interictal background activity can be normal or
SCN2A, GABRG2, GABRA1, and STXBP2 slow. The ictal EEG performances are variable
genes are also discovered in a few patients and they depend on the seizure type. The perfor-
[85–89]. mances include generalized spike-waves, poly-­
spike-­waves, focal waves, and multifocal waves.
4.3.2.3 Clinical Features Photosensitivity is also frequent in patients with
The onset time is within 1 year after birth and Dravet syndrome [84, 90, 93, 94]. Speechio and
the peak age at 6 months. After childhood, the colleagues [95] studied the EEG performances
seizure frequency and severity are significantly of 22 children with Dravet syndrome over the
reduced. The first attack is often associated with first 5 years of diagnosis; the initial EEG back-
persistent fever or febrile convulsion. Various ground activities were normal in all patients.
types of attacks are present, including generalized Twenty-­seven percent of the children with Dravet
seizures, laterality clonic seizures, tonic-­clonic syndrome exhibited a slowing of their EEG
seizures, myoclonic seizures, atypical absence background activities after 6 months. The EEG
seizures, and partial seizures [83, 84, 90–92]. appeared to show epileptic discharge at seizure
onset in 27% of the patients. Sixty-four percent
4.3.2.4 Progression exhibited seizure discharges within 5 years of
Dravet et al. [93] summarize the natural course follow-up, 57% of children exhibited multifo-
of Dravet syndrome, which is divided into cal epilepsy discharges during follow-up, 28.5%
approximately three stages. (1) The first stage exhibited focal epilepsy discharges, and 14%
is the “febrile stage” within 1 year old. It usu- exhibited generalized epilepsy discharges.
ally occurs at 4–8 months in a baby experienc-
ing a fever or a normal baby. Typical attacks are 4.3.2.6 Treatments
tonic seizures; the duration is usually long for Most children do not respond to a variety of sin-
more than 15 min. The attacks can develop into gle or combinations of AEDs [91, 92, 96].
SE. Two weeks to 2 months after the initial attack,
other seizures occur and are repeated, even in Drug Treatment
statuses. (2) The second stage is the “worsening Drug treatment often requires several medicines.
stage.” More of these types of seizures occur in Wallace et al. [97] summarized the drugs used
1- to 4-year-olds and present as many types of to treat Dravet syndrome, and the main first-
frequent epileptic seizures and statuses: transient line drugs are listed below. (1) Valproic acid is
myoclonus seizures, atypical absence seizures, typically at an initial dosage of 10–15 mg/kg/
focal seizures, and autonomic nerve symp- day and gradually increased to 30–60 mg/kg/day
toms. Then, psychomotor development began for maintenance treatment. Liver enzyme levels,
to slow, and attention deficits, hyperactivity, and routine blood tests, and blood lipid levels should
autism can also appear. This stage lasts from 1 be examined periodically during treatment.
to 5 years old approximately. (3) The third stage Common side effects include hair loss, thrombo-
is the “stabilization stage.” It typically occurs in cytopenia, pancreatitis, and high blood ammonia
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 91

levels. (2) Clobazam is usually used at an initial p­ yramidal tract occur. According to the study
dosage of 0.2–0.3 mg/kg/day. Within 2–3 weeks, of Shmuely et al., the mortality of patients with
the dosage is gradually increased to 0.5–1.0 mg/ Dravet syndrome was 80% (142/177). The death
kg/day, with a maximum dosage of 1.5–2.0 mg/ occurs at a mean age of 8.7 ± 9.8 years in 142
kg/day, but the side effects (e.g., sedation, ataxia, patients, and 73% death occurs before 10 years.
increased saliva secretion) also increase as the Epilepsy-­associated (sudden unexpected death
dosage is increased. When used in conjunc- in epilepsy and SE) deaths accounted for 81% of
tion with stiripentol, the clobazam dosage must all deaths [84].
usually be reduced to 0.20–0.4 mg/kg/day. In
addition, second-line drugs include topiramate, 4.3.2.8 S E in Patients with Dravet
stiripentol, levetiracetam, and bromide. Syndrome
Patients with Dravet syndrome readily develop
Ketogenic Diet SE. Most infants and young children with Dravet
For GTCS and myoclonic seizures, a ketogenic syndrome experience febrile or nonfebrile SE. In
diet can significantly reduce the frequency of cases with fever, repeated attacks occur and RSE
attacks, and children had similar reactions to and super-RSE typically develop, which have a
stiripentol, a ketogenic diet, clobazam, and val- high mortality rate [90, 91].
proic acid. Dressler and colleagues [98] who
retrospectively analyzed 39 children with Dravet Prevalence
syndrome who used a ketogenic diet reported that According to the literature, the morbidity of SE in
the 3-month treatment response was 70%, the patients with Dravet syndrome is approximately
GTCS and myoclonic seizures occurred in chil- 70–90% [83, 90, 94]. Tanabe and colleagues [90]
dren less frequently, and SE was not observed. retrospectively analyzed 109 patients with SMEI
The children generally had a good tolerance, with (male/female = 51:58), aged 1–37 (10.7 ± 6.53)
no obvious side effects. years in two medical centers, including 99
patients with convulsive status epilepticus (CSE),
Surgery and reported a morbidity of 90.8%.
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) and corpus cal-
losum dissection can effectively reduce the attack Onset Age
frequency in patients with Dravet syndrome, and The majority of patients developed SE dur-
the sooner operation occurs, the greater benefit ing infancy or early childhood. Ragona et al.
to the patients. Dlouhy and colleagues [99] retro- studied 26 patients of Dravet syndrome, and
spectively investigated patients with Dravet syn- 21occured SE. The number of episodes of SE
drome who underwent VNS or corpus callosum was 0–7 (1.8 ± 1.7) before 18 months. The peak
dissection therapy in hospital from 2001 to 2014. age of onset of SE is 6–18 months [100]. SE was
VNS reduced the seizure frequency by more than reduced in older children and teenagers [101].
50% in 4/6 patients, and corpus callosum dis- Tanabe and colleagues [90] retrospectively ana-
section reduced the frequency of attacks by over lyzed 99 patients with SMEI. The first onset
50% in 2/6 patients, indicating that VNS and of CSE was 1–15 years old (4.25 ± 3.79), and
corpus callosum dissection therapies effectively repeated episodes were subsequently observed.
reduce the frequency of attacks. The vast majority of SE cases were induced by
fever and readily developed into RSE, nonfebrile
4.3.2.7 Prognosis SE was observed rarely.
The overall morbidity and mortality is high.
Normal intelligence and motor development Seizure Types
are observed during the first year after birth. Generalized tonic-clonic SE, laterality clonic SE,
However, psychomotor development is gradu- atypical absence SE, myoclonic SE, and NCSE
ally delayed and regresses, and ataxia and can all occur, but the first two attack forms are
92 X. Wang et al.

the most common [91]. NCSE was not frequently and active language and loss of self-care abil-
observed; it is generally not life-threatening, but ity. According to a previous study [105], the
it does cause obvious brain damage. Once a causes of death in 59 patients with SE were stud-
definitive diagnosis is made, the seizures should ied. The cause of 21 (36%) children was acute
be able to be controlled immediately [83]. encephalopathy with SE, with the complications
of multiple organ failure, DIC, and other severe
Auxiliary Examination complications. The duration and frequency of the
In head MRIs, children with Dravet syndrome early onset of SE are extremely important fac-
who repeatedly present with SE may show an tors that influence the prognosis of children with
involvement of the hippocampus and non-­specific Dravet syndrome [85, 105].
brain atrophy [90].

Treatments 4.3.3  enetic Generalized Epilepsy

G
In patients with Dravet syndrome, particularly (GGE)
effective, targeted therapies are not currently
available for SE and RSE, and the traditional 4.3.3.1 Definition
treatments are still being utilized to control sei- Genetic generalized epilepsy, also known as idio-
zures, support vital signs, and manage related pathic generalized epilepsy (IGE), is a series of
complications simultaneously. Tanabe and col- epilepsy syndrome that does not present damage
leagues [90] retrospectively analyzed the SE of 99 to the brain structure or other symptoms and signs
patients with an SMEI. The authors believed that of nerve damage; clinical manifestations and
once SE occurred, an intravenous antiepileptic EEG changes show the initiation of bilateral sei-
medicine should be rapidly administered whether zures. It is considered a genetic disease that often
a fever is observed. The most effective drug is depends on age [106–111]. The ILAE [60, 107]
barbitone (including phenobarbital, thiopental lists the following syndromes that are consistent
sodium, and pentobarbital), and its efficiency can with the IGE standards:(1) juvenile myoclonic
reach 75–100%. Benzodiazepines, such as mid- epilepsy (JME), (2) benign myoclonic epilepsy in
azolam and diazepam, are the second effective, infancy (BMEI), (3) childhood absence epilepsy
with efficacies of 68.8 and 54.3%, respectively. (CAE), (4) epilepsy with myoclonic absences
Sometimes, various drugs must be combined to (EMA), (5) epilepsy with generalized tonic-
treat RSE. Fever-induced SE tends to develop into clonic seizures (EGTCS) alone, and (6) juvenile
RSE, the attacks persist for a long time, and treat- absence epilepsy (JAE). Of course, some epilepsy
ments such as benzodiazepines do not prevent its syndromes are consistent with IGE but might not
occurrence [90]. A variety of AEDs or anesthet- have been recognized by ILAE [112]. Different
ics are ineffective. Coma is often observed after syndromes exhibit different clinical characteris-
seizures are controlled, and this type of SE may tics (e.g., onset age, type of epilepsy, treatment),
cause acute encephalopathy [90, 102, 103]. EEG, and imaging findings. Each syndrome has
strict clinical and EEG diagnostic criteria, but the
Prognosis outbreak types of this syndrome and onset age
The overall prognosis of SE in patients with can overlap; thus, the syndrome may be difficult
Dravet syndrome is poor, due to the inefficiency to distinguish in the early stage as the absence of
of drug control; the frequent development of characteristic manifestations [106, 110, 111].
RSE and super-RSE can be seen. Fever-induced
SE is particularly easy to be resistant to treat- 4.3.3.2 Prevalence
ment. Serious brain damage, mental decline, Jallon et al. [113] summarize the IGE epidemio-
and even death often occur [90, 104]; however, logical data and reported an all-estimate incidence
some patients in recovery stages show ­different of IGE in epilepsy of 15–20%. ­Asadi-Pooya and
sequelae, like serious disturbances in eye c­ ontact colleagues [111] retrospectively analyzed the
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 93

data of 2190 patients with epilepsy, including Triggers

442 diagnosed with IGE, at a school of medicine Sometimes SE in patients with IGE is induced
from September 2008 to May 2011. IGE morbid- by external environmental factors, such as inap-
ity was 20.2% in this study. propriate medication, drug withdrawal, or poi-
soning; this state is mainly typical absence SE
4.3.3.3 Onset Age [115]. In the study by Thomas and colleagues
IGE has a wide range of age of onset and includes [116], SE was caused by the inadequate use of
infants, children, adolescents, and adults. AEDs in 14 patients with IGE (15–46 years old,
Different IGE syndromes are often age depen- seven males and seven females). Before referral,
dent. Asadi-Pooya and colleagues [111] retro- all patients had taken carbamazepine for treat-
spectively analyzed 442 patients with IGE (190 ment and recently suffered seizure aggravation or
males and 252 females). The onset age ranged emerging seizure type. Seven patients were tak-
from 6 months to 54 years old, and the average ing carbamazepine combined with other drugs,
age was 12.4 ± 6.9 years. including phenytoin, gabapentin, and vigabatrin.
The potential induced factors included: increas-
4.3.3.4 Seizure Types ing the dose of carbamazepine or the doses of
The seizure types include GTCS, myoclonic carbamazepine together with phenytoin; initia-
seizures, absence seizures, clonic seizures, and tion of carbamazepine, gabapentin, or vigabatrin;
myoclonic-astatic seizures [106]. IGE has dif- or decreasing the dose of phenobarbital. Finally,
ferent attack types in different syndromes, but ten patients presented with absence SE and four
attack types may also overlap. One large clinical with myoclonus SE. After adjusting the thera-
study [111] described a retrospective analysis of peutic schedule and drug dosages, SE was com-
442 patients with IGE of the epileptic seizure pletely controlled in all patients. Thus, patients
type, of which 375 (84.8%) patients experi- with IGE who use AEDs inappropriately can
enced GTCS, 250 patients (56.6%) developed aggravate their seizures and even present SE.
myoclonic seizures, 211 (47.7%) patients pre-
sented absence seizures, and rare attack types SE Types and Characteristics
included three myoclonic-astatic seizures and The three types of epilepsy in IGE include myo-
one clonic seizure. clonic seizures, GTCS, and absence seizures,
which can present as acute SE and require emer-
4.3.3.5 SE in Patients with GGE gent treatment [117].
SE can occur in all seven syndromes of IGE, and
different syndromes have different types of attacks, Typical Absence SE
but the type of the SE attack can overlap. Studies This seizure type belongs to NCSE, is the most
examining the SE-induced morbidity of different common form of SE in patients with IGE, and
syndromes of IGE [114] are currently lacking. often occurs in normally developing children.
Different subtypes of IGE have different occur-
Prevalence rence rates of typical absence SE. Typical absence
The overall SE-induced morbidity of patients SE occurs among JAE and JME in particular. The
with IGE is not clear, but the morbidity of tonic-­ incidence of absence SE in JME was 1.2–6.7%
clonic SE in patients with IGE is significantly [118, 119]. Typical absence SE should be distin-
lower than in patients with symptomatic epilepsy guished from atypical absence SE and complex
[114]. In the retrospective study by Asadi-Pooya partial SE. The three kinds of SE symptoms over-
et al. [111] of 442 patients with IGE from 2008 lap, but the episodes have different EEG findings,
to 2011, only 16 (3.6%) patients presented with reactions to drugs, and prognoses [114]. (1) The
GCSE, and one patient presented with NCSE; pathogenesis of absence SE is currently unknown,
thus, the morbidity of SE was lower. but genetic factors and environmental factors may
have roles. Clear ­evidence supporting the hypoth-
94 X. Wang et al.

esis that absence SE can lead to brain damage In a study of 554 patients with tonic-clonic SE,
is not available [114], and studies have reported obvious acute cause was not found in 11% of the
that absence SE was not detected of brain injury patients. However, in the 11% cases, most would
in animal models; thus, excessive interventions not now be diagnosed as IGE.
are not performed [120, 121]. However, clinical
researchers postulate that absence SE presents as Treatments
acute SE requires emergent treatment [117]. (2) Regardless of the SE type, benzodiazepines
Predisposing factors include a strong light stimu- should be used as first-line treatments and often
lus, fatigue, mood changes, reducing the dosage work [124].
or stopping the use of AEDs, and inappropriate
medication (e.g., carbamazepine, sabril, thia- Typical Absence SE Therapy
methoxam) [114, 116]. Absence SE can appear Bilo et al. [125] reviewed previous studies of
after seizures, and GTCS can interrupt or termi- patients with a diagnosis of IGE and presented with
nate a typical absence SE [114]. (3) The clini- absence SE. Good curative effects of intravenously
cal manifestations include confusion, decreased administered benzodiazepines were observed in
activity, open silence, and disorientation. Patients patients with absence SE. The initial treatment was
may experience other concomitant symptoms, diazepam with a conventional dose of 0.2–0.3 mg/
such as slight myoclonic seizures, rhythmic eye- kg, clonazepam 1 mg in adult and 0.25–0.5 mg in
lid blinking, facial and oral jitter, and attacks. children, or lorazepam 0.07 mg/kg in adult and
Absence SE lasts more than 30 min and sustains 0.1 mg/kg in children. If needed, the drugs may
for several hours or even days [114, 115, 117]. be repeatedly administered. If the patient becomes
(4) The ictal EEG performances are characterized an invalid, 20–40 mg/kg valproic acid was intra-
by trains of 3 Hz spike and waves; the interictal venously administered. If children experience
background activity can be normal. repeated seizures at home, benzodiazepines should
be administered orally or rectally to the terminate
Myoclonus SE attacks. Patients should be seen by a doctor in the
This type is rarely observed in patients with IGE hospital when necessary [114, 118, 125].
[122]; it mostly occurs in patients with JME
and always in the waking state and relatively Therapy for Myoclonus SE
in patients with EMA [122, 123]. Myoclonus Badhwar et al. [122] reviewed previous studies
SE usually adopts the form of a myoclonic sei- of patients diagnosed with IGE presented with
zure storm, with an aggravated severity and an myoclonic SE and suggested that benzodiaze-
increased frequency of myoclonus, and finally pines, such as clonazepam, should be used as the
SE is achieved. The seizures are sustained for initial therapy. If SE was not terminated, the effi-
a few minutes to several hours, and myoclonus ciency of secondary use of benzodiazepines was
SE is often terminated by a tonic-clonic seizure. not sufficient. Then the authors recommended a
The incidence rate of myoclonus SE in patients high loading dose of intravenous valproic acid
with IGE is not yet clear, but we assume that it to quickly achieve the therapeutic level [126].
is significantly lower than the incidence rate in Sheth and colleagues [124] reported two cases
Dravet syndrome, Doose syndrome, and progres- of female patients with JME (15 and 28 years);
sive myoclonus epilepsy [114]. myoclonic SE was finally terminated with a slow
intravenous injection of 500 mg of valproic acid
Tonic-Clonic SE in 30 min. After this treatment, SE was termi-
This type is rarely observed in IGE but is more nated in both patients within 5 min, and the EEG
common in secondary generalized epilepsy. If performance returned to normal.
a sudden drug withdrawal occurs, SE may be
induced [114]. The incidence of tonic-clonic SE Therapy for Tonic-Clonic SE
in patients with IGE in clinical practice has not In patients with IGE, the frequency of myoclonic
been reported, and published data are lacking. seizures often increases before the onset of tonic-­
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 95

clonic SE. The emergency a­dministration of episodic vomiting, eye or head deviation, and
benzodiazepines will often prevent the develop- altered consciousness. Twenty-six percent of
ment of SE. Tonic-clonic SE is usually easily children had rolandic features, 5% had visual
controlled in patients with IGE compared with symptoms, and 81.5% had sleep-related seizures.
patients with other types of epilepsy, and an aes-
thetic therapy is rarely needed [114]. Seizure Characteristics
Seizures mainly occur in sleep, particularly in
Prognosis the early stage of the sleep cycle, and seizures
Although the clinical symptoms of the same only occur during sleep in two-thirds of patients.
type of SE attacks in different types of IGE can Febrile convulsions are relatively typical charac-
be similar, the curative effects on different syn- teristics of attacks. Patients start with cluster of
dromes are different, and thus the patients’ prog- vomiting, accompanied by changes in the face
noses are different [106, 110, 114]. In general, (e.g., pale, cyanosis, and blush), pupil changes
benzodiazepines effectively prevent SE, with less (see scattered mostly), cardiopulmonary and
morbidity of refractory SE. thermoregulatory anomalies (such as difficulty
in breathing and changes in the heart rate and
rhythm), cough, bowel function changes, incon-
4.3.4 Panayiotopoulos Syndrome tinence, headache, eye skewed to one side, and
side deflection of the head. Children are con-
4.3.4.1 Historical Evolution scious in the early stage of the attack. With the
PS is an age-related benign focal epilepsy occur- development of epilepsy, confusion and dullness
ring in childhood that primarily manifest as auto- can occur in children [127–136].
nomic seizures. Relevant studies of the disease
were reported as early as 1989, but the ILAE 4.3.4.3 Auxiliary Examination
formally accepted it as a separate electroclinical Interictal EEG showed multifocal or wandering
syndrome in 2001 [127]. The early stage of PS discharges, with a significant occipital feature;
is also known as benign occipital lobe epilepsy sleep can induce seizures or seizures may only
in children, but for some children with epilepsy, appear during sleep [127, 128, 136]. However,
EEG discharge does not occur in occipital region. with increasing age, the discharge is moved
Therefore, the ILAE officially changed its name forward, and the parietal, frontal, and temporal
to Panayiotopoulos syndrome in 2010 [60]. lobes may be involved [137]. Diffuse discharge
may also be the only EEG performance observed
4.3.4.2 Clinical Manifestation throughout the course of the disease or develop
into focal discharge gradually. Carabolla and
Onset Age colleagues [138] retrospectively analyzed nine
The age of onset is generally 1–14 years old, cases with typical clinical manifestations of
the age of highest morbidity is 4–5 years old, Panayiotopoulos syndrome and found that the
and 76% of children have an age of onset of EEG performances of all children during the ini-
3–6 years old [128]. Degerliyurt and colleagues tial awake period and sleep stage were diffuse
[129] ­conducted a follow-up study of 38 patients spike and slow waves. During sleep, three patients
with Panayiotopoulos syndrome and showed that presented focal spikes in the occipital, frontal,
87% of children had an age of onset before the and temporo-occipital regions, respectively.
age of 8, and the average age at first onset was
4.6 years old. 4.3.4.4 Treatments
No widely accepted therapy guidelines exist, and
Seizure Types sufficient evidence about the effectiveness of spe-
This type of seizure is associated with autonomic cific AEDs is not available. As Panayiotopoulos
symptoms. As shown in the study by Degerliyurt syndrome is a benign syndrome, drug therapy
et al. [129], the most common symptoms included should mainly pay attention to avoiding the side
96 X. Wang et al.

effects of drugs. Fewer studies of ­ multidrug attacks conform to autonomic SE [127, 128, 132,
treatments have been reported [127, 136]. 135, 136]. Lada and colleagues [132] retrospec-
Carbamazepine and valproic acid therapies are tively analyzed 43 patients with Panayiotopoulos
more common in the clinic, but carbamazepine syndrome; the epileptic seizure lasted for more
has also been reported to aggravate the patient’s than 30 min in 46.5% of patients who were diag-
condition. Kikumoto and colleagues [139] nosed with autonomic SE. The same children
reported one case study of a 4-year-old boy with may exhibit brief attacks and can present long-­
Panayiotopoulos syndrome who experienced a standing seizures; the autonomic symptoms may
newly developed myoclonic seizures and absence or may not be obvious. However, even when
seizures after treatment with carbamazepine. His experiencing the most severe and longest attack,
EEG began to deteriorate as well. The absence children will fully recover to normal after a few
seizure stopped, and the EEG returned to normal hours of sleep [133].
after he stopped the carbamazepine treatment.
Levetiracetam is also a potentially effective Seizure Types
AED. Garcia et al. [140] reported a study of Most of these seizures exhibit autonomic symp-
three patients with Panayiotopoulos syndrome toms. Studies have proposed that CSE is a manifes-
treated with levetiracetam. The three patients had tation of Panayiotopoulos syndrome. CSE mainly
autonomic symptoms for 2–6 years and relapsed occurs at the beginning of Panayiotopoulos syn-
quickly after seizures were controlled with val- drome and is a rare type. Verrotti and colleagues
proic acid. However, after the administration of [141] compared patients without CSE with
an initial dosage of 1000–2000 mg/d levetirace- patients with CSE and found that patients with
tam followed by a gradual increase in dosage and Panayiotopoulos syndrome exhibited an average
a subsequent change to a single-drug treatment age of CSE onset of 6.5 years and that general-
of levetiracetam, the children did not experience ized tonic seizures were the most common type.
seizures for 2–3 years, and one patient did not One-third of the patients with CSE were admitted
experience seizures when the drug was with- to the ICU, but the overall prognosis of patients is
drawn after 2-year treatment of levetiracetam. good, and the children’s epilepsy was ultimately
terminated at the last follow-up.
4.3.4.5 S
 E in Panayiotopoulos
Syndrome Treatments
Panayiotopoulos syndrome in which autonomic
Definition SE occurs should be treated [128, 134, 136]
In Panayiotopoulos syndrome, SE is called and terminated as early as possible. According
“autonomic status epilepticus” and belongs to to Lada and colleagues [132], intravenous, rec-
NCSE. Experts have recently agreed that auto- tal, or oral benzodiazepines (such as diazepam,
nomic SE is defined as a seizure lasting for more etc.) are an acceptable therapeutic method to stop
than 30 min characterized by a change in any attacks. Family therapy early after onset might be
form of autonomic function in the early stage more effective than emergency room treatment.
or a change in autonomic function that did not Therefore, parents should place children in a
exist in the onset of the attack, but priority is side-lying position, maintain airway patency, and
given to autonomic function changes during the administer benzodiazepines via the oral or rec-
attack [133]. tal route. The efficacy of anti-nausea drugs for
recurrent vomiting is not clear. Dehydration due
Duration to repeated vomiting should be corrected [136].
The outbreak of Panayiotopoulos syndrome usu-
ally lasts for 5–15 min; on average, 44% of the Prognosis
seizures last for 30 min to several hours (mean, Although automatic SE of Panayiotopoulos
2 h) and up to 12 h. Therefore, nearly half of all ­syndrome has a high morbidity, Panayiotopoulos
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 97

syndrome still is a benign form of epilepsy, and the had a history of febrile convulsions and a f­ amily
general prognosis is good [127, 136]. However, a history of epilepsy. The average onset age of
few patients still exhibit neuropsychological dam- ­seizures was 36 (2–86) months.
age, and thus SE should be terminated as soon as
possible to obtain a better prognosis. Kanemura Seizure Types
and colleagues [142] prospectively studied six The types of seizures include GTCS, myoclonic
patients with Panayiotopoulos syndrome and seizures, atonic seizures, myoclonic-atonic sei-
found that after SE the children’s frontal lobe and zures, atypical absence seizures, tonic seizures,
prefrontal lobes grew more slowly, the ratio of and clonic seizures. Most children initially pres-
the prefrontal/frontal lobe volumes stagnated for ent with GTCS at the onset, followed by other
some time, and performance on neuropsycholog- types of seizures. In the first few months, seizures
ical tests was reduced in the SE group, suggest- are very frequent and primarily occur in the day-
ing that in some patients with Panayiotopoulos time [143, 149].
syndrome, SE is related to a developmental delay
of the prefrontal lobe and causes neuropsycho- Progression
logical problems. Febrile seizures can occur a few months before
nonfebrile seizures. The seizure frequency
gradually increases within an average time of
4.3.5  pilepsy with Myoclonic-­
E 3 months, and then a variety of types of seizures
Atonic Seizures (EMAS) occur. Children may have ataxia, but show no
abnormalities in a neurological examination.
4.3.5.1 Historical Evolution Myoclonic-atonic seizures and mild clonic sei-
EMAS was first reported by the German doc- zures primarily occur over the next few months.
tor Hermann Doose in 1970; thus, EMAS is One-third of children still experienced a large
also known as Doose syndrome. It was formerly number of myoclonic seizures and GTCS during
designated as myoclonic-astatic epilepsy or puberty. Although these children exhibit good
myoclonic-­atonic epilepsy (MAE), and ILAE cognitive function, dyspraxia with poor manual
renamed the disease EMAS in 2010 [143]. dexterity still occurs [151].

4.3.5.2 Potential Etiology 4.3.5.4 Auxiliary Examination

The etiology is related to heredity mainly, and The EEG is normal (or a θ rhythm is observed
the pathogenic genes include SCN1A, SCN2A, in the background) in the early stage, and then
SCN1B, GABRG2, SLC2A1, CHD2, and 2–3 Hz spike-waves and poly-spike-waves are
SLC6A1 [144–148]. observed at every lead, but focal discharges are
not observed [143, 149]. Oguni et al. [149] con-
4.3.5.3 Clinical Manifestations ducted a case study of 30 patients with MAE who
were divided into clonus and atonic groups. The
Onset Age ictal EEG showed generalized spike-waves and
This disease primarily occurs in children between poly-spike-waves in all patients. In the atonic
7 months and 6 years old, generally between 3 group, the morphological characteristics of the
and 4 years. The incidence is significantly higher spike-waves are positive-negative-deep-positive
in boys than in girls. In this disease, children waves and later with large negative slow waves,
always exhibit normal development before dis- but no significant difference in EEG characteris-
ease onset, without organic nervous system dis- tics was observed between the two groups.
eases [143, 149]. Kilaru et al. [150] conducted
a follow-up study of 23 children with EMAS 4.3.5.5 Treatments
(19 males), with an average follow-up time of EMAS is difficult to treat. Thus, clinicians strive
38 months. Thirty-nine percent of the children for early detection and early treatment.
98 X. Wang et al.

AEDs five patients experienced at least 50% relief, and

In single-drug treatments, valproic acid is the the remaining patients (n = 8) experienced slight
first-line drug. If valproic acid is invalid, other relief. The main limitations of hormone therapy
drugs could replace it according to the seizure are recurrence after withdrawal and side effects
types. The combination drug therapies of valproic after long-term use.
acid combined with lamotrigine or valproic acid
combined with ethosuximide are effective [144]. 4.3.5.6 SE in EMAS
Lamotrigine should be avoided when myoclonic
seizures are the main type of seizures because Types of SE
it may exacerbate the condition. In addition, the
concentration of lamotrigine should be increased Atypical Absence SE
slowly to avoid rash, and patients should be Atypical absence SE is the most common type
observed for at least 6 weeks [152]. Levetiracetam and manifests prolonged chaotic consciousness,
and zonisamide are also potentially effective drugs indifferent expression, reduced movements last-
but have not been tested in experiments [151]. ing for hours to days or even weeks, or recurrence
Levetiracetam has not been extensively studied within 1–2 years [143].
as a treatment for EMAS. In the study by Kilaru
et al. [150], only one patient treated with leveti- Mixed SE
racetam was seizure-free for less than 6 months. When a typical SE occurs, myoclonus or frequent
When using AEDs, clinicians should pay atten- atonic seizures may occur simultaneously [143].
tion to carbamazepine, phenytoin, oxcarbazepine, Deng et al. [155] summarized the clinical fea-
and aminocaproic acid, because these drugs may tures of 48 children with EMAS, seven (14.6%)
exacerbate the seizures [152]. of whom had a history of SE, and six patients had
mixed atypical absence and myoclonic SE that
Ketogenic Diet manifested as prolonged chaotic consciousness,
The most effective treatment is thought to be the indifferent expression, reduced movements, and
ketogenic diet, followed by ACTH and ethosuxi- multifocal, nonrhythmic facial or limb muscle
mide. Oguni et al. [153] conducted a retrospec- twitching, such as blinking, arched eyebrow, or
tive investigation of 81 patients with EMAS, and sudden jitter of limbs.
when a ketogenic diet was used to treat EMAS
in 26 patients, 58% (n = 15) of the patients were NCSE
seizure-free, 35% (n = 9) of the patients expe- Caraballo et al. [156] reported a case study of 69
rienced at least 50% relief, and the remaining children with EMAS, 20 (29%) of whom had NCSE
patients (n = 2) experienced slight relief. The characterized by trance and indifferent expression
early implementation of the ketogenic diet can that was accompanied by facial and limb myoclo-
exert greater benefits on EMAS. However, it is nus lasting for 2 h to several days. Trivisano et al.
still very effective as a final step. [157] reported a case study of 18 children with this
disease, and three (16.7%) had NCSE.
Hormone Therapy
Glucocorticoids, particularly ACTH and dexa- Others
methasone, were the first reported treatment. Grande-Martin et al. [158] reported a case in
Doose et al. [154] first proposed that 1 mg/kg which valproic acid induced tonic SE in one child
dexamethasone or 80 IU of ACTH could be used with this disease. Deng et al. [155] summarized
to control seizures. Oguni et al. [153] conducted the clinical features of 48 children with EMAS,
a retrospective investigation of 81 patients with and one child had atonic SE, which was mani-
EMAS, and when ACTH was used to treat EMAS fested as frequent falls and an inability to main-
in 22 patients, eight patients were seizure-free, tain the standing posture.
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 99

Treatments 4.3.6.2 Common Etiology

The most effective treatment for persistent Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs),
­myoclonus is the ketogenic diet, followed by glu- myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers
­
cocorticoid therapy. Benzodiazepines are effec- (MERRFs), Niemann-Pick disease type C
tive, particularly in an acute administration, but (chronic neurological type), Gaucher disease
the drug should be slowly withdrawn to prevent type III (neuropathy type), sialic acid deposition
relapse [151]. Based on the study by Oguni et al. disease (cherry erythema myoclonic syndrome),
[159], the most effective treatment for EMAS was dento-rubro-­pallido-­luysian atrophy (DRPLA),
the ketogenic diet, followed by ACTH and etho- Lafora disease, Unverricht-Lundborg disease
suximide. This study also supports the hypothesis (ULD), and the action myoclonus-renal failure
proposed by Doose that ethosuximide is the most (AMRF) syndrome are common forms of this
favorable AED for EMAS, and ethosuximide com- disease. In these diseases, epilepsy is currently
bined with valproic acid can better control EASM. thought to be due to the accumulation of abnormal
metabolites in cortical neurons [160, 162, 163].
Prognosis
The course of EMAS is difficult to predict, and its 4.3.6.3 Clinical Manifestations
prognosis thus changes substantially. Cognition
may be normal, but serious mental impairments Onset Age
may also occur. In general, 30–50% of patients This disease occurs from childhood to adoles-
have a good prognosis [157]. The frequent occur- cence, and the age of onset of PME due to differ-
rence of SE is one of the important factors affect- ent causes may differ. For example, ULD begins
ing the prognosis of EMAS [152]. In the study by at an age of 6–16 years, and AMRF syndrome
Oguni et al. [153], 18% (15/81) of children with begins at an age of 15–25 years [160, 162].
incomplete control exhibited a cognitive impair-
ment. Half of the patients with a poor prognosis Seizure Types
had recurrent NCSE with nocturnal tonic sei- These seizures are mainly generalized or par-
zures. A family history of epilepsy and NCSE tial myoclonic seizures that are manifested as
were risk factors for a poor prognosis. irregular, non-synchronous, asymmetric seizures.
Other types may include atonic seizures, GTCS,
and absence seizures [160].
4.3.6 Progressive Myoclonic
Epilepsy (PME) Common Clinical Manifestations
The majority of patients are healthy people
4.3.6.1 Definition with normal intelligence before disease onset.
PME is a group of rare neurodegenerative dis- Neurological deterioration occurs during the
eases characterized by myoclonus, epilepsy, and course of the disease, including progressive cog-
progressive neurological deterioration. The etiol- nitive decline, ataxia, neuropathy, and muscle
ogy is a group of progressive neurological dis- lesions [160, 162].
eases [55, 160]. The disease first appeared in a
case report by Lafora G. R. and Glueck B. pub- 4.3.6.4 Treatment and Progress
lished in 1911, the patient experienced disease In the early stage of the disease, AEDs, such
onset as an adolescent, and development before as valproic acid, clonazepam, and zonisamide,
onset was normal. After the onset, a progres- are effective at treating seizures. However, as
sive development of myoclonus and cognitive the disease progresses, drug efficacy decreases,
decline occurred, and this patient was ultimately resistance to AEDs occurs, and this disease can
confirmed to have autosomal recessive inherited develop into refractory epilepsy [55, 160–162,
progressive myoclonic epilepsy [161]. 164, 165].
100 X. Wang et al.

4.3.6.5 Prognosis SE. Lopez-Meza et al. [166] reported two

Of the types of epilepsy, PME has a high patients with PME caused by Lafora disease, all
­morbidity and mortality. The prognosis depends of which manifested as NCSE. Before admission
on the specific disease, such as Lafora disease, to the hospital, these two female patients expe-
NCL, and Gaucher disease type III. In the courses rienced repeated myoclonic seizures, complex
of these diseases, patient mortality is high and partial seizures, generalized seizures, and a con-
the prognosis is poor. In ULD, which progresses tinuous deterioration neuropsychological func-
slowly, appropriate treatment can allow many tion lasting for 2 and 8 years, respectively. After
patients to achieve a normal life [160]. admission, EEG showed signs of NCSE. In one
patient, SE was controlled by a single-drug treat-
4.3.6.6 SE in PME ment and neuropsychological function recov-
Based on some cases and series of reports [55, ered. The other patient gradually progressed
161, 162], the initial onset of SE in patients with from NCSE to generalized CSE during hospital-
PME usually occurs when patients gradually ization and became resistance to anticonvulsant
achieve drug resistance. At this time, SE read- drugs; this patient required long-term treatment
ily recurs and drug-resistant SE is commonly in the ICU.
observed.
Treatment
Age of Onset Because of the multiple etiologies and complex-
PME is a group of rare genetic diseases. Currently, ity of PME [160], only a few reported case stud-
a small number of reports of SE in patients with ies of SE in patients with PME are available [55,
PME have been published; therefore, the statisti- 161, 165, 166]. Currently, a specific, effective
cal data for the age of onset are not available. In treatment for PME is not available. Clinically,
these patients, SE appears more frequently after the treatment includes AEDs to control SE,
the first epileptic seizure and tends to occur in life support, and prevention and treatment of
patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Miyahara complications.
et al. [55] retrospectively analyzed nine patients Miyahara et al. [55] retrospectively analyzed
with PME (six males and three females) with nine patients with PME and RSE (11–34 years, six
RSE. All patients with PME were treated with males and three females), all of whom were in the
AEDs in the early stage, and a good effect was progressive phase of PME, indicating a decrease
achieved. Subsequently, PME was progressed to in the efficacy of AEDs and the emergence of
drug-resistant epilepsy and recurrent SE; con- drug-resistant epilepsy. In these patients, persis-
tinually RSE developed. The age of RSE onset tent myoclonic and/or generalized seizures lasted
in these nine patients was 3–28 years, all within for more than 30 min. All patients were adminis-
2–21 years after the onset of the initial seizure in tered an intravenous bolus or continuous intrave-
patients with PME. nous infusion of benzodiazepines or barbiturates,
but seizures were not terminated and developed
Seizure Types into RSE. After the failure of the BDZ and barbi-
Myoclonic SE is the main type, but NCSE, gen- turate treatment, nine patients were administered
eralized CSE, myoclonic-generalized SE, etc. a slow intravenous injection of 10–15 mg/kg phe-
can also occur [55, 164–166]. Miyahara et al. nytoin. For patients who were orally administered
[55] retrospectively analyzed nine patients with phenytoin, the intravenous injection dose should
PME and RSE. The etiology was two NCL, be 100–250 mg (<3 mg/kg). Phenytoin was effec-
one MELAS, one Gaucher disease type III, two tive in seven patients, and the other two patients
DRPLA, and three with unknown etiology. The continued using midazolam or barbiturate before
SE types included three cases of myoclonic SE, SE terminated (one patient required assisted
four cases of myoclonic-generalized status epi- ventilation). All patients with SE were orally
lepticus (MGSE), and two cases of ­generalized administered phenytoin (5–14 mg/kg/d) after
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 101

the termination of SE to prevent ­recurrence. In subsequent reports, an SWI greater than 50% was
the follow-up, SE did not recur in three patients, the diagnostic criterion for ESES [169, 170].
and SE was not observed in two patients within
4 years. The seizure frequency was significantly 4.3.7.2 Historical Evolution
reduced in two patients, and phenytoin was effec- Electrical SE during sleep is a special EEG
tive in six patients. Significant side effects were phenomenon associated with epileptic seizures,
not observed. Based on this clinical study, phe- language disorders, cognitive impairment, and
nytoin may be used to treat patients with PME other clinical manifestations. This progressive
who do not respond to adequate doses of benzo- cognitive and language disorder with persistent
diazepines or barbiturates, and phenytoin is effec- bioelectrical epilepsy was first described in pedi-
tive at alleviating SE in patients in the progressive atric patients by Kennedy and Hill in 1942 [171].
stage of PME. Phenytoin may also be used as a In 1971, Patry and Tassinari [169] studied six
prophylactic treatment for SE in patients with children with sleep-induced electrical SE. For
PME. Patients who do not respond to phenytoin the first time, epileptic seizures, ESES, and
require additional AEDs and anesthetic drugs disorders of cognition and speech were linked.
that are commonly used to treat RSE, such as These authors defined ESES as diffuse, sustained
levetiracetam, valproic acid, and midazolam, and 1–3 Hz outbreak activity at the beginning of sleep
may be administered other nontraditional treat- that continued throughout the slow-wave period
ments such as a ketogenic diet and hypothermia of sleep, which accounted for at least 85% of the
therapy [164, 165, 167]. activity in continuously monitored EEG. Since
then, reports and studies of children with this
Prognosis disease have emerged. Clinicians have gradually
In PME, patients may present a progressive begun to understand and focus on the relation-
aggravation of myoclonus, recurrent epilepsy, ship between ESES and epilepsy syndrome in
early dementia, and even death. SE and RSE are children [170, 172, 173].
the main causes of death in these patients. PME is
caused by many factors, but few cases and studies 4.3.7.3 M ajor Types of ESES-Related
of SE in patients with PME are available. Thus, Epilepsy Syndromes
the overall prognosis of patients with PME can- The major types of ESES include: Landau-­
not be assessed [55, 160]. Kleffner syndrome, benign childhood epilepsy
with centrotemporal spike (BECTS) variants, and
syndrome of continuous spikes and waves during
4.3.7  lectrical Status Epilepticus
E slow-wave sleep (CSWS) [170].
in Sleep (ESES)
4.3.7.4 C
 ommon Features of ESES-­
4.3.7.1 Definition Related Epilepsy Syndromes
ESES is a special EEG phenomenon that refers to
almost sustained spike-waves discharges evoked Onset Age
by sleep that occurs in the interictal period rather These syndromes begin in preschool to school-­
than ictal period [168]. The ILAE definition does aged children [170]. Su et al. [174] analyzed the
not clearly determine the number of spike-wave efficacy of the levetiracetam + clonazepam treat-
discharges released in the EEG that are defined ment in 15 patients (nine males and six females)
as ESES. Therefore, the criteria used in differ- with BECTS variants. The age of the first epi-
ent studies are different. The first reported study leptic seizure in these children ranged from 2.6
utilized the spike and waves duration in the total to 11.8 (6.7 ± 2.6) years, and the age of ESES
non-rapid eye movement (NREM), that is, a onset was 4.5–13.5 (8.0 ± 2.5) years. Chen et al.
“spike-wave index” (SWI) of 85–100% as the [168] retrospectively analyzed 82 patients (39
criterion for the definition of ESES. However, in males and 43 females) with ESES, including 49
102 X. Wang et al.

patients with BECT variants, 27 patients with can occur. Mild cognitive impairment can occur
CSWS, and 6 patients with Landau-Kleffner syn- after the disease [172, 173, 175, 176].
drome (LKS). The first epileptic seizure in these According to the clinical manifestations,
patients occurred from 1.4 to 11 years, and the BECTS variants are divided into two subtypes:
age of ESES onset was 2–10.8 years old. type I and type II. These two types have different
clinical characteristics with some level of overlap.
Seizure Types
Partial motive seizures can occur during sleep, Type I
and generalized seizures, such as atypical The clinical manifestations are often unstable
absence, atonic seizure, and GTCS, can occur motion, trembling of hands, dropping objects
during the lucid period [170]. Chen et al. [168] being held, coarse tremor, and other symptoms
retrospectively analyzed 82 patients (39 males that belong to the manifestation of epileptic
and 43 females) with ESES. Patients with BECT negative myoclonus. Clinically, epileptic nega-
variants (n = 49) exhibited an early manifestation tive myoclonus can involve one or both limbs,
of partial seizures, mainly during sleep. In the resulting in a short-term loss of muscle tone and
course of BECT variants, 33 patients gradually interference with the coordination of movement,
developed epileptic negative myoclonus, and 19 causing movement instability. When an upper
patients developed atypical absence seizures. All limb is involved, the manifestation is trembling
patients with CSWS (n = 27) experienced par- of hands and dropping objects being held. When
tial seizures, mainly during sleep. Five patients the trunk is involved, the manifestation is nod and
had GTCS during the lucid period, accompanied the tilt of body. When a lower limb is involved,
by atypical absence or myoclonic seizures. Four the manifestation is standing or walking instabil-
patients experienced atonic seizures. Patients ity and falling [172, 175, 177–179].
with LKS (n = 6) experienced nocturnal domi-
nant partial seizures, and two experienced atypi- Type II
cal absence and myoclonic seizures. The clinical features of type II BECTS variants
are speech disorders and oropharyngeal apraxia
EEG Features manifested as dysarthria, aphasia, frequent sali-
The EEG is characterized by spike-waves mainly vation, inflexible tongue movement, and a loss of
in the rolandic area or frontal area. The EEG mixing function when eating. The tongue cannot
is significantly increased and diffused in sleep be stretched out of the mouth in severe condi-
and exhibits an almost sustained release during tions, and the patient may exhibit dysphagia and
NREM [170]. choking when drinking or other manifestations
of operculum syndrome. However, these children
4.3.7.5 Features of Different Subtypes have a normal level of intelligence and a normal
understanding of language. In severe cases lead-
Benign Childhood Epilepsy ing to aphasia, the patients can answer questions
with Centrotemporal Spike Variants or express their wishes by gesturing. Symptoms
Benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal may fluctuate and last for several weeks to sev-
spike variants, also known as atypical benign par- eral months. The persistence of a large number
tial epilepsy of childhood, received its name due of epileptiform discharges can damage the low
to the early course of this disease and because rolandic area and the mouth and facial represen-
it conforms to the clinical characteristics of tation areas around the lateral fissure, causing
BECT. In the course of the disease, new types operculum dysfunction leading to oropharyngeal
of seizures that differ from BECTS seizure types apraxia. Some researchers have described the
can occur (i.e., epileptic negative myoclonus and phenomenon as acquired epileptic opercular syn-
atypical absence), and oropharyngeal dyskinesia drome [173, 180].
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 103

Mixed Type seizures, and a drop attack accounts for 44.5% of

Type I and Type II symptoms can occur in the same seizures in the lucid period [183, 185].
child, which is known as the mixed type, suggesting
that the range of epileptic functional impairments Clinical Features
is more extensive and more serious. Clinically, the (1) Level of mental and motor development before
mixed type is more common [176, 181]. disease onset: Two-thirds of children exhibit nor-
mal mental and motor development before dis-
EEG ease onset, and one-thirds of the children were
The EEG shows a significant increase in the num- diagnosed with mental retardation, and the most
ber of local discharges in the rolandic area in both obvious delay occurred in language develop-
conscious and sleep periods, and the discharge in ment [183, 184]. (2) After disease onset, patients
sleep meets the diagnostic criteria for ESES. exhibit cognitive and motor dysfunction [183,
Type I EEG manifestations: Children have fre- 184]. Most of the children exhibited progressive
quent spike-waves released in the lucid period, neuropsychological damage during ESES that
and discharge significantly increases during was observed on the EEG. The main manifesta-
sleep, which often reaches to 50–80% or more of tions were comprehensive cognitive regression
NREM. Clinically, type I is often accompanied by and motor regression, which were common and
varying degrees of slow language expression, a lack manifested as ataxia, poor fine motor control,
of smooth expression, etc. [172, 175, 177–179]. spastic quadriplegia, hemiplegia, hypotonia, and
Type II EEG manifestations: Frequent spike-­ other abnormal nervous system signs in half of
waves are released in the rolandic area during the the children [185]. (3) Language disorders were
lucid period that is often accompanied by ESES mainly manifested as language expression dis-
phenomena during sleep [173]. orders, which are different from typical acoustic
agnosia of children with LKS. The manifestations
Epilepsy with Continuous Spike and Wave and degree of neuropsychological injury in chil-
During Slow-Wave Sleep (CSWS) dren with CSWS are related to the severity, site
CSWS is an age-dependent childhood epi- of involvement, and duration of ESES [182, 183].
lepsy syndrome, and the children usually have
­neuropsychological injury and/or motor regres- EEG
sion [170]. Focal paroxysmal spike and slow waves are
observed in frontal areas, rolandic areas, fronto-
Onset Age temporal areas, and centrotemporal areas during
The age of onset ranges from 2 to 12 years of the lucid stage [184]. Extensive and continu-
age, and the peak age is 4–5 years. ESES often ous 1.5–4.0 Hz spike-waves are released during
appears 1–2 years after the first epileptic sei- sleep, and a small number of focal abnormalities
zures. The age of onset of ESES is 3–14 years are occasionally observed in the frontal or fron-
old, and the peak age is 8 years [182]. Herguner totemporal area [186]. ESES occurs during sleep,
et al. [183] studied ten patients with CSWS for and ESES is strongly associated with neuropsy-
whom the age of onset was 1.5–4 years and the chological impairments [183, 187]. Cognitive
mean age of onset was 2.25 ± 1.27 years. and motor regression occurs after ESES [184].
The ESES phenomenon observed on EEG is
Seizure Types required to diagnose CSWS.
CSWS is mainly manifested as partial motive sei-
zures during sleep and generalized seizures in the Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (LKS)
lucid period [183, 184]. Nineteen to forty percent LKS, which is also known as acquired epileptic
of patients may have partial SE. Absence sei- aphasia, is one of the common causes of acquired
zures are the most common type of generalized speech disorders in children [170, 188].
104 X. Wang et al.

Pathogenesis EEG discharges and eliminate ESES as soon as

Currently, certain causal relations between EEG possible. The treatment options for this particular
abnormalities and aphasia have been postu- group of children are controversial, and the cur-
lated, namely, a prolonged continuous discharge rent treatment options are described below [189].
involving the speech center or the combined cor-
tex can damage or disrupt processes of creation AEDs
and modify brain circuitry during development, AEDs, such as benzodiazepines, levetiracetam,
producing a “functional excision” of the corti- and valproic acid, are the first choice treat-
cal language function area that leads to language ments for ESES-related epilepsy syndrome. Su
dysfunction [170, 189]. et al. [174] analyzed 15 children (nine males,
six females) with BECTS variants. These chil-
Main Features dren were treated with levetiracetam in the early
Language ability is normal before disease onset. stage, but the EEG did not show an improvement
Patients start to acquire aphasia at the age of or the seizures persisted. Then, these children
2–7 years, accompanied by behavioral changes were treated with oral levetiracetam (20–40 mg/
manifested as hyperactivity, irritability, aggres- kg/d) combined with 2 months of short-term
sion, and autism [170, 172, 188]. Tsuru et al. oral clonazepam before bed (once a day for
[190] reported a case study of a patient with LKS the first month, 0.02–0.03 mg/kg; once every
who began to have generalized seizures at the other day in the second month, 0.02–0.03 mg/
age of 3 years 10 months, and speech gradually kg). Of the 15 patients, only one had recurring
began to deteriorate. Subsequently, spoken lan- ESES and seizures. The remaining patients had
guage deteriorated and the right hand was clumsy no clinical seizures, and the sleep EEG sug-
at the age of 4 years 4 months. This patient lost gested normal range or only a small amount of
the ability to understand language at the age of low-amplitude discharges in the centrotemporal
6 years 5 months and became extremely active, area. Thus, levetiracetam combined with short-
completely aphasic, and unresponsive to lan- term clonazepam was more effective in control-
guage commands. ling the patients’ clinical seizures and reducing
epileptiform discharges during sleep compared
EEG with clonazepam or levetiracetam monotherapy;
Background activities are normal or exhibit mild, moreover, the combination produced fewer
non-specific abnormalities. The release of 1.5– adverse events [189].
2.5 Hz paroxysmal spike-waves from the tempo-
ral area is the main observation during the lucid Steroid Hormones
period, which can spread to the parieto-occipital A combination of corticosteroids and ACTH
area and to the frontal area. In the NREM sleep could be considered as a treatment for patients
period, generalized or focal frequent spike and with poorly controlled seizures or who show
slow waves may occur, which are often persis- an improvement in the persistent discharge on
tent and defined as ESES. The spike-waves index the EEG. Corticosteroids and ACTH have been
varies greatly in different individuals and in each reported to effectively control seizures, eliminate
night of same individual’s sleep. Epileptiform electrical SE, and improve neuropsychological
discharges on EEGs are required to diagnose damage. However, the long-term use of steroid
LKS [182, 188, 190]. hormones can produce serious side effects [188,
190–192].
4.3.7.6 Treatments Sinclair et al. [191] studied ten patients with
In children with ESES, cognitive impairment CSWS or LKS (2–11 years, seven males and
resulting from persistent discharges is a more three females), eight of whom had seizures, and
serious problem than the epileptic seizures, and the EEG showed ESES. Prednisone was con-
the primary goal of treatment is to improve the tinuously administered at a dosage of 1 mg/kg/
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 105

day for 6 months. The follow-up periods were but no significant improvement was observed
6 months, followed by continuous annual visits in the EEG. Neuropsychological function was
for 1–10 years. With the exception of one patient, improved in one patient with CSWS syndrome.
the other patients exhibited significant improve- Three patients without an improvement in neu-
ments in language, cognition, and motor func- ropsychological function were subsequently
tion. The patients’ EEGs were all completely treated with steroid therapy, which was very
normal within 3–6 months after treatment, but effective in one patient. According to previ-
clinical recurrence still existed. Transient drug ous studies, IVIG is occasionally effective in
side effects were observed in four children, patients with ESES, but the onset time and effi-
including two patients with weight gain, one cacy cannot be assessed due to individual dif-
patient with behavioral changes, and one patient ferences [189]. Thus, high-­dose IVIG may be
with hypertension. Based on this study, ste- administered to patients who exhibit an ineffec-
roid hormones are safe and effective in patients tive response to corticosteroid treatments.
with CSWS and LKS syndrome, with few and
reversible side effects. Chen et al. [168] retro- 4.3.7.7 Prognosis
spectively analyzed 82 patients (39 males and Although epileptic seizures and EEG discharges
43 females) with ESES phenomena. All patients in children with ESES often disappear after
were treated with methylprednisolone at a dos- puberty, these patients are often left with per-
age of 15–20 mg/kg/d, and each course is 3 days manent neuropsychological dysfunction. The
followed by a 4-day interval. During the inter- cognitive deficits are comprehensive or selective.
val, oral prednisone was administered at a dos- Thus, early recognition and termination of ESES
age of 1–2 mg/kg/d. Three continuous courses is the most important prognostic factors [170].
were administered. Continuous prednisone Overall, the disability rate of children with ESES
therapy was administered after discharge, and is extremely high.
2 weeks later, the prednisone dosage was gradu-
ally reduced. The total course was 6 months. The
authors defined a reduction of the SWI on EEG 4.3.8 Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
from 85% to less than 50% as having a significant (LGS)
effect and a decrease (>20%) but still > 50% was
effective. The total rate of significantly effec- 4.3.8.1 Definition
tive and effective SWI was 83% (62/82) within LGS is a common age-related epileptic encepha-
1 month after treatment with methylpredniso- lopathy in clinical, the onset time usually occurs
lone, and the seizure frequency was significantly in childhood, and the syndrome gradually wors-
reduced in all patients within 1 month. ens until adulthood. Resistance to AEDs occurs
and patients often exhibit cognitive deficits and
Immunoglobulin behavioral changes. The etiology is complex and
Arts et al. [189] studied the efficacy of intra- diverse, including cryptogenic and symptomatic
venous administration of high-dose immuno- etiologies. The symptomatic etiologies include
globulin at treating LKS (n = 3) and CSWS prenatal and intrapartum infection and heredi-
syndrome (n = 3) in children, including six tary diseases such as tuberous sclerosis [193,
children with ESES (4–9 years old, 2 females). 194]. The attack pattern of LGS onset is similar
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) of 400 mg/ to Dravet syndrome and Doose syndrome; thus,
kg/day for the first 5 days, followed by one these diseases may have overlapping features
dose of 400 mg/kg every 3 weeks, i.e., 4, 7, in the early stage. Some LGS cases may have
10 weeks, etc. until week 25, was used as the evolved from infantile spasms and West syn-
administration method. During the IVIG treat- drome. Some LGS cases may also evolve into
ment and 12-month follow-­up period, none of West syndrome. Therefore, early differential
these children experienced epileptic seizures, diagnosis is relatively difficult [193–196].
106 X. Wang et al.

4.3.8.2 Historical Evolution seconds to a few minutes. This seizure pattern

The formation and development of a definition often shows a maximum voltage in the frontal
and classification for LGS have been the work of regions [198]. However, this EEG manifestation
many authors over many years. In 1935, Gibbs is not the absolute standard for an LGS diag-
et al. [197] reported the clinical presentation of nosis. The EEG performance in the ictal period
the patients who were described by Lennox and is related to the seizure type; for example, the
Davis, and these patients presented with cogni- manifestation of tonic seizures, which are com-
tive impairment and multiple types of seizures, monly observed in LGS, may initially be present
accompanied by specific spike and slow wave as a low-amplitude, fast frequency (10–13 Hz)
patterns on the EEG. Then, Gastraut et al. [198] discharge that subsequently develops into a full
described 100 cases of this type of patient in 1966 outbreak of slow wave or slow sharp wave pat-
and their common characteristics were spike and terns, followed by a continuous attenuation of
slow wave release on EEG, cognitive impair- discharges on EEG lasting for 1–3 s [202].
ment, and multiple types of seizures, including
myoclonus seizures and atypical absence sei- 4.3.8.5 SE in LGS
zures. This type of disease was officially named
Lennox-Gastaut syndrome at a European confer- Prevalence
ence in 1968 [194, 199]. The incidence of SE in patients with LGS is
extremely high, and some studies have reported
4.3.8.3 Clinical Manifestations that 50–75% of children with LGS have a his-
tory of NCSE, whereas tonic SE is rare [56, 193,
Onset Age 195, 203]. Hoffmann-Riem et al. [195] studied
The age of onset is in the first 10 years of life 101 patients with LGS (5–34 years, 57 males and
and the peak age is 3–5 years. Male are more 44 females). The authors regarded the repeated
common [194, 199]. Kumar et al. [200] studied or persistent nonconvulsive epilepsy and persis-
31 patients with LGS who had an onset age of tent bilateral spike-waves on the EEG that lasted
8.757 ± 2.05 (1–11) years. for more than 6 h as NCSE. Eighty-two (85%)
patients experienced NCSE in the course of dis-
Seizure Types ease, and 64 patients (67%) experienced CSE.
LGS manifests as various types of seizures [193,
201], including tonic seizures, atypical absence Seizure Types and Manifestations
seizures, atonic seizures, and myoclonic and focal The seizure types include NCSE, tonic SE, and
seizures. Tonic seizure is the most typical type of CSE, of which the most common type is NCSE
LGS seizure, and tonic seizures are the reference [193, 195, 203]. NCSE often alternates with tonic
for diagnosing the disease. In the study by Kumar seizures, is manifested as behavioral disorders,
et al. [200], the most common seizure type in 31 and is accompanied by abnormal myoclonus of
patients with LGS was myoclonic seizures, which the face and upper limbs. Sometimes the NCSE
was observed in 25 patients (80.6%), followed by lasts for several hours to several weeks, and this
atonic seizures (64.5%). GTCS were observed in type is often refractory SE. Hoffmann-Riem et al.
16 patients (51.6%), atypical absence seizures in [195] retrospectively analyzed 101 patients with
10 patients (32.3%), and complex partial seizures LGS and showed that 82 patients (85%) had
in 11 patients (35.5%). Chevrie et al. [201] stud- NCSE and 64 patients (67%) had CSE. The age
ied 80 patients with LGS and found that 75% of at first onset of NCSE was 1–12 (4.3 ± 2.0) years
these patients have two or more types of seizure. old, and NCSE occurred in 60% of children less
than 5 years old.
4.3.8.4 EEG In the study by Tassinari et al. [56], five
In the interictal period, the 1.5–2.5 Hz spike and patients with LGS had refractory tonic SE. In
slow waves are observed, which last for a few the initial stage, the patients with tonic SE had
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 107

no loss of consciousness and were able to speak within a few hours after the administration of
and eat. Subsequently, the level of consciousness midazolam, without significant side effects.
gradually decreased into a confused state, and the
patients experienced difficulties in swallowing Prognosis
and respiration. Then, a series of tonic seizures According to Hoffmann-Riem et al. [195],
occurred. However, life-threatening autonomic the prognosis and the development and sever-
dysfunctions (e.g., respiratory failure, high fever, ity of mental retardation in children with LGS
tachycardia) are not common [56, 204]. are related to the etiology. Patients who expe-
rienced their first epileptic seizures prior to the
Treatments age of 3 years developed West syndrome, CSE
Markand et al. [196] postulated that intrave- or NCSE occured, and experienced continuous
nous injections of benzodiazepines are still tonic seizures would have a poor prognosis. The
the most effective treatment for children with occurrence of NCSE, particularly in the early
SE. However, Tassinari et al. [56] reported that stage, was highly associated with severe mental
five children with LGS developed refractory tonic retardation in later stages (p < 0.001, OR = 25),
SE after an intravenous administration of benzo- whereas CSE exhibited a lower association with
diazepines (diazepam or nitrazepam) and had a the severity of mental retardation. Therefore, the
poor response to many drugs (e.g., barbiturates, early termination of NCSE significantly improves
primidone, ethosuximide). These five children patients’ prognosis [193, 196, 205].
exhibited a confused state with repeated tonic
seizures or sustained discharge on EEG before
the administration of benzodiazepines. Based on 4.4  efractory Status Epilepticus
R
this study, if children with LGS in this state are in Hypoxic Ischemic
­administered benzodiazepines, the tonic seizures Encephalopathy
may worsen or tonic SE may even be induced.
Hoffmann-Riem et al. [195] found that NCSE Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is
is difficult to treat and is often refractory. The caused by various factors that lead to a partial or
authors included 101 patients with LGS in their total reduction cerebral blood flow or a pause in
study, 62 of whom had clear etiologies. Eighty-­ cerebral blood flow, which subsequently induces
two patients had NCSE in the course of the dis- cerebral ischemia and hypoxia-induced neurolog-
ease. Even if children with NCSE received the ical damage. According to the age of onset, HIE is
comprehensive standard treatment in a timely divided into neonatal HIE and adult HIE. Neonatal
manner, the therapeutic effect was still poor, par- HIE is a common neurological disease caused by
ticularly for children with a clear etiology, and perinatal asphyxia, a term that is used to describe
the underlying diseases should be treated first. brain damage in newborns caused by partial or
Nobutoki et al. [57] reported seven episodes of complete hypoxia or a reduction in or suspen-
refractory NCSE in five patients, two of whom sion of cerebral blood flow. Neonatal hypoxic
were diagnosed with LGS and had three epi- brain damage is caused by many factors, such as
sodes of NCSE. All patients were treated with perinatal asphyxia, recurrent apnea, severe respi-
midazolam after they did not respond to the ini- ratory disease, and right to left shunt congenital
tial benzodiazepine treatment. Midazolam was heart disease. One to eight in 1000 newborns
administered intravenously at a loading dose of will have HIE [206]. Adult HIE is divided into
0.15–0.3 mg/kg, followed by a continuous infu- two subgroups. One group is caused by cardiac
sion of 0.1–0.2 mg/kg/h. The infusion rate was arrest, and HIE occurs after successful cardiopul-
increased by 0.1 mg/kg/h every 0.5–1 h until monary resuscitation (CPR). Cardiac arrest has
the NCSE was controlled. The maximum dose different causes in these patients, such as heart
of midazolam was 0.4 mg/kg/h. Eventually, five disease, anesthesia, drug poisoning, shock, surgi-
episodes of NCSE were terminated completely cal accidents, shock, and hypokalemia. The brain
108 X. Wang et al.

is extremely sensitive and exhibits poor tolerance 4.4.3 Potential Mechanisms

to ischemia and hypoxia even after the spontane-
ous recovery of CPR. Therefore, the majority of 4.4.3.1 Cell Energy Metabolism
patients develop brain injury, which can easily Critical cerebral ischemia results in reduced
develop a persistent vegetative state. Another sub- delivery of energy substrates (i.e., oxygen and
group is ischemic hypoxia caused by other fac- glucose) to the brain. Anaerobic metabolism dur-
tors, such as asphyxia, CO poisoning, pulmonary ing HIE rapidly depletes the stores of glucose
failure, acute severe asthma, and foreign bodies in and high-energy phosphates (ATP and phos-
the trachea, but not cardiac arrest [206]. phocreatine) in the neonatal brain, resulting in
the accumulation of lactate and inorganic phos-
phate [216–218]. Patients with HIE experience a
4.4.1 Historical Evolution delayed or “secondary” energy failure that occurs
1–2 days later, and the energy failure eventu-
The RSE in HIE was firstly described in 1987 by ally leads to neuronal apoptosis or death [219].
Simpson et al. [207] who reported a case study of Neuronal apoptosis is considered to underlie
a young male who died from an RSE due to an the pathological changes and may be a potential
HIE caused by hanging suicide. In 1990, Jumao pathogenic mechanism of epilepsy and RSE.
et al. [208] reviewed 23 cases of myoclonic SE
in patients and found that HIE was the cause in 4.4.3.2 E  urotoxicity of Excitatory
15 patients. In 2008, Sirsi et al. [209] reported a Amino Acids (EAA)
study of a neonate who developed RSE due to EAA receptor hyperactivation is strongly impli-
HIE, which was not sensitive to first-line AEDs. cated in the pathogenesis of perinatal HIE injury.
The administration of midazolam ultimately con- Glutamate is not degraded, but instead is removed
trolled the symptoms. In 2013, Sutter et al. [210] from the synaptic cleft by energy-dependent neu-
summarized the medical histories of all patients ronal and glial uptake transporters [220]. EAA
with RSE in an ICU at a health center from 2005 receptors are widely expressed throughout the
to 2011 and determined that RSE caused by isch- neonatal gray matter, which are divided into
emic anoxic encephalopathy was an independent NMDA and AMPA receptors. In patients with
cause of death. HIE, energy depletion affects glutamate uptake,
leading to extracellular glutamate accumula-
tion, which can cause SE and even RSE [221].
4.4.2 Prevalence As shown in the 1996 study by Cataltepe et al.
[222], elevated glutamate levels are detected in
Based on a literature review, Rittenberg et al. the CSF after HIE. In the 2015 study by Zanelli
[211] analyzed 80 patients who experienced car- et al. [223], depolarized neurons in CA1 region
diac arrest outside the hospital and found that were hypoxic, the action potential (AP) thresh-
the incidence of RSE was 12–19%. Legriel et al. old decreased, the AP amplitude increased, and
[212] studied 89 patients with ischemic encepha- Na+ channels were confirmed to be involved in
lopathy and found that the incidence of RSE the process.
was 22%. Krumholz et al. [213] summarized the
data for 114 patients with HIE who had an RSE 4.4.3.3 Intracellular Calcium
incidence of 32%. In summary, 12–32% of HIE Accumulation and Oxygen Free
patients can manifest as RSE. In addition, Sutter Radicals
et al. [210] studied 260 patients with SE and As a consequence of cerebral HIE, multiple mech-
found that HIE was the cause in 23% of patients. anisms contribute to the increased intracellular
Buttram et al. [214] studied 59 patients with calcium levels by releasing the sequestered stores
RSE, and 22% of patients were diagnosed with from the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria
HIE. In summary, the proportion of patients with and by inducing calcium influx. Sustained depo-
an etiology of HIE is 22–23% [210, 214, 215]. larization and platelet-activating factor receptor
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 109

hyperactivation lead to an influx of extracellular the TNF gene rapidly increases. IL-1β and TNFα
calcium. Failure of oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors have been applied in the clinic to treat
induces the release of intracellular calcium stores connective tissue disease, but these inhibitors are
from the mitochondria and ER. Deleterious conse- ineffective treatments for encephalopathy [230].
quences of increased intracellular calcium levels Based on recent studies of refractory epilepsy, the
include the activation of phospholipases, endo- levels of IL-1β and TNFα and other proinflamma-
nucleases, proteases, and nitric oxide synthase tory factors are obviously increased, suggesting
[224]. Activated phospholipase A2 generates ara- that the inflammatory pathway may promote the
chidonic acid, and activated phospholipase C pro- occurrence and development of SE [231].
duces inositol-1,4,5-­triphosphate, both of which
trigger calcium release from the ER. Proteases
and endonucleases damage cytoskeletal proteins 4.4.4 Clinical Features
and DNA, respectively [225].
Increased production of reactive oxygen 4.4.4.1 Onset Time
species contributes to the pathogenesis of neo- The duration of RSE (myoclonic seizures) after
natal HIE-induced brain injury. Under normal CPR in adults may be within 24 h (acute phase)
conditions, low concentrations of superoxide
­ or a few days to several weeks (chronic phase).
anion and hydrogen peroxide are produced as a In 1980, Snyder et al. [232] studied 63 adult sur-
by-­product of mitochondrial electron transport vivors of cardiac arrest after resuscitation. Eight
[226]. These radicals are scavenged enzymati- patients experienced myoclonic seizures within
cally by superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, 12 h, and four patients developed seizures after
and glutathione peroxidase and nonenzymati- 3 days. Thus, we suggest that partial seizures
cally by reaction with antioxidant molecules, often begin within 12 h. Rittenberger et al. [211]
such as alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid. also believe that NCSE always occurs within 12 h
Oxygen free radicals directly damage DNA, pro- after cardiac arrest. In 1990, Jumao et al. [208]
teins, and membrane lipids and initiate apoptosis proposed that myoclonic SE caused by hypoxic
[227]. Based on accumulating evidence, the new- encephalopathy often occurs within 14 h. In
born brain is vulnerable to oxygen free radical-­ 1988, Morris et al. [233] reported three cases
induced damage. Two recent clinical studies with RSE caused by HIE, two cases occurred
suggested beneficial effects of allopurinol ther- within 24 h after HIE, and the other occurred
apy. In a preliminary study of asphyxiated human within 30 h after CPR. According to the 1995
infants, allopurinol treatment improved cerebral study by Arnoldus et al. [234], RSE occurred
hemodynamics and electrical activity. Calcium within 4 h after CPR; other scholars also believe
influx led to the formation of a large number that the acute onset should occur within 4 h. In
of free radicals, triggering cascade biochemical 2005, Hui et al. [235] reported a case study of 18
reactions that may lead to SE [227]. patients with myoclonic SE due to HIE, which
occurred within 1–38 h after CPR; similar cases
4.4.3.4 Inflammation were reported by McGinn et al. [236] in 2016. In
Cytokines generally include interleukins (ILs), summary, RSE most likely occurs within 4–24 h
interferons (IFs), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), after CPR but can also occur after 3 days.
chemokines, and growth factors. According to
relevant clinical data, immune mediators play 4.4.4.2 Seizure Types
important roles in the pathogenesis of HIE [228].
IL-1β promotes the occurrence and develop- NCSE
ment of HIE in neonatal and adult brain injury. Sutter et al. [210] reported that the most com-
Ischemia and hypoxia can promote the expression mon type of RSE occurring after HIE is NCSE
of the IL-1β gene and its biological activity [229]. (65%); simple partial seizures, complex partial
TNFα is also a cytokine that plays a key role in seizures, and absence seizure account for 29.26%
HIE. Under hypoxic conditions, the expression of of NCSE.
110 X. Wang et al.

CSE hydrocephalus are observed [239]. MRI imaging

In 1987, Simpson et al. [206] reported a case of HIE-induced brain injury is divided into dif-
study of patients who were unconscious due to ferent types, including the cerebral edema type,
hanging and the symptoms manifested as tonic-­ cerebral hemorrhage type, secondary cerebral
clonic RSE; an intravenous injection of pento- hemorrhage type, and cerebral white matter dam-
barbital was used to control the seizures. The age type. (1) Brain edema type: (1) Localized
head CT scan showed only mild cortical edema, cerebral edema with basal ganglia injury is dis-
but 2 days later, the head CT scan showed dif- played as a low lamellar T1 signal and high T2
fuse cortical edema with bilateral basal ganglia signal in lesions in the temporal cortex, parietal
infarcts. During the hospital stay, the EEG still cortex, or single lobular white matter. High T2
showed epileptic discharge. Five months later, signals are observed for lesions in the basal gan-
the patients died of pneumonia, and the autopsy glia. (2) Extensive cerebral edema with basal
showed severe brain softening lesions and mul- ganglia injury: The MRI shows unclear gray
tiple infarcts. matter and white matter boundaries in the occipi-
tal lobe, temporal lobe, and frontal lobes in the
4.4.4.3 Complications T1- and T2-weighted images. The signal for the
Most patients with SE or RSE after HIE also T1-weighted image of the gray matter increases,
exhibit heart, lung, and multiple organ failure, whereas the signal for the T2-weighted image of
hypoxemia, acidosis, and other complications the white matter decreases. The frontal lobes and
[237]. In the 2013 study by Sutter et al. [210], periventricular white matter displays lamellar T1
most patients with RSE after HIE were in a coma hypointensity and T2 hyperintense lesions, and
(76%). In addition, seizures and other neurologi- the basal ganglia display abnormal T2 hypoin-
cal symptoms may also occur, such as cognitive tensity. (3) Simple brain edema: (1) The MRI
dysfunction and muscle weakness. shows lamellar T1 hypointense and T2 hyperin-
tense lesions in the white matter of the bilateral,
occipital, or parietal lobes. (2) Cerebral hemor-
4.4.5 Auxiliary Examinations rhage type: Spot or sheet bleeding is observed,
and the MRI shows T1 hypointensity or slight
4.4.5.1 Examination of HIE hypointensity and T2 hypointensity in the brain
Routine blood tests, urinalysis, electrolyte lev- parenchyma. (3) Secondary cerebral hemorrhage
els, blood gas analysis, liver and kidney func- type: The MRI shows a nonuniform signal for the
tion tests, and autoimmune antibody levels are white matter adjacent to the ventricles, including
also helpful in diagnosing HIE. An arterial blood a high T1 signal and low T2 signal, as well as a
gas analysis shows different degrees of acidosis. low T2 signal and high T2 signal in the lesions.
Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) may be helpful (4) Cerebral white matter damage type: The MRI
in diagnosing the disease. Thomke et al. [238] shows low T1 signals in the lesions and high
examined neuron enolase levels in 50 patients T2 signals in the lesions in the lateral ventricle
and detected high levels of NSE expression in 27 anteroposterior angle and semioval white matter.
patients. According to some studies of children with HIE,
Neuroimaging is important for HIE diagno- the early and late MRIs revealed that focal white
sis. CT scans of patients in whom the myoclonic matter abnormalities in children tend to return to
state emerged after CPR reveal cerebral edema, normal, but extensive white matter abnormalities
ischemic cortical lesions, cerebral hemorrhage, in children tend to lead to permanent brain dam-
cerebral infarction, or subarachnoid hemorrhage. age accompanied by basal ganglia atrophy, cystic
Early CT scans suggest mild cerebral edema; degeneration, and other serious sequelae. In the
3–5 days later, CT scans display diffuse cortical 2013 study by Akman et al. [239], patients with
swelling and highly intense signals for the bilat- RSE caused by HIE showed high fluid-attenu-
eral basal ganglia. At the 1 month CT examina- ated inversion recovery (FLAIR) signals in white
tion, diffuse cerebral infarction and c­ ompensatory matter, gray matter, and deep nuclei and high T2
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 111

s­ ignals in the hippocampus and parahippocampal of a P14 reaction, indicating a very poor prog-
gyrus, and the pia mater signal increased. nosis [244].
CSF examination can be abnormal. The CSF
4.4.5.2 Examination of SE glutamate levels are increased in patients with
Long-term digital video EEG is widely used in the HIE, and the ratio of the glutamate and GABA
ICU to monitor the status of epilepsy, ­recurrent levels in the CSF is significantly decreased over
seizures, encephalopathy, and other diseases. In a long time. In SE, we can exclude HIE-induced
2004, Pandian et al. [240] reviewed the long-­term brain damage if the CSF glutamate levels and
digital video EEG data for 612 patients and sug- glutamate/GABA ratio did not change.
gested a relationship between the EEG data and
the clinical prognosis. A digital EEG is more
likely to detect epileptic seizures than an EEG, 4.4.6 Treatments
and digital video EEG can maintain a high capture
rate of abnormal waveforms, burst suppression, 4.4.6.1 Treatment for HIE
spike slow waves, and three-phase waves. In 2005, Any cause of HIE results in a poor prognosis, but
Thomke et al. [238] described the EEG features early treatment is better than late treatment. In
of 50 patients with myoclonic SE after CPR. Most the 2016 study by Youn et al. [206], early treat-
of these patients showed EEG suppression, and ment of children with HIE (within 1 h) signifi-
12 had 10–55 s epileptiform discharges in their cantly reduced the mortality and morbidity.
EEGs. As shown in the study in 2013 by Akman
et al. [239], patients with HIE often have gener- Symptomatic Supportive Treatment
alized periodic epileptiform discharges (GPEDs), Conventional treatment is mainly utilized to
which are both an EEG manifestation of severe increase cerebral blood flow, control and elimi-
encephalopathy and an indicator of RSE after HIE nate brain edema, and restore the function of liv-
[241]. In 2003, Bensalem et al. [242] reported ing neurons that survive in the hypoxic ischemic
a case study of a patient with RSE caused by area. The goal of early treatment is to maintain
ischemic hypoxic encephalopathy, and the EEG good ventilation, PaO2 > 60–80 mmHg, and
showed explosive suppression with a comprehen- PaCO2 and pH in the normal ranges, which are
sive rhythm of epilepsy-­like sharp wave discharge. key measures of the ability of the treatment to
In 2005, Hui et al. [235] reported a study of 18 maintain good cerebral and systemic blood per-
patients with HIE who experienced myoclonic SE; fusion. Clinicians should avoid treatments that
the EEGs of ten patients showed comprehensive induce a cerebral perfusion pressure that is too
paroxysmal spikes, cluster spikes, or diffuse low low or too high. An appropriate blood glucose
voltage. The RSE after HIE sometimes presents level should be maintained to provide the energy
a rare three-phase wave, typical spike-and-wave required for nerve cell metabolism. Early treat-
activity (TSWA), suggesting that benzodiazepine-­ ment also aims to control seizures and treat brain
type AEDs are not effective [243]. edema. Posttreatment measures mainly include
Amplitude integrated electroencephalogram rehabilitation and training; the earlier the physi-
(aEEG) is a simple operation with less interfer- cal rehabilitation training is implemented, the
ence from the external environment that is easy more conducive it is to the recovery of brain
to interpret and can be implemented for long- function and to reducing sequelae.
term, continuous bedside monitoring; aEEG also
displays other characteristics that not only reflect Mild Hypothermia Treatment
changes in the background activity on the EEG but Mild hypothermia therapy may be considered the
also reflect the epileptic activity. aEEG has great most useful treatment, particularly in adults with
value in monitoring brain function [235, 236]. severe HIE [245]. Polderman and Herold [246]
In patients with HIE, cortical somatosensory believe that the hypothermia treatment, which
evoked potentials show a bilateral disappear- reduces the core body temperature to 32–35 °C,
ance of cortical response N20 and the presence may be the standard treatment for HIE.
112 X. Wang et al.

The effectiveness of mild hypothermia intravenous infusion was maintained at 0.05 mg/
t­herapy has been confirmed in preclinical animal kg/h. The clinical symptoms disappeared, but the
experiments. In the study by Atkins et al. [247], EEG still showed TSWA. The clinical symptoms
a 33–36 °C mild hypothermia treatment was con- and EEG discharges disappeared when the intra-
firmed to significantly reduce traumatic brain venous infusion was maintained at 20 μg/kg/min.
injury-induced seizures in animals compared Pentobarbital can control the seizures in most
with the control group. D’Ambrosi et al. [248] patients with RSE caused by HIE. Young et al.
also confirmed this result. As shown in the study [254] do not recommend the use of pentobarbital
by Schmitt et al. [249], a mild hypothermia treat- to treat patients with bilateral facial muscle syn-
ment also improved the pathological changes cope spasm, bilateral pupil disappearance, or dis-
related to epileptiform discharges in epileptic sei- appearance of the vestibular reflex accompanied
zures and SE in animal models of SE, including by burst suppression in EEG.
neuronal necrosis and apoptosis as well as brain
edema [250, 251]. Non-pharmacological Treatments for RSE
For controlling RSE, non-pharmacological treat-
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy ments can be used, e.g., VNS, deep brain stimu-
In the late 1960s, some researchers began to res- lation (DBS), etc. VNS was reported to treat RSE
cue patients with HIE using hyperbaric oxygen. in HIE. VNS was approved by the US FDA in
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy increases the partial 1997 for the non-pharmacological treatment of
oxygen pressure in the alveoli, elevates the oxy- refractory epilepsy in children aged 12 years or
gen content, and improves aerobic metabolism older and adults, with the aim of reducing sei-
to combat HIE caused by partial or complete zures in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. In
hypoxia [252]. In addition, hyperbaric oxygen 2008, Zamponi et al. [255] reported a case with
increases the number of microvascular openings RSE caused by HIE. The child received a single
to maintain appropriate tissue metabolism and cervical incision implanted VNS at 26 months
nutrient level. Furthermore, hyperbaric oxygen of age. Three days later, the stimulus started at
reduces HIE-induced brain injury by inhibiting 0.25 mA and gradually increased from 0.25 mA
the expression of inflammatory factors, inhibiting to 1.5–20.25 mA at a stimulation frequency of
neuronal apoptosis, and promoting the expression 30 C/s; the vagus nerve was stimulated for 30 s
of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in and then stopped for 5 min. The child’s symp-
response to reperfusion after ischemia [253]. toms improved significantly.

4.4.6.2 Treatment for RSE

4.4.7 Prognosis
AEDs
SE is still the primary cause of death and should The American Academy of Neurology suggested
be terminated as soon as possible. The most com- that myoclonus after a cardiac arrest tends to
monly used AEDs include midazolam, pento- lead to a poor prognosis [256]. In 1994, Wijdicks
barbital, metamine, propofol, and valproic acid et al. [257] reported a study of 107 patients who
(seeing Chap. 6). were in a coma after CPR; 37% of these patients
In 2012, Mader et al. [243] reported a case developed myoclonic SE, all of whom died. In
with NCSE after CPR. The EEG showed typi- 2005, Hui et al. [235] reported a case study of 18
cal spike-and-wave activity (TSWA). The patient patients with refractory clonic SE after hypoxia.
was administered 10 mg of lorazepam, but the The myoclonic SE duration was 30 min–31 days
seizures were not sensitive to phenytoin, leveti- (average 14 h). Of these patients, 16 died, one was
racetam, and other drugs; ultimately midazolam in a vegetative state, and one experienced severe
was administered. First, the patient received an disability. In 2005, Thomke et al. [238] reported
intravenous infusion of 0.2 mg/kg, and then the a poor prognosis for patients with g­ eneralized
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 113

myoclonus after CPR, as 15 patients died within even drug-induced coma. These treatments for
24 h, nine patients died 4 days after CPR, 21 epilepsy or SE may mask other symptoms of AE,
patients died within the next 5–12 days, and the such as movement disorders or mental disorders,
remaining patients were in a vegetative state. In leading to delayed identification and diagnosis of
2013, Akman et al. [239] reported a study of 21 the disease [261].
patients with GPDs; five patients died, only seven
patients had a better prognosis, and the rest of the
children presented with moderate to severe neu- 4.5.1 Prevalence
rological sequelae. According to the relevant lit-
erature, the mortality of RSE was 16–39%, and With the progress of science and technology over
children with HIE which was the cause have a the last decades, more and more newly valuable
poor prognosis. anti-intracellular antigen antibodies and anti-cell
In 1994, Towne et al. [258] proposed that HIE surface antigen antibodies have been identified.
is an independent risk factor for death in patients AE has become an increasingly studied disease in
with SE. In 2007, Rossetti et al. [259] also pro- neurological clinical research, and data for cases
posed that SE after hypoxia is an independent of clinically diagnosed with AE have gradually
risk factor for death. Generally, patients with accumulated, but clinicians still have a limited
HIE-induced RSE have irreversible brain dam- ability to identify the AE. Most clinical publica-
age, and disability and mortality is extremely tions are case reports or series of case reports of
high. The majority of surviving patients are in a a small number of patients, which increases the
persistent vegetative state. When HIE is the cause uncertainty of the morbidity of RSE in AE; there-
of secondary SE or RSE, clinicians should take fore, statistical data on the incidence of RSE in
measures to improve the patients’ survival rates. AE are not available [264]. Gaspard et al. [20]
retrospectively analyzed 130 adult patients (18–
81 years, 83 females, 47 males) with RSE of an
4.5  efractory Status Epilepticus
R unknown etiology within 48 h of admission from
in Autoimmune Encephalitis 13 academic medical centers from 2008 to 2013,
and 67 (52%) cases remained unexplained at the
Generally, autoimmune encephalitis (AE) end of the study. The most common identified
includes paraneoplastic encephalitis (such as etiologies are non-­ paraneoplastic autoimmune
anti-Hu antibody-mediated encephalitis, anti- (19%, n = 25) and paraneoplastic (18%, n = 23)
Ma2/Ta antibody-mediated encephalitis, and
­ etiologies. AE (non-paraneoplastic or paraneo-
anti-CV2/CRMP5 antibody-mediated encephali- plastic) is the most common cause of new-onset
tis), anti-cell surface antigen antibody-mediated RSE. Baysal-­Kirac et al. [265, 266] retrospec-
encephalitis or anti-synaptic antibody-mediated tively analyzed the clinical manifestations and
encephalitis (a narrower definition of AE), and laboratory features of seven patients diagnosed
encephalitis associated with other systemic auto- with AE (22–76 years, four females, three males)
immune diseases (such as systemic lupus erythe- whose autoantibodies included anti-Hu (n = 1),
matosus (SLE)-associated encephalopathy and anti-­GAD (n = 2), anti-NMDA receptor (n = 3),
Hashimoto’s encephalitis) [260]. Based on the and anti-amphiphysin antibodies (n = 1). Four
lesion involved, AE is usually divided into lim- patients (57%) manifested RSE during the course
bic encephalitis and diffuse encephalitis, with or of disease. Among these patients, two patients
without a potential tumor. According to recent developed NCSE that could not be controlled by
clinical studies, a large proportion of patients AEDs. After immunotherapy (methylpredniso-
with AE may have epilepsy and SE [261–263]. lone and IVIg), the EEG discharges and clinical
Generalized seizures or SE may be the initial manifestations improved significantly. In addi-
symptom of the disease, often requiring urgent tion, one patient manifested as NCSE and one
medical intervention, such as deep sedation or manifested as focal motor SE died ­eventually.
114 X. Wang et al.

Cyril et al. [267] reported a study of 39 patients males, one female) whose ages ranged from 3 to
(14 males, 25 females) who were clinically 63 years old (mean age of 22 years). Five patients
diagnosed with AE from December 2009 to (four males, one female) developed SE that ulti-
June 2013 at a NICU in a tertiary care center mately progressed into RSE during the course of
in southern India, whose ages ranged from 2 to the disease. The elapsed time from the manifes-
55 years (mean age of 15.95 years). SE occurred tation of the initial symptoms to SE varied from
in 23 patients (60.5%), including 14/23 (35.9%) several days to several months (24 h, 48 h, 5 days,
patients who were positive for anti-NMDA recep- 2 months, and a few months, respectively).
tor antibodies but negative for other autoimmune
antibodies. 4.5.2.2 Types of RSE
Holzer et al. [268] distributed 12 questionnaires
to 12 experienced European neurological medical
4.5.2 Clinical Features institutions and obtained data for 13 adult patients
who were diagnosed with antibody-­mediated sta-
4.5.2.1 Time to RSE Onset tus epilepticus from seven neurological centers.
Most patients with AE display a subacute onset, In seven patients, SE was insensitive to multiple
whereas a small number manifests an acute or AEDs and anesthetics, and SE was only con-
chronic onset; however, SE can occur at any trolled by the administration of multiple combi-
stage of the disease [267, 268]. The retrospective nations of AEDs to the other six patients. Seven
multicenter study by Holzer et al. [268] analyzed patients presented complex partial seizures, five
13 patients with immune-mediated RSE whose presented generalized seizures, and only one
ages ranged from 17 to 69 years old (average presented simple partial seizures. Sarria-Estrada
age of 32.5 years). The proportion of female et al. [269] retrospectively analyzed five patients
patients was as high as 92% (12/13). Eight of with paraneoplastic AE (49–77 years, four males,
13 patients had anti-NMDA receptor antibody- one female). All of these patients exhibited RSE:
mediated encephalitis. In seven patients, SE was four cases presented NCSE, two cases presented
insensitive to multiple AEDs and anesthetics, simple partial SE, and one case presented gen-
and in the other six patients, SE was controlled eralized tonic-clonic SE (two cases experienced
by multiple combinations of AEDs. The authors two episodes of SE). Baysal-Kirac et al. [265]
prescribed immunotherapy to 11 patients, but not reported a study of seven adult patients with AE:
to two patients who were refractory to AEDs and one patient was positive for anti-Hu antibodies
anesthetics. The duration of AE was 10 days to and one was positive for anti-amphiphysin anti-
12 years (mean time of 2 months). The latency bodies, two were positive for anti-GAD anti-
from the initial symptom to SE ranged from 0 to bodies, and three were positive for anti-NMDA
11 months. In seven (53%) patients, SE occurred receptor antibodies. Four patients progressed
within 1 week, and in the other six (47%) to RSE: the two anti-­ GAD antibody-positive
patients, the elapsed time from the manifestation patients presented NCSE, and two anti-NMDA
of the initial symptoms to the onset of SE varied receptor antibody-­ positive patients presented
between 1 week and 11 months (average time of NCSE and focal motor SE.
3.3 months, median time 1 month). The course
of SE ranged from 2 h to 12 years; three cases
lasted for less than 1 month (2 h, 10 days, and 4.5.3 SE in Different Types of AE
18 days, respectively), one case lasted for as long
as 12 years, and most of the cases (nine cases) 4.5.3.1 Paraneoplastic Autoimmune
lasted for 1–4 months. In an observational study, Encephalitis
Petit-­Pedrol et al. [261] examined six patients Based on recent clinical reports [269–273], the
(three children and three adults) with anti-GABA main type of RSE observed in patients with para-
receptor antibody-mediated encephalitis (five neoplastic autoimmune encephalitis is ­ partial
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 115

SE. Jacobs et al. [274] reported a study of one membrane excitability by regulating the resting
53-year-old female patient with anti-Hu-lim- potential and repolarization of the cell membrane
bic encephalitis who was also diagnosed with [276, 277]. VGKC antibody-associated encepha-
a poorly differentiated mediastinal tumor. The litis is a common form of AE. In two large epi-
patient manifested refractory complex partial SE lepsy center cohort studies, VGKC antibodies
during the course of disease, which was ineffec- were detected in 5% of patients [278]. Suleiman
tively treated by the initial lorazepam, carbam- et al. [279] retrospectively studied ten children
azepine, and topiramate therapy, and high doses with encephalitis who showed SE and refractory
of phenytoin, phenobarbital, and propofol were epilepsy between 2003 and 2009 in a department
still unable to terminate the seizures. Moreover, of Pediatrics, and they examined a variety of
the seizures were not sensitive to immunotherapy autoimmune antibodies using serological testing.
or tumor resection. Sarria-Estrada et al. [269] The patient’s serum was negative for the anti-­
reported a case study of five patients with SE LGI-­1, anti- CASPR2, anti-NMDAR, anti-GAD,
caused by paraneoplastic encephalitis; the aver- and anti-GlyR antibodies. Four patients (40%)
age age of onset was 60 years, male to female were positive for VGKC-Ab (1–14 years, one
ratio was 4:1. Two patients presented with sim- male, three females). All patients were healthy
ple partial SE, two patients manifested com- before disease onset, but experienced CSE over
plex partial SE, and one patient presented with the course of the disease. The duration of SE was
GTCS. The duration of SE ranged from 24 h to 30–60 min (n = 1), 60 min to 24 h (n = 1), and
8 weeks. One patient was diagnosed with anti- more than 24 h (n = 2). The four patients suffered
Hu antibody-­mediated encephalitis and small cell from clusters of refractory seizures (15 episodes
lung cancer. The first episode of SE was simple per day) persisting for 5–20 days, and all of the
partial seizures. The seizures were controlled by patients were transferred to ICU (2–18 days). In
intravenous immunoglobulin and chemotherapy. the acute phase, the patients were not treated with
However, 4 months later, SE recurred as the immunotherapy, but ultimately, only one patient
tumor size increased and was manifested as com- fully recovered, one patient exhibited a cogni-
plex partial or secondary GTCS. The patient died tive impairment, and the remaining two patients
6 months later of complex partial SE. Therefore, exhibited left TLE, neuropsychological changes,
the authors postulated that the occurrence and and cognitive impairments. Kotsenas et al. [280]
recurrence of SE in patients with paraneoplastic summarized the seizures in 42 patients with
autoimmune encephalitis are related to the per- VGKC-limbic encephalitis. Eight patients (19%)
sistent release of paraneoplastic antibodies by the presented with GTCS, and only one (2.38%)
tumor itself, and the prognosis of SE in paraneo- 46-year-old female who was an alcoholic pro-
plastic encephalitis depends on the prognosis of gressed to SE. Ramanathan et al. [281] reported
the tumor. The recurrence of SE indicates pro- a case study of a 35-year-old female patient
gression of the malignant tumor [269, 274, 275]. with CASPR2 antibody-mediated AE who had
a family history of autoimmune disease. As the
4.5.3.2 A
 nti-Cell Surface Antigen disease progressed, the patient gradually devel-
Antibody-Associated oped myoclonic SE. The EEG showed diffuse
Encephalitis periodic discharges and a rhythmic 2 Hz spike-
wave. The serum CASPR2 autoantibody levels
Encephalitis Associated with Anti-VGKC were 909 pmol/L (normal range 0–100 pmol/L),
Antibodies the LGI-1 antibody was negative, and the GAD
The voltage-gated potassium channel is a trans- antibody levels were also increased (148 U/mL,
membrane protein composed of three proteins: the normal range of 0–5 U/mL). The CSF analy-
contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CASPR2), sis suggested lymphocytosis and intrathecal oli-
leucine-rich glioma inactivated factor-1 (LGI1), goclonal band synthesis. The patient achieved
and contactin-2 complex. VGKC modulates burst suppression in EEG by being sedated
116 X. Wang et al.

with ­thiopental, and continuous sedation with who primarily suffered from persistent NCSE
propofol and midazolam ultimately controlled but was previously physically healthy. She was
SE. While concurrent with the discontinuation admitted to hospital after experiencing progres-
of propofol and midazolam, the authors admin- sive headache with short-term memory loss and
istered a combination of a variety of AEDs, irritability for 3 weeks. After 1 week, the patient
including valproic acid, phenytoin, levetirace- lost consciousness, the EEG showed NCSE, and
tam, ethosuximide, lacosamide, topiramate, and the NCSE was resistant to phenytoin, levetirace-
clomipramine, which failed to control the sei- tam, and valproate and couldn’t be completely
zures. After immunotherapy, the seizures were controlled by benzodiazepine drugs as well.
alleviated. Based on previous studies, myoclonic Subsequently, propofol terminated the periodic
SE suggests a poor prognosis [37, 281], but in NCSE discharges on the EEG, which was fol-
this case, immunotherapy effectively controlled lowed by a sequential pentobarbital treatment to
refractory myoclonic SE. maintain the burst suppression of the EEG, but
each attempt to minimize the depth of pentobar-
Anti-NMDA Antibody-Associated bital anesthesia led to the recurrence of SE. Anti-
Autoimmune Encephalitis NMDA receptor antibodies against NR1 and
Anti-NMDA receptor-mediated encephalitis is NR2B were detected in CSF, and an ultrasound
one of the most common types of AE observed showed a hemorrhagic ovarian cyst. The authors
in women, children, and adolescents [282, 283]. successively prescribed immunoglobulin, ritux-
Dalmau et al. [282] studied the clinical manifesta- imab, cyclophosphamide, and other immunosup-
tion and features of 100 patients with anti-­NMDA pressive agents, but no improvement was noted.
receptor-mediated encephalitis (5-76 years, aver- After using phenobarbital to control the seizures
age age of 23 years) and found that 76% of the for 5 months, the patient underwent ovariectomy,
patients with NMDA receptor-­mediated enceph- and a postoperative biopsy confirmed teratoma.
alitis had epileptic seizures and only 6% had SE Five weeks after the operation, the EEG showed
in the acute phase. Florance NR et al. [283] stud- a faster background rhythm, the epilepsy-like
ied 81 patients (69 females, 12 males) with anti- waveform gradually disappeared, and the nor-
NMDA receptor-mediated encephalitis, including mal sleep-wake cycle appeared. Seven weeks
32 (40%) children (23 months–18 years, 26 after the operation, the patient recovered, and her
females, four males), and only two cases devel- neurophysiological function recovered gradually.
oped SE. Holzer et al. [268] studied 13 patients The patient continued to experience a slightly
with antibody-mediated RSE (17–69 years, 12 depressed mood, hallucinations and anomic diffi-
females, one male) that exhibited the highest culty, and memory loss; however, recurrence did
detection rate of NMDA-Ab. The sera from eight not occur in the follow-up. The refractory NCSE
patients (17–58 years, seven females, one male) in this patient was eventually controlled by effec-
were positive for the NMDA-Ab, and this anti- tively treating the primary disease.
body was also detected in the CSF from seven
of these patients. Multiple AEDs, including Anti-GAD Antibody-Mediated
phenytoin, valproate, midazolam, topiramate, Autoimmune Encephalitis
phenobarbital, propofol, and other drugs, were This kind of AE is as common as anti-LGI1-­
ineffective at treating RSE in the four patients mediated AE, but the onset age is younger [285,
with anti-NMDAR antibody-­mediated encepha- 286]. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) is the
litis; in the other four patients with anti-NMDAR rate-limiting enzyme that catalyzes the decarbox-
antibody-mediated encephalitis, RSE was even- ylation of glutamic acid to generate the inhibi-
tually controlled by a combination of a variety tory transmitter GABA. According to Vianello
of AEDs and immunotherapy, rather than more et al. [287], anti-GAD antibodies can reduce
than two kinds of drugs. Johnson et al. [284] GABA synthesis and/or interfere with extracel-
reported a case study of a 35-year-old female lular GABA secretion, which affects GABAergic
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 117

synaptic transmission, thereby increasing cellular the seizures. After an intravenous injection of
excitability and reducing the seizure threshold. methylprednisolone, the GAD antibody titers
Kanter IC et al. [288] reported a case study of remained high, and the seizure frequency was
a 21-year-old male patient who was diagnosed not reduced [286, 290]. Only plasma exchange or
with anti-GAD antibody-mediated AE. He was cyclophosphamide treatments decreased the anti-
admitted to hospital for a sudden emergence of body titers and seizure frequency and improved
complex partial SE that progressed into RSE in the clinical symptoms, but the efficacy was not
December 2005, and complex partial seizures maintained [288, 291–294]. Therefore, long-term
and generalized seizures alternated. Neither a immunosuppressive therapy may be required in
combination of a variety of high-dose AEDs these patients.
(propofol, lorazepam, topiramate, phenytoin,
valproate, and lamotrigine) nor GABA drugs Anti-GABA Receptor Encephalitis
achieved the desired effect of seizure-free. The Boronat et al. [295] reported a case study of
first-line immunomodulatory treatments (gluco- 70 patients with autoimmune-mediated limbic
corticoid, immunoglobulins, plasma exchange) encephalitis. Ten patients (14.3%) were positive
exhibited no or only short-term effects. In June for an anti-GABA-B receptor antibody, the male
2006, the patient was prescribed the experimental to female ratio was 9:1, and the average age was
treatment cyclophosphamide that subsequently 60 years. The incidence of epilepsy was 80%.
achieved a significant effect; the patient’s con- GABA receptors inhibit synaptic transmission in
dition gradually improved, and long-term sei- the central nervous system (CNS). Anti-GABAR
zure control was achieved. The development of antibodies do not reduce the number of synaptic
repeated episodes of refractory epilepsy may be GABARs, but alter their synaptic function, which
associated with intrathecal GAD synthesis, and leads to seizures [261, 295–298]. Petit-Pedrol
cyclophosphamide is an alternative treatment reg- et al. [261] studied six patients with GABAB-­
imen for these patients. Gogi Kumar et al. [289] mediated encephalitis (3–63 years, five males,
reported a case study of a 30-year-old female one female) and showed that abnormally high
patient whose initial symptom was headache T2 or FLAIR signals were observed in images
that developed into general tonic-clonic seizures of extensive cortical and subcortical regions.
within several days. The seizures were not con- Over the course of the disease, all six patients
trolled by a variety of oral and intravenous first- progressed to drug-RSE or partial SE. The
or second-line AEDs, and the patient eventually elapsed time from the manifestation of the ini-
developed into drug-RSE. The types of SE were tial symptoms to SE ranged from 24 h to several
complex partial seizures and generalized sei- months. In one patient, SE was terminated by
zures. Phenytoin, phenobarbital, levetiracetam, levetiracetam, ultimately resulting in recovery.
lacosamide, and continuous infusions of propo- The other five patients were treated with three or
fol and other treatments could not terminate the more AEDs (four patients required barbiturate
seizures, and immune regulators (glucocorticoids ­anesthetics for a drug-induced coma) and immu-
and immunoglobulin) were also ineffective. After notherapy. Three of five patients achieved SE
palliative resection of the epileptic foci, plasma termination and partial or complete recovery, and
exchange, and the administration of second-line two of five patients died of sepsis during the RSE
immunotherapy (cyclophosphamide), the plasma attack, which occurred within 48 h of the onset
antibody titer began to decrease, and SE was of disease and persisted until death. The duration
eventually controlled. However, during follow- of SE was 4 weeks and 8 weeks, respectively.
up, the patient still experienced repeated seizures, Guan et al. [298] reported a study of 18 ethnic
including NCSE. Thus, AE is an underlying cause Han patients with GABAB-limbic encephalitis in
of RSE. The prognosis of patients with anti- China. Seventeen patients (94.4%) had new-­onset
GAD-­AE is poor, and AEDs and immune regula- seizures, and 16 patients (88.9%) presented sei-
tion cannot achieve the ideal effect of eliminating zures as the initial symptoms. In all patients, the
118 X. Wang et al.

initial AEDs could not control epilepsy, and four the initial manifestation of HE: one patient was
patients (22.2%) developed RSE that were resis- a 51-year-old female with Hashimoto’s thyroid-
tant to multiple AEDs. The authors hypothesized itis who was admitted for a persistent eye gaze
that high titers of anti-GABAR antibodies in the and fluctuating unconsciousness, and the other
serum and CSF are associated with seizure sever- was a male patient who presented with recurrent
ity or RSE in patients with this type of encepha- absence seizures and sustained eye movement.
litis. Hinsworth et al. [23] also reported a study EEGs for both patients showed long-term bilat-
of a previously healthy 23-year-old patient with eral frontal spike slow wave and multi-spike slow
GABA (B)-mediated limbic encephalitis who wave, which were consistent with the diagnosis of
exhibited refractory bilateral TLE; the seizure NCSE. Early clinical manifestations of HE vary
was ineffectively controlled by a variety of AEDs and lack specificity; the occurrence of the disease
and anesthetics and subsequently developed into is not associated with thyroid function, as normal
new-onset super-RSE. SE was not controlled by thyroid function, hyperthyroidism, or hypothy-
multiple AEDs (levetiracetam, phenytoin, sodium roidism have been observed [302]. Therefore, the
valproate, topiramate, and lacosamide) and anes- misdiagnosis and misdiagnosis rates may be high
thetics (midazolam, propofol, and pentobarbital). in patients with SE whose basic etiology is HE.
Multiple types of immunotherapy (methylpred-
nisolone, intravenous immunoglobulin, plasma Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Caused by
exchange, and rituximab) were administered Encephalopathy
as the principle treatment for AE, and SE was In connective tissue disease, 25–27% of patients
gradually controlled. Six weeks after the onset with SLE suffer CNS injuries, the incidence of
of the disease, the patient was finally diagnosed epilepsy in SLE is as high as 7–40%, and epilepsy
with GABA (B)-associated limbic encephalitis and SE usually occurs during the disease course
by testing the autoantibody levels. [303–305]. Appenzeller et al. [306] followed 159
patients with SLE for 4–7.8 years and found that
4.5.3.3 O
 ther Systemic Autoimmune seizures are relatively common, but SE is rare in
Diseases Associated these patients with SLE. Sixty patients (11.6%)
with Encephalitis suffered from seizures, but only two patients
(1.26%) developed SE and eventually died due
Steroid-Responsive Encephalopathy to SE. Park et al. [304] reported a case study of
Associated with Autoimmune Thyroiditis a 17-year-old woman with a first episode of SE
Steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated whose laboratory tests showed anemia and was
with autoimmune thyroiditis (SREAT) refers to positive for lupus anticoagulant. The other labo-
Hashimoto’s encephalopathy (HE). HE is defined ratory tests, including antinuclear, anti-ds-DNA,
as a recurring or progressive encephalopathy and anticardiolipin antibodies, CSF, and blood
associated with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and is biochemical examinations, did not show any sig-
characterized by positivity for thyroid autoanti- nificant findings and did not find any evidences
bodies in serum and/or CSF and a good response of viral, bacterial, or fungal infection. The EEG
to glucocorticoids. The clinical manifestations are revealed general spike slow waves or multiple
not specific, and a variety of symptoms involving spike-waves. A variety of traditional AEDs did
the CNS may be present. The most common fea- not control the SE, and RSE was only terminated
tures are epileptic seizures and cognitive changes by a sulfur infusion. The delayed diagnosis and
[299]. The incidence of epilepsy in these diseases treatment of this patient was due to the initial
is as high as 66%, but fewer clinical reports of SE negative outcome of the antinuclear antibody
in HE have been published [299, 300]. Seizures test and the initial presentation of symptoms
in HE perform as progressive myoclonic epilepsy of SE. Although SE rarely appears in patients
or new-onset SE in childhood. Monti et al. [301] with SLE, particularly as the initial symptom,
reported a study of two patients with NCSE as the clinicians should still pay attention to its
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 119

i­dentification, and m ­ ultiple repeated laboratory and CSF-related autoimmune antibody tests to
tests can improve the detection rate of the disease. confirm the diagnosis. MRI can show specific
Neuropsychiatric SLE occurred in the signifi- abnormalities in the unilateral or bilateral lim-
cant activity of SLE. According to several publi- bic system signals, such as a hypointense signal
cations, patients with SLE developed CSE over on T1 W1 images and hyperintense signals on
the course of the disease, which is common in T2WI and FLAIR images. Enhanced scans often
SLE, whereas complex partial SE is rare and is did not enhance the abnormalities. In the acute
frequently misdiagnosed or undiagnosed [307– phase, the volumes of the amygdala and/or hip-
309]. Fernandez-Torre et al. [305] reported a pocampus increase in most patients and return to
case study of a 23-year-old woman with a 6-year normal or decrease further during the recovery
history of SLE who was treated with glucocor- period [310]. Structures in addition to the limbic
ticoids. Seizures occurred during the course of system may be involved in some patients, and
the disease and were controlled by AEDs, and the MRI may also be normal in some patients,
the EEG gradually normalized. After several particularly in the early stages of the disease
months of gradual discontinuation of the drugs, [279, 311, 312]. CSF analyses show typical
the patient gradually developed abnormal behav- inflammatory changes, normal or slightly ele-
iors and became unconscious. The EEG indicated vated cerebral pressure, and slightly increased or
focal epileptic discharges in the right parietal normal cell numbers and protein levels, and the
area and temporo-occipital region that rapidly corresponding antibodies may also be detected.
spread to contralateral side many times; each epi- Oligoclonal bands or intrathecal IgG synthe-
leptic discharge lasted for 2–3 min. The clinical sis may also be detected [282, 313]. The CSF
manifestations were a rigid left turn of head and protein levels increase in patients with HE, but
fine myoclonus of the left leg, which could not be the white blood cell count is normal, showing a
recalled by the patient. Thus, a diagnosis of com- protein-cell separation phenomenon. In approxi-
plex partial SE was considered. After the admin- mately 100% of HE patients, the serum TPO-Ab
istration of the lamotrigine, the seizures did not (thyroid peroxidase antibody) or TG-Ab (thy-
recur, and positive signs were not observed in the roglobulin antibody) levels increase. However,
neurological examination. In the 2-year follow- the titers are not significantly correlated to
­up, the patient achieved seizure-free status. The thyroid function or the clinical manifestations,
authors postulate that complex partial SE may be and glucocorticoids cannot reduce the antibody
the reasons why patients with SLE present with a titer. The sera from patients with SLE-induced
sudden, acute coma and changes in the conscious encephalopathy may be positive for antinuclear
state. Therefore, clinicians should pay special antibodies, anti-­dsDNA antibodies, and anti-SM
attention to the early EEG. antibodies.
If the patients have been diagnosed with AE,
a thorough inspection is required to determine
4.5.4 Diagnosis of RSE in AE whether a tumor is present.

4.5.4.1 Diagnosis of AE 4.5.4.2 Diagnosis of RSE

AE typically lacks specific biomarkers and SE is defined as a seizure duration that exceeds
symptoms, making a clinical diagnosis difficult. the duration of the majority of episodes of the
For patients with the clinical manifestations of same type of seizure, with no sign of cessation
acute or subacute onset of new-onset seizures or recurrent episodes, during which the state of
or SE accompanied by significant mental and consciousness does not return to baseline [61].
behavioral abnormalities, such as short-term Currently, an accepted definition for RSE gener-
memory impairment, clinicians must consider ally refers to the failure of adequate first-line and
that SE may be caused by AE and must per- second-line AED therapies [314]. Patients with
form the video EEG, cerebral MRI, and blood AE require long-term video EEG monitoring for
120 X. Wang et al.

a precise diagnosis of SE and to determine the t­reatment is based on studies of small samples
presence of nonconvulsive SE. and case reports.
As reported in the study by Holzer et al. [268]
of the curative effects of treatments for antibody-­
4.5.5 Treatments for RSE in AE mediated SE on 13 patients, an “optimum first-­
line AED” does not exist, and the combination of
RSE is one of the common and urgent symptoms different types of AEDs does not show an advan-
of AE in neurology departments and is a poten- tage in controlling epilepsy. Specifically, the use
tially fatal disease with extremely high mortality of sodium valproate, phenytoin, and levetirace-
and disability. It is different from the other neu- tam alone or in combination failed to control
rological emergencies, such as cerebrovascular AE-mediated SE, although the doses and blood
diseases. The treatment of SE is more similar to concentrations of the drugs reached the recom-
the treatments for cardiac arrest or shock. For the mended therapeutic dose. As shown in a previous
treatment of SE, treatments of the initial symp- report, no AEDs were effective in seven patients
toms usually precede the etiological treatment (54%), and lorazepam and prednisone were
[315]. Clinicians should administer basic life effective in one patient. Furthermore, the symp-
support with first-line AEDs to terminate the epi- toms of three patients improved after receiving
sodes of SE and then treat the etiology. Certain a combination of four types of AEDs, and one
specific etiologies and long-term seizures are patient’s symptoms improved after the adminis-
significant risk factors for increased mortality in tration of a combination of five types of AEDs.
patients with SE [316]. Therefore, a timely diag- Kirkpatrick et al. [318] reported a case study of
nosis and treatment of the potential causes of SE a patient with NMDA-LE and NCSE who was
have the same critical clinical benefit as the early in a coma. RSE was not controlled by a variety
termination of seizures. Thus, the treatment of of AEDs and immunotherapy. However, after the
RSE caused by AE is divided into two phases: addition of felbamate, the rhythmic delta activ-
termination of seizures and the treatment of the ity wave in the EEG stopped and the patient
primary disease and prevention of complications. awoke from coma. Felbamate is an antagonist of
the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor [319,
4.5.5.1 Termination of SE 320], but its mechanism as a specific treatment
Shorvon et al. [317] proposed the concept of for SE in NMDA-LE requires further study. In
phased treatment for RSE (details are provided addition, in patients with SLE, phenytoin should
in Chaps. 6, 7, and 8). Anesthetics are still the be avoided to control seizures for phenytoin can
preferred treatment for this disease. Before cause drug-induced lupus [321].
applying anesthetics, good mechanical ventila-
tion and the establishment of rapid intravenous 4.5.5.2 Etiological Treatment
infusion channels to cope with adverse reactions Etiological treatment is essential to control SE
of anesthetics, such as changes in breathing and and RSE in patients with AE. Different treat-
circulation, are needed. Anesthetics should be ment methods should be chosen based on the pri-
maintained until the EEG shows burst suppres- mary disease. First, a thorough inspection of the
sion; the time of withdrawal of anesthetics is sug- tumor should be performed to determine whether
gested to occur after the patient is seizure-free for the patient has paraneoplastic encephalitis. If a
at least 24–48 h. If the patient is still in a vegeta- tumor is present, tumor resection is necessary
tive state, a variety of comprehensive treatment because it is the most effective treatment for AE
methods should be used, such as physical therapy caused by paraneoplastic autoantibodies [322].
(hypothermia and electroconvulsive therapy), Additionally, clinicians must determine the exis-
the ketogenic diet, and surgery. Currently, a ran- tence of other systemic autoimmune diseases,
domized or controlled study of RSE treatments such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and SLE, while
has not been published; thus, the recommended actively treating the primary disease [301, 304].
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 121

When prescribing immunotherapy, such as pulsed 4.6  efractory Status Epilepticus

R
methylprednisolone therapy, plasma exchange, or in Central Nervous System
immunosuppressive agents, the side effects need Infections
to be assessed during treatment; in particular,
patients treated with drugs with a risk of induc- According to the results of one epidemiological
ing seizures should be carefully monitored [323]. survey, most types of RSE are symptomatic SE,
Immunotherapy can be administered according and CNS infections are one of the most common
to the protocol described by Ramanathan et al. causes of RSE [333]. CNS infections are also a
[324]: intravenous injection of methylpred- common cause of death in patients with RSE, the
nisolone for 3–5 days (30 mg/kg/day up to 1 g/ same as malignant intracranial tumors and large-­
day), followed by high-dose oral prednisolone area stroke [3, 334]. Increasing our understanding
(1–2 mg/kg/day). Additionally, clinicians should of the principles that govern the occurrence and
monitor the occurrence of glucocorticoid-induced development of RSE will allow clinicians to be
epilepsy and SE. In some cases, 2–5 intravenous better at diagnosing and treating this type of SE.
injections of 2 g/kg immunoglobulin are also
needed. If the symptoms do not improve within
1–2 weeks, 3–5 sessions of plasma exchanges 4.6.1 RSE in Bacterial Meningitis
should be considered, or patients should start
second-line treatments, such as immunosuppres- Bacterial meningitis is a serious type of CNS
sive agents (cyclophosphamide and rituximab) disease that is caused by a bacterial infection.
[325]. Researchers have not clearly determined Common pathogens implicated in these events
whether rituximab or cyclophosphamide is more include Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria
effective [326]. Second-­line immunotherapy is meningitidis. Severe bacterial meningitis is often
usually effective when first-line immunotherapy associated with high mortality and morbid-
fails [288, 289, 327]. ity in patients who develop RSE, and the treat-
ment options available to and prognoses in these
4.5.5.3 Surgical Treatment patients are poor.
When second-line immunotherapy fails, surgery
is often considered, such as unilateral temporal 4.6.1.1 Prevalence
lobe resection or selective resection of the amyg- Bacterial meningitis and SE are commonly
dala and/or hippocampus. Weimer et al. [328] observed in the same patients in the clinic. The
reported a case study of a 45-year-old female bulk of case studies have reported that the inci-
patient with limbic encephalitis and RSE who dence of SE is 4.1–53% in patients with bacterial
presented with abnormal T2 and FLAIR signals meningitis, a rate that is significantly higher than
in images of the right temporal lobe, bilateral the incidence of SE in the general population. In
frontal lobe, and pons. Continuous EEG moni- a case study of a 3-month-old infant with pneu-
toring showed continuous epileptic discharges in mococcal meningitis and potential congenital
the right temporal lobe. RSE was effectively con- immune deficiency, the authors reported that SE
trolled after temporal lobe resection. Although continued to occur after the patient was treated
abnormal T2 and FLAIR signals have been with standard antibiotic and anticonvulsive ther-
observed in images of the temporal lobe from apy, and the patient subsequently developed RSE
patients with limbic encephalitis, some authors [335]. Another case study described 220 patients
postulate that these signals may not be related aged 1 month to 12 years old who had bacterial
to seizure frequency. Although few reports have meningitis. Of these patients, 34 developed RSE
described the improvements of SE following [336]. In another study, 31 cases (26.5%) of epi-
resection of non-epileptic lesions [329–332], leptic seizures and ten cases (32.2%) of SE were
more researches are needed to confirm these observed in a population of 117 adult patients
findings. with bacterial meningitis [337]. Finally, in one
122 X. Wang et al.

study of 696 adult patients with meningitis, 121 atic epilepsy, and the latter is called delayed
patients developed epileptic seizures, and 4.1% epilepsy. Children with bacterial meningi-
(5/121) developed SE [338]. Hence, SE has been tis primarily develop seizures within 48 h of
reported to occur in 4.1–32.2% of patients with admission [344]. In one study performed in
bacterial meningitis, and some of these patients the Netherlands, seizures occurred within 48 h
will develop RSE. of admission in approximately 75% of 696
patients with bacterial meningitis. Patients with
4.6.1.2 Factors Related to Epilepsy or SE bacterial meningitis who developed seizures in
In patients with bacterial meningitis, SE is asso- the acute phase experienced severe seizures that
ciated with the age of the child and the duration readily progressed to SE, and statistical analy-
of the seizures [339]. Seizures are associated ses have shown that there is a significant asso-
with pathogenic infections in patients with bacte- ciation between delayed epilepsy and epileptic
rial meningitis, but no prospective studies have seizures during the acute phase. In a study that
explored this issue. As shown in one study of included 218 children with SE [345], the ini-
pathogenic infections, partial and partial sec- tial seizure was SE in 71% of the episodes and
ondary generalized epilepsy were most common was associated with an acute etiology (28% of
in patients who were infected with Escherichia these patients had bacterial meningitis). A study
coli or salmonella [340]. An evaluation of 750 of 116 patients with bacterial meningitis [340]
patients with seizures that resulted from bacte- and seizures, including 17 with SE, showed that
rial meningitis [341] showed that the most com- the seizures occurred during the acute phase
monly implicated pathogens were Mycoplasma of infection. Sixty-one of the patients did not
pneumoniae (84% of positive CSF isolates) and develop seizures during the acute phase, and
Neisseria meningitidis (4%). these patients did not develop delayed epi-
lepsy. Fifty-five of the patients developed sei-
4.6.1.3 Clinical Manifestations zures during the acute phase, and 11 of these
patients developed delayed epilepsy. Fourteen
Seizure Types of the 34 patients who developed seizures in the
The seizures reported in the literature are primar- acute phase and were followed for an additional
ily partial seizures, partial secondary general- 18 months also developed delayed RSE [342].
ized seizures, and generalized seizures. In one Therefore, SE that occurs during the acute phase
case study, 34 patients with bacterial meningitis is a risk factor for delayed RSE.
presented with seizures in the acute phase [342],
and ten of these patients developed SE. Most 4.6.1.4 Auxiliary Examination
of the observed seizures were secondary tonic-
clonic seizures. In a separate study performed in CSF
Spain that included 38 patients [343], eight of the CSF tests are helpful for identifying causal
patients had generalized seizures, 23 had partial pathogens and provide an important reference for
seizures, and two had partial secondary general- clinical diagnosis and treatment. CSF examina-
ized seizures. Finally, one study of 107 patients tions are the most basic auxiliary examinations in
with both bacterial meningitis and seizures suspected cases of bacterial meningitis. In chil-
revealed that 20% had partial seizures, 21% had dren with a severe bacterial infection, SE may be
partial secondary generalized seizures, and 59% associated with abnormal glucose levels and high
had generalized seizures [338]. serum aspartate transaminase or C-reactive pro-
tein levels [339].
Time of Epilepsy or SE Onset
Seizures can occur during both the acute phase EEG
and the recovery phase in bacterial menin- When bacterial meningitis occurs with SE,
gitis. The former is called acute symptom- patients often present with an abnormal EEG.
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 123

Persistent EEG abnormalities suggest c­ erebral 4.6.1.6 Prognosis

complications or brain damage. Although
­ Bacterial meningitis with RSE is commonly
EEGs are not specific for bacterial meningitis, observed in a clinical setting, and affected patients
they are helpful for diagnosing patients with SE are often in serious condition. Limited treatment
and can help clinicians to monitor a patient’s options are available for these patients, who have
condition and guide decisions regarding ther- a poor prognosis. For example, one study reported
apy. In one study, EEGs were performed on an infant with bacterial meningitis and SE who
patients with bacterial meningitis [338], and died 1 month after discharge [339]. In another
37 episodes (31%) were recorded, including study [336], 88 patients were admitted to ICU
five SE and six epileptic discharges. Ten of the and had an average duration of hospitalization of
patients (27%) had mild background abnormal- 6.9 days. Thirty-four of these patients (53%) had
ities, 24 (65%) had moderate or severe abnor- RSE, and 31 of those cases occurred within 48 h
malities, and 14 (38%) had focal or multifocal after admission. Four patients who were treated
abnormalities. In another study, 36 children with diazepam for more than 4 days died after
with pneumococcal meningitis underwent an 2 weeks of hospitalization, and the mortality rate
EEG examination to determine the prognostic was significantly higher in patients who had com-
value of an initial EEG recording in SE [346], binations of symptoms that included intracranial
and the results showed that six of the children hypertension, shock, and respiratory failure. Of
had a normal or lower than normal initial EEG, the ten patients with SE who were followed, nine
and five of these children achieved good prog- of the survivors developed RSE [342]. Although
ress. Thus, EEGs may have clinical value for the specific number of children with bacterial
determining a prognosis in patients with pneu- meningitis is unknown, in-hospital mortality and
mococcal meningitis. long-term morbidity are higher in patients with
RSE [348]. Therefore, an early diagnosis and
Neuroimaging early treatment are essential to reduce mortality
Patients with bacterial meningitis and SE often and morbidity in RSE in patients with bacterial
have abnormal neuroimaging findings on pre- meningitis.
sentation. Performing neuroimaging at an early
stage assists with diagnosis and treatment and
reduces mortality and morbidity. A prospective 4.6.2 RSE in Tuberculous Meningitis
study of brain CT scan results in 48 children
with purulent meningitis [347] found that 56% Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) is a type of
(27/48) of the patients presented abnormalities meningitis that is caused by infection with
and that hydrocephalus and subdural effusion Mycobacterium tuberculosis and a common
were the most commonly observed CT abnor- cause of chronic meningitis. TBM is often asso-
malities. Moreover, the incidence of neurologi- ciated with SE and has a significant impact on a
cal sequelae (e.g., epilepsy or SE) in children patient’s prognosis.
with bacterial meningitis was associated with
abnormalities on head CT imaging. Children 4.6.2.1 Historical Evolution
with SE and abnormal neurological examina- One case study published in 1953 described a
tion findings are more likely to have an abnor- patient with TBM and TLE, and another case
mal MRI. study described some treatment of epilepsy [349,
350]. Another study published in 1958 used elec-
4.6.1.5 Treatment tricity and clinical radiology techniques to evalu-
The principal treatment for patients with bacte- ate the changes in epilepsy that were caused by
rial meningitis and SE is antiepileptic treatment, TBM [351]. In a clinical study published in 1989
which should be based on the effective anti-­ [352], the authors described 39 cases of nervous
infective therapy (seeing Chaps. 6 and 7). system tuberculosis that occurred in Riyadh,
124 X. Wang et al.

Saudi Arabia. Eleven of the patients (28%) had aggravate a patient’s condition, and electrolyte
TBM, and some of these patients had late-stage levels should therefore be promptly checked.
CSE and a poor prognosis. Patients with TBM In one study of 136 children under 12 years old
are at risk of developing SE as a complication who were diagnosed with TBM [359], the inves-
and of then progressing to RSE. In a 2002 study, tigation found that neurological complications
a continuous infusion of midazolam was used to (e.g., epilepsy or SE) were attributed to cerebral
treat refractory generalized CSE in a patient with edema (57%), inappropriate antidiuretic hor-
TBM. This drug regimen became the precedent mone secretion syndrome (35%), hydrocephalus
for treating patients with TBM and RSE [353]. (32%), tuberculosis (27%), abnormal electrical
RSE is a life-threatening disease with a high focus (25%), and cerebral infarction (13%). In
rate of morbidity and mortality. In 2015, acute another case study of 20 patients with TBM in
nerve injury (such as that observed in TBM and the United States [360], six patients (30%) had
encephalitis) was shown to be a common risk fac- seizures, and ten had hyponatremia. Six of the
tor for RSE in children [354]. patients experienced repeatedly aggravated
seizures during the late phase that potentially
4.6.2.2 Prevalence resulted from SE. Disturbances in consciousness
In TBM, complications with SE are more com- are a risk factor that may be associated with the
mon. One report described 76 cases of partial development of SE in patients with acute-phase
SE [355] in which two cases were caused by TBM [361].
TBM. In another study, 20 cases of partial SE
were analyzed [356], including four patients with 4.6.2.4 Types of SE
TBM. A separate study examined 147 patients The main clinical manifestations in patients with
with CNS infections in South Korea [342], TBM and SE are partial movement SE and sys-
including 63 patients with TBM, and found temic SE. In a case study of 76 patients with par-
that 6.8% (10/147) of the patients developed tial SE [355], the seizure sites included the upper
SE. Few studies in the literature have evaluated and lower limbs (41 patients), head and facial
patients with RSE and TBM. The prognosis of muscles (12 patients), simple upper limbs (20
patients with TBM who develop SE is good, and patients), and simple lower limbs (three patients).
only a small number of these patients develop Forty-eight of the patients (63%) were conscious,
RSE. According to the results of one study, and 28 exhibited varying degrees of disturbance
patients who presented with both TBM and SE of consciousness. Thirty-six of the patients were
and were not successfully treated subsequently diagnosed with TBM, including ten patients with
developed RSE [357]. SE. The main seizure type was secondary tonic-­
clonic seizures [342].
4.6.2.3 F  actors Related to Epilepsy or
SE 4.6.2.5 Auxiliary Examination
In patients with SE and TBM, the main symptoms
are hydrocephalus, cerebral infarction, tuber- CSF
culoma, and hyponatremia, and hydrocephalus In these patients, most CSF test results are
is the most commonly observed complication. abnormal, and CSF protein levels are generally
Most complications occur during the middle and higher, while glucose levels are lower. Tests of
late phases of the disease course. Hydrocephalus the cells in the CSF have revealed that there are
is more commonly observed in patients who are (100–1000) × 106 cells/L and that samples con-
in the late phase of the disease, with an incidence sist mainly of lymphocytes. In a study of 61 adult
rate as high as 65% [358]. Severe hyponatremia patients [362], 16.3% (10/61) of the subjects
(<120 mmol/L) can cause patients to enter a experienced seizures, the number of cells, espe-
deep coma and experience convulsions. If not cially lymphocytes, in the CSF was increased, and
treated in a timely manner, hyponatremia will 77% of the subjects exhibited increased ­protein
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 125

levels and increased serum/CSF glucose levels. 4.6.2.6 Treatment

Acid-fast staining is used to detect pathogens Some of these patients will develop RSE and
in the CSF, and the presence of Mycobacterium require long-term antiepileptic treatment (seeing
tuberculosis in the CSF is the gold standard for Chaps. 6 and 7). Midazolam has been shown to
diagnosing TBM. be effective in 71–97% of patients with RSE. A
case study of one patient with TBM and refrac-
EEG tory generalized CSE showed that there was a
EEG tracings are important for diagnosing TBM marked reduction in generalized tonic-clonic SE
complicated with SE. Abnormalities in EEG activity after an intravenous infusion of 3 μg/(kg·
background activity may reflect the severity of min) midazolam was administered for 12 h, and
TBM lesions. Spike-waves, spikes, and slow this effect began within 45 min. SE was com-
wave release are important for obtaining a dif- pletely controlled after 13 h and left the patient
ferential diagnosis of TBM complicated with with some neurological sequelae [353]. In the
SE. EEG abnormalities may reflect the site of critical state, levetiracetam has been shown to
inflammation. When an infection is located in have good efficacy in patients with RSE. In one
the base of the skull, EEG results may be nor- study of 23 patients with RSE (39% of RSE),
mal or may show only non-specific abnormali- injecting levetiracetam via nasogastric tube was
ties. Lesions involving only one hemisphere are effective in 43% of the patients, and SE or RSE
expressed as moderate to severe diffuse slow was eased within 72 h after the treatment was
waves. Intermittent spikes, spikes, and one- begun [365]. Patients with TBM with SE have
sided periodic epileptiform discharges have been been observed to develop RSE. Hence, in addi-
observed in patients with TBM complicated with tion to AED treatment, the critical etiology must
partial SE [240]. Continuously monitoring EEG also be treated [355].
results in patients during and after hospitalization
may help with documenting disease progression 4.6.2.7 Prognosis
and determining prognoses and outcomes. One In patients with TBM and RSE, the progno-
study examined EEG findings in patients with sis is poor. According to some studies, gender,
TBM [363] and found that although the EEG latency, and the age of seizure onset are inde-
recordings did not show complete diffuse slow- pendent prognostic factors in these patients. In
ing (a common pattern in TBM), they did show a study of 65 patients with TBM [366], 21 of
continuous rhythmic sharp wave activity, which the patients (32.3%) had seizures. The patients
has been associated with SE. were followed for 1 year. The condition in those
with SE was severe, and these patients tended
Neuroimaging to develop delayed epilepsy. In a case study of
In patients with TBM complicated by SE, brain 63 patients with TBM in South Korea, 23% of
CT and MRI will show hydrocephalus, cere- the patients presented with seizures in the acute
bral infarction, basement membrane thickening, phase, including ten patients who developed
edema, and tuberculoma. In 76 patients with SE. After an 18-month follow-up period, the
TBM and partial SE [355], the main CT finding authors determined that experiencing SE dur-
was brain edema. In a case study of 31 patients ing the acute phase is a risk factor for delayed
with TBM [364], ten patients showed deterio- RSE [342]. These data suggested that damage to
ration after treatment and progressed to SE. A the brain parenchyma that was caused by a CNS
review of head CT findings revealed new and infection is a main cause of SE. Actively control-
(or) progressive signs of hydrocephalus, cerebral ling long-­term, frequent seizures, such as SE, can
infarction, seepage, and tuberculoma. Because reduce the incidence of RSE in patients and is
multiple factors are involved in generating SE, therefore the basic strategy for preventing dis-
neuroimaging abnormalities are not yet viewed ease progression and improving the prognosis in
as an independent risk factor for SE. affected patients.
126 X. Wang et al.

4.6.3  ther Causes of RSE

O with a parasitic infection and convulsive SE, 152
in Patients with a CNS (55%) of the patients showed EEG abnormalities,
Infection and the performance was similar between chil-
dren and adults [370].
4.6.3.1 Parasitic Infection Patients are usually treated with antiepileptic
Parasitic infections of the CNS are associated drugs in the clinic. In a double-blind, placebo-­
with a high incidence of mortality in addition controlled, randomized study of 340 children
to neurological sequelae. Epidemiological evi- with cerebral malaria, a single dose of phenobar-
dence indicates that there is a significant corre- bital (18 mg/kg) markedly reduced the incidence
lation between parasitic infections and SE. The of SE (from 14 to 5%) [371]. Fosphenytoin has
high incidence of epilepsy in Africa has been also been suggested as an effective drug because
associated with a correspondingly high inci- it is administered intramuscularly and has a
dence of parasitic infections of the CNS [367]. In respiratory depression effect than phenobarbi-
a prospective study of 65 patients with cerebral tal. However, SE caused by falciparum malaria
malaria [368], EEG recordings were performed appears to be resistant to diazepam, likely because
at 12-h intervals, and continuous recordings were of a reduction in the binding capacity of GABA
performed using CFAM. Sixty-two percent of the receptors [372]. Deworming, c­ orticosteroid
patients experienced seizures after admission, therapy, or both can reduce the risk of seizures
and nearly half had SE. in patients with neurocysticercosis, leading to a
Common causes of epilepsy or SE in patients reduction in the incidence of SE [373]. However,
with parasitic infections include cerebral cysti- the long-term effects of anti-helminth treatment
cercosis and malaria. Falciparum malaria is the remain to be further explored. Ultimately, the best
most common cause of SE [369], especially in way to control parasitic infections of the CNS is
the context of acute symptomatic seizures in chil- to prevent and eliminate the transmission of the
dren. One patient was described as exhibiting a parasite. A study of the risk factors for convulsive
variety of seizures, including frequent GTCS, SE showed that this condition could be prevented
partial motor seizures, and complex partial sei- in patients with a parasitic infection [370], and
zures, as a result of a parasitic infection. Because effectively preventing and managing an infection
there is a lack of long-term follow-up studies reduces the burden of SE in patients, thereby pre-
describing SE patients with parasitic infections, venting the further deterioration of their condi-
it is not clear whether these patients are likely to tion and reducing the probability of progression
develop RSE after the first seizure. However, in a to RSE. However, further studies are required
study of 65 patients with cerebral malaria [368], to determine whether community interventions
eight patients who had neurological sequelae had aimed at controlling and eliminating parasites
a poor prognosis, and two patients developed will ultimately slow the progression of seizures
partial SE during the clinical course of the infec- and reduce the incidence of SE [374].
tion. Seven children died in this study, including
two patients (29%) who developed SE during the 4.6.3.2 Brain Abscess
clinical course of the disease. Patients with para- A brain abscess refers to suppurative encephali-
sitic infections that were complicated with SE tis, encephalitis, and brain abscess capsule for-
exhibit an exacerbated disease, suggesting that mation, which are caused by purulent bacterial
death may be associated with the progression of infections. Brain abscesses often cause epilepsy,
RSE in patients who exhibit exacerbation. delirium, paralysis, sensory disturbances, and
In SE patients with a parasitic infection, the other symptoms. Seizures may develop when the
diagnosis is often based on patient history, epide- abscess is located in the dominant hemisphere.
miology, and etiology in combination with neu- Patients with a brain abscess who develop SE
rological symptoms and CSF, CT, and other tests. will experience exacerbation and are at increased
In a study of the EEG findings in 278 patients risk of death. A 22-year study that followed 205
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 127

patients with a brain abscess reported that 48 of surgery presented complex partial seizures. His
the patients had seizures during an 18-month neuroimaging findings revealed extensive lesions
follow-up period. The overall mortality rate in in the right temporal lobe. The patient was treated
the patients was as high as 23% (11/48), possi- with standard antimicrobial therapy after combi-
bly because of the presence of SE [375]. Epilepsy nation therapy. The patient had a good prognosis
is a serious neurological complication of a brain at a 1-year follow-­up. Because SE can develop
abscess, and it can readily progress to SE, thus after a few years or even decades after a patient
exacerbating the patient’s condition. Hence, it has recovered from a brain abscess, such patients
is necessary to obtain a better understanding of may still progress to RSE. Affected patients with
the risk factors in patients with a brain abscess SE are in a critical condition and have a high
and SE so that we can predict outcomes and mortality rate, and long-term monitoring is there-
guide treatment. In a study of 108 patients with fore recommended in these patients.
brain abscesses that had an average follow-up of
11 years, the total incidence of epilepsy was 34%
[376]. The investigators compared two groups of 4.7  efractory Status Epilepticus
R
patients who presented with and without epilepsy in Cerebrovascular Disease
after brain abscess therapy, and the difference
in morbidity between these groups was used as Cerebrovascular disease is a common cause of
a parameter to identify potential risk factors for seizures. SE is one of the most serious complica-
SE. According to this study, a patient’s gender tions of cerebrovascular disease [381]. SE may
and age and local changes and the size of the be the first sign of stroke, and patients who expe-
abscess may be risk factors for SE. rience a stroke with SE have a worse prognosis
An early diagnosis and an early treatment and higher mortality than patients who experi-
regimen contribute to the recovery of and prog- ence a stroke without SE. Moreover, RSE can
nosis in patients with a brain abscess and SE. CT lead to a very poor prognosis. Increasing our
is highly sensitive (95–99%) to brain abscesses understanding of RSE in patients with cerebro-
and therefore useful for diagnosing patients with vascular disease is therefore particularly impor-
a brain abscess and SE. One report examined 50 tant [382, 383].
children with SE from August 2001 to July 2002.
Thirty-four (68%) of the children had brain abnor-
malities on CT scans, and four of these patients 4.7.1 Historical Evolution
had a brain abscess [377]. A patient’s prognosis
is mainly determined by the level of conscious- As shown in a study by Lowenstein et al. [384]
ness. Actively using antibiotics to control the that was published in the 1990s, cerebrovascu-
infection and puncturing the abscess are effective lar disease is associated with a first episode of
treatments in these patients, and the early use of RSE. Sung et al. [385] subsequently found that
AEDs can prevent neurological sequelae. One cerebrovascular disease was the primary cause
patient with an intracranial infection (possibly of RSE in patients older than 60 years old. Ulvi
a brain abscess) reportedly exhibited a long left et al. [353] showed that midazolam effectively
seizure after admission, and SE was controlled controlled RSE secondary to cerebrovascular
in this patient using phenytoin and phenobarbi- disease and that its curative effect was superior
tal [378]. In another study, a 78-year-­old patient to that of traditional anesthesia drugs, such as
was initially diagnosed with SE secondary to a pentobarbital. An increasing number of studies
brain abscess [379]. After he underwent surgery have since explored other methods in addition
and received antiepileptic drugs, antibiotics, and to anesthetics that can control RSE. Lacosamide
steroids, the brain abscess subsided. In a sepa- has been shown to exert a significant control-
rate case study [380], a 54-year-old man with a ling effect, without significant adverse reac-
chronic brucellar abscess who had RSE before tions, on RSE in patients with stroke [386–389].
128 X. Wang et al.

Moreover, some researchers have begun to pay oped RSE. A follow-up survey of 16 ­in-hospital
close attention to electric convulsion therapy patients with stroke combined with SE showed
and the ketogenic diet as treatments for RSE that two (12%) of these patients developed
in patients with cerebrovascular diseases [390– RSE. Kalita et al. [396] treated 15 patients who
393], and these additions have substantially experienced SE after stroke. These treatments
enriched the field. were ineffective in seven patients (46%), who
subsequently progressed to RSE. The exist-
ing data show that 12–46% of SE cases that are
4.7.2 Classification caused by cerebrovascular disease will progress
to RSE.
In patients with cerebrovascular disease, RSE
is divided into NORSE and RSE in pre-existing 4.7.3.2 Mortality Rate
epilepsy (PERSE). According to one survey, the mortality rate
in patients with stroke combined with RSE is
4.7.2.1 NORSE 16–23% [397]. Goodwin et al. [389] studied
NORSE refers to instances in which the disease patients who experienced RSE after cerebrovas-
occurs in a patient with cerebrovascular disease cular disease in an ICU and found that the mor-
but no history of epilepsy after cerebrovascular tality rate in these patients was 25%. The results
disease. Yoshimura et al. [394] studied RSE in of these studies indicate that the mortality rate
patients with cerebrovascular diseases and found of RSE after a cerebrovascular disease is clearly
that 60% of RSE cases were NORSE. correlated with the age at onset, as follows: the
greater the age, the more likely the patient is to
4.7.2.2 PERSE develop RSE and the higher the mortality rate
Some cerebrovascular diseases coexist with epi- [48]. In addition, convulsive RSE, which requires
lepsy. If this pre-existing epilepsy is not effec- mechanical ventilation, has a long duration of SE
tively treated, the patients may develop RSE. In and coma, both of which increase mortality in
one study, 38.1% of RSE cases that involved these patients [210].
patients with cerebrovascular diseases belonged
in this class of patients [394]. Epilepsy caused
by cerebrovascular disease was an independent 4.7.4 Relative Factors
predictor of RSE in patients older than 70 years
old [395]. Sudden withdrawal is an important The condition in patients with cerebrovascu-
cause of RSE in patients with SE, and delayed lar disease complicated by RSE is influenced
treatment is an important factor that contributes by many factors. The main influencing factors
to the development of RSE in patients with SE. include the patient’s age and physical state, the
Pre-hospital emergency treatment can prevent type of cerebrovascular disease, and the irregular
this process. use of AEDs [398].

4.7.4.1 Age
4.7.3 Epidemiological The combination of cerebrovascular disease and
Investigations RSE most frequently appears in older individu-
als, especially patients with stroke who are older
4.7.3.1 Prevalence than 60 years old [399]. This finding may be
Cerebrovascular disease is present in 8–12.8% associated with the age-dependent pathological
of all cases of RSE [49, 210]. Of patients with cerebrovascular changes that cause temporal lobe
SE occurs and stroke, 44% progress to RSE [2]. dysfunction, consequently promoting the devel-
Ozdemir et al. [383] investigated 19 patients with opment of RSE in older patients [399, 400]. In
stroke and SE and found that five (29.4%) devel- a study that used the modified Rankin scale to
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 129

investigate neural functional recovery in patients 4.7.5 Clinical Features

with stroke, patients who experienced a worse
recovery were more likely to develop RSE [401]. 4.7.5.1 Seizure Types
Furthermore, Koubeissi et al. [402] determined Patients with pre-existing epilepsy and stroke
that age is an independent factor of mortality in in whom the initial treatment for SE failed may
patients who develop RSE after stroke. develop RSE. The clinical features in these
patients are similar to those in NORSE [405].
4.7.4.2 T  he Type and Location
of Cerebrovascular Disease RSE Without Prominent Motor Symptoms
When a stroke involves a large brain area, a Liberalesso et al. [395] performed continuous
patient is more likely to develop RSE. Patients EEG monitoring and studied the clinical charac-
who experience strokes in the left hemisphere teristics of 15 male patients with RSE. Fourteen
are more likely to be complicated with RSE of these cases (93.3%) presented with complex
than patients who experience strokes in the right partial SE, and 6.7% presented with myoclonic
hemisphere, especially when the stroke involves SE. In the patients with a cerebral hemisphere
the left temporal lobe [383]. Central nervous sys- hemorrhage, RSE usually occurred without per-
tem vasculitis can also lead to the occurrence of manent motor symptoms while the patient was in
RSE. In a survey that tracked 149 patients with a coma state, and only continuous epileptiform
pre-existing vasculitis, 10% of patients devel- discharges were observed during EEG monitor-
oped secondary seizures, and a few patients with ing [406]. Kang et al. [407] used long-term EEG
these seizures developed RSE and had a high video monitoring to observe 24 patients with
mortality rate [306, 403]. According to another disturbances of consciousness that were caused
study with a small sample size, cerebral hemor- by stroke. Eight of these patients were diagnosed
rhage, intraventricular hemorrhage, subarachnoid with RSE without prominent motor symptoms,
hemorrhage, and subdural hemorrhage can each and a disturbance of consciousness was the main
lead to secondary RSE, usually without promi- presentation. Kennel et al. [408] reported a case
nent motor symptoms [389]. Jeon et al. [404] study of a patient with sudden partial side limb
used head MRI to investigate two patients with weakness, a sensory disturbance, and an inability
RSE and observed brain micro bleeding. The to speak clearly at 3 months after stroke. Head
authors hypothesized that the extent of brain MRI and EEG examinations were performed,
micro bleeding may be associated with the occur- and the patient was diagnosed with RSE without
rence of RSE. prominent motor symptoms in a cerebrovascular
disease.
4.7.4.3 Others
When patients with stroke were in poor physi- RSE with Prominent Motor Symptoms
cal condition, RSE was more likely to develop. General convulsive SE and generalized seizures
Ozdemir et al. [383] investigated 151 patients secondary to complex partial SE are classified as
with stroke and found that of the 19 (12%) SE with prominent motor symptoms in the new
patients who were complicated with epilepsy, classification for SE published by the ILAE. In a
neurological functional recovery scores of 4–5 survey by Ozdemir et al. [383], 83% of patients
were observed in six (4%) patients, five (3%) of with stroke and general convulsive SE developed
the patients suffered from RSE, and two (1%) general convulsive RSE and had a poor prognosis
of the patients died. Moreover, in patients with and a mortality rate of 40%. In a study by Sutter
stroke, the longer the duration of SE, the more et al. [210], mortality was three times higher in
likely the patient is to develop RSE [396]. In patients with stroke and comprehensive convul-
patients with stroke and RSE, mortality was sig- sion RSE with prominent motor symptoms than
nificantly higher in those who were in a coma in similar patients without prominent motor
(46%) than in those who were not (35%) [403]. symptoms. Lai et al. [49] studied ten patients with
130 X. Wang et al.

RSE with prominent motor symptoms ­secondary developed RSE after stroke and found that 14.1%
to stroke and found that 52% of these patients of the patients who experienced epilepsy after
exhibited drug resistance and died. stroke subsequently developed RSE.

4.7.5.2 Duration
According to a study published by Lai et al. 4.7.6 Diagnosis
[49], the average duration of RSE after stroke
is 7 days. Koubeissi et al. [386] reported a case First, a clinician should ensure that a cerebro-
study of two patients with cerebral hemisphere vascular disease is present. RSE with and with-
hemorrhaging and RSE in whom nonconvulsive out prominent motor symptoms have both been
SE was the main presentation. The duration of SE detected in patients with cerebrovascular disease,
in these patients was between 30 and 50 h when and the type without prominent motor symptoms
drugs were administered in a timely manner. A is more common, especially in older patients
study by Synowiec et al. [409] showed that the with stroke [393]. RSE can appear during the
average duration of RSE is 101 h, which is lon- acute phase of cerebrovascular disease or after
ger than the duration reported by Drislane et al. repeated episodes of cardiovascular disease-­
[410]. More patients with a history of epilepsy induced epilepsy.
were included in the latter study, and the duration Notably, in stroke patients, it is easier to
of RSE in patients who did not respond to the obtain a diagnosis of RSE with prominent motor
initial treatment was shorter than the duration in symptoms. RSE without prominent motor symp-
patients with NORSE. Lai et al. [49] studied 78 toms is superposed with the symptoms of stroke,
patients with RSE. In all, 12.8% of these cases making its diagnosis difficult. Limb movement,
were caused by stroke, and the average duration sensory abnormalities, and abnormal behaviors,
of controlled RSE after treatment was 17 days. such as mental disorder, confusion, and illusions,
Based on data from these previous studies, the are likely to be clinically symptomatic of cere-
duration of RSE in patients with cerebrovascular brovascular disease but may also be symptoms
disease is at least 30 h. of RSE without prominent motor symptoms.
Because they lack specificity, these diseases are
4.7.5.3 Onset Time difficult to distinguish. Currently, it is essential to
The onset of SE can occur during the acute use continuous EEG monitoring and MRI exami-
period of a cerebrovascular disease. In the acute nations to ensure that neurological symptoms are
stage, SE may be used as an onset marker for caused by SE.
cerebrovascular disease. It can also appear within
a few hours to several days after the develop-
ment of cerebrovascular disease [411]. In a 4.7.7 Treatments
study reported by Ozdemir et al. [383], 84% of
SE episodes appeared within 48 h after stroke. Emergency treatment should initially be aimed
According to a study by Tasker et al. [412], most at maintaining an unobstructed airway. Then,
such attacks are concentrated within the 3–5 days it is important to monitor oxygen partial pres-
after stroke. SE also occurs during the chronic sure, establish a venous channel, monitor
period of cerebrovascular disease. Long-term blood pressure and electrocardiogram results,
repeated epilepsy secondary to cerebrovascular determine blood glucose levels, and analyze
diseases can develop into SE in response to a complete blood counts and electrolyte levels.
variety of factors, including irregular treatment Anesthetics are a generally accepted treatment
with AEDs, and can evolve into RSE. In a study for RSE in patients with stroke. Anesthetic drugs
by Sutter et al. [387] that evaluated 111 patients have been shown to control 90% of episodes in
with RSE, 10% of the patients belonged to this patients with SE. If a patient is resistant to mid-
class. Lai et al. [49] studied ten patients who azolam, other treatments, such as the ­second-line
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 131

a­nesthetic drugs pentobarbital and propofol, method have been reported to successfully
should be ­considered [412]. Additional details ­control RSE [418].
are ­provided in this book. Although there are currently no unified guid-
Recent studies have shown that lacosamide, a ance standards for diagnosing and treating RSE,
new type of AED, may be effective in patients combinations including AEDs, anesthetic drugs,
with RSE who are resistant to traditional AEDs a ketogenic diet, and surgical treatments are the
and routine anesthetic drugs. Lacosamide is not most commonly used treatment options [391,
affected by the type of SE and also does not 392, 419, 420].
cause any adverse effects, such as cardiac toxic-
ity, blood pressure fluctuations, and skin rashes
[413–415]. Hofler et al. [388] studied 31 patients 4.7.8 Prognosis
with RSE and found that nine of the cases were
caused by cerebrovascular disease, and 86% of A retrospective study of 78 patients with RSE
these patients with RSE were effectively con- showed that 80% of the patients had a poor prog-
trolled by treatment with lacosamide. Koubeissi nosis, and most died of serious complications
et al. [386] reported treating a patient who had [49]. The use of anesthetic drugs increased the
RSE caused by cerebral hemorrhage. He was chance of infection by 43%, and this effect may
treated with an intravenous drip infusion of have been associated with intubation and dis-
100 mg of lacosamide followed by 100 mg twice turbances of consciousness [54]. Rossetti et al.
daily of maintenance treatment, resulting in well-­ [421] performed a follow-up study in 225 hos-
controlled RSE. The other patient was treated pital patients with SE and found that a patient’s
with an intravenous drip infusion of 100 mg of prognosis was associated with the patients’ age
lacosamide followed by 200 mg twice per day on and etiology and the severity of SE and its com-
the second day, resulting in the effective control plications. A multiple factor correlation analysis
of RSE. Legros et al. [414] performed a prospec- showed that patients who used vasopressin to
tive, randomized controlled study to explore the lower their blood pressure and presented with
effect of using lacosamide as an add-on drug in secondary complications had a poor prognosis
25 patients from 2010–2012. A dose of either 200 [49]. A retrospective study of 63 patients with
or 400 mg effectively controlled 17 cases (68%), RSE showed that more severe arrhythmia and
and a distinct effect was also observed in a dose pneumonia and poorer prognoses were observed
of 400 mg of lacosamide over 15 min (infusion in patients with longer durations of drug-induced
rate of 26.66 mg/min), and the maintenance dose comas [44]. Hence, a variety of methods for
was 200 mg every 12 h (given orally). treating RSE should be used to change its dura-
In addition to medication, ten children with tion and to reduce brain injury caused by sei-
RSE that was resistant to drugs underwent zures and adverse reactions caused by coma.
lesion excision via accurate positioning in a Cerebrovascular disease should be positively
study by Alexopoulos et al. [416]. All of the treated because when combined with treatment
children experience a good recovery during for RSE, it will not only help control the SE but
postoperative follow-up, and RSE was com- may also play a key role in determining the prog-
pletely controlled in seven of the patients (70%) nosis in these patients [422, 423].
and significantly improved in three (30%). In
another study, patients with RSE caused by CNS
vasculitis underwent right TLE lesion resection 4.8  efractory Status Epilepticus
R
in the EEG orientation, and a good prognosis in Infectious Encephalitis
was achieved by administering continuous post-
operative treatment with immunosuppressant in Encephalitis is defined as neurological dysfunc-
combination with AEDs [417]. Finally, large tion caused by inflammation of the brain paren-
doses of hormones and the plasma ­displacement chyma [424]. In the broad definition, encephalitis
132 X. Wang et al.

includes infectious encephalitis caused by a direct 4.8.2 Prevelance

infection of the brain parenchyma, post-­infectious
inflammatory reactions, such as acute dissemi- In a study by Vooturi et al. [430], CNS infec-
nated encephalomyelitis, and autoimmune inflam- tions were more frequently observed in patients
matory reactions, such as anti-­NMDA receptor with refractory convulsive RSE than in patients
encephalitis [425]. According to the 2012 criteria with NORSE. In a study performed in a teach-
of the International Encephalitis Consortium, a ing hospital in India [431], the incidence of SE in
diagnosis of encephalitis should include an altered patients with CNS infections was 39.8% (37/93).
mental status (defined as a decreased or altered The most frequent causes of the infections were
level of consciousness, lethargy, or personality encephalitis (20 patients), including four with
change) lasting ≥24 h with no other cause identi- Japanese encephalitis, three with herpes sim-
fied and at least two of the following manifesta- plex encephalitis, one with cerebral malaria, and
tions: (1) documented fever (a temperature higher 12 with non-specific encephalitis; 20% of these
than 38 °C) within 72 h before or after symptoms patients had RSE. According to a study of 191
appear, (2) generalized or partial seizures that patients with encephalitis by Kalita et al. [432],
are not fully attributable to a pre-existing seizure 36 patients had SE, including 11 with RSE
disorder, (3) new onset of focal neurological find- (5.8%). In a study of 290 patients with encepha-
ings, (4) CSF pleocytosis (CSF WBC count ≥5/ litis by Sonneville et al. [433], 58 (20%) patients
mm3), (5) a neuroimaging abnormality in the developed early-onset SE, including 14 (4.8%)
brain parenchyma suggestive of encephalitis that cases of RSE. Coma, non-neurological organ
is either a new onset from previous studies or failure(s), and cortical involvement in neuroim-
appears to have an acute onset, and (6) an EEG aging examinations were independent risk fac-
abnormality consistent with encephalitis that is tors for SE in patients with acute encephalitis. In
not attributable to another causes [425]. Thus, the California Encephalitis Project [434], which
seizure is a common clinical sign of encephalitis. was the largest study of encephalitis and included
According to a case study of 36 patients with RSE 1151 cases of encephalitis, 502 (44%) patients
by Holtkamp et al. [2], eight cases (22.2%) were presented SE, including 43 (4%) patients who
caused by encephalitis, indicating that encephali- developed RSE. Compared to the patients with
tis is the most common cause of RSE. Since auto- NORSE or without SE, the patients with RSE
immune encephalitis (AE) has been discussed were younger, more likely to have a fever (93%)
in another section, we only discuss infectious and a prodromal respiratory (57%) or gastrointes-
encephalitis caused by a direct infection of the tinal disorder (64%) and less likely to have CSF
brain parenchyma in the present chapter. pleocytosis (47%) or abnormal neuroimaging
(16%). A younger age, prodromal gastrointesti-
nal symptoms, fever, normal CSF WBC, and an
4.8.1 Historical Evolution initially normal neuroimaging scan were inde-
pendent risk factors for the development of RSE.
Encephalitis was first introduced by Janz et al.
[426] in 1963 as a cause of SE. In 1970, Resnick
[427] reported that patients with encephalitis 4.8.3 Etiology
may have severe SE. Encephalitis was found to
be a major cause of SE in a 1979 study of 67 Almost all types of infectious encephalitis can
cases of SE in children less than 15 years old cause SE or RSE. Pathogens of encephalitis
by Hayakawa et al. [428]. In 1991, Uldry et al. reported to be associated with RSE include her-
[429] first reported the characteristics of fatal pes simplex virus, human metapneumovirus,
SE caused by HIV encephalitis and attracted WNV, EBV, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and
researchers’ attention. Since then, encephalitis Bartonella. Among the 43 patients with RSE in
has been recognized as a major cause of SE. the California Encephalitis Project, seven patients
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 133

were ­diagnosed with viral encephalitis (three con- NCSE

firmed enteroviruses, two probable rotavirus, two In patients with infectious encephalitis, SE may
probable EBV, one possible HHV6, and one possi- not only be CSE but also NCSE. In a case report
ble adenovirus), and five patients were diagnosed by Bick et al. [439], a patient who presented
with possible Mycoplasma pneumoniae encepha- super-RSE was eventually diagnosed with her-
litis [434]. In a retrospective study of 130 cases pes simplex encephalitis. Initially, the patient
of NORSE by Gaspard et al. [20], ten cases were presented GTCS and then, after treatment with
caused by infections, among which herpes virus multiple anti-SE agents, developed NCSE with
(excluding herpes simplex virus 1) was the most rhythmic activity in the right central frontal
frequent infectious agent (50%). Other causes region that occasionally spread to the contralat-
included cytomegalovirus, EBV, and WNV. eral frontal region. In a case study of 30 patients
with SE caused by encephalitis by Kalita et al.
[432], 26 patients presented with GCSE, and
4.8.4 Clinical Features four patients presented with NCSE. In another
retrospective study of 58 patients with SE caused
4.8.4.1 Seizure Types by encephalitis by Sonneville et al. [433], 46
RSE may present as different seizure types in patients presented with GCSE, whereas another
patients with encephalitis, such as partial seizures 12 patients presented with NCSE. Because
or generalized seizures. encephalitis is a major cause of NCSE [440,
441], continuous EEG monitoring is required for
Generalized or Primary Partial patients with encephalitis who experience a dis-
and Secondary Generalized Seizures turbance of consciousness.
In the study by Lin et al. [435], among the 46
patients with SE caused by encephalitis, 16 4.8.4.2 Onset Time and Duration
(34.8%) patients presented generalized seizures, In patients with encephalitis, the onset of SE usu-
and 19 (41.3%) patients presented primary partial ally occurs early in the course of the illness, and
seizure and secondary generalized seizure. the duration of the illness is usually protracted.
In a retrospective case study of 43 patients with
Partial Seizures encephalitis who presented with RSE, the median
In a case series of Mycoplasma pneumoniae time from the initial symptoms to the onset of SE
encephalitis, all nine patients presented SE, and was 4 days (range 0–41), the median length of
three of these patients presented complex partial the hospital stay for these patients was 47 days
seizures [436]. In a case report by Vehapoglu (range 9–222), and the median duration of the
et al. [437], a patient who was eventually diag- anesthesia-­induced coma was 15 days (range
nosed with human metapneumovirus (hMPV) 2–76) [434]. In another retrospective case study
encephalitis presented with a coma, paroxysmal of 20 children with encephalitis who presented
right arm twitching, and both eyes turning right, with RSE by Lin et al., the time from seizure
and the EEG showed sharp wave in the right fron- onset to complete clinical seizure control or the
tal lobe, suggesting a partial seizure. In another appearance of a burst suppression pattern on the
case report by Greco et al. [438], a patient who EEG was ranged from 1 to 20 days [435].
was eventually diagnosed with EBV encepha-
litis presented a complex partial motor seizure
involving the left leg and arm lasting for less 4.8.5 Auxiliary Examinations
than 5 min, followed by a confused state lasting
for 3 h, with a generalized high-amplitude slow 4.8.5.1 EEG
activity accompanied by unilateral or bilateral In a retrospective case study of 43 patients with
spikes and spike slow waves complexes appear- RSE caused by encephalitis, the abnormalities in
ing singly or in groups on the EEG. the EEG included generalized spike discharges,
134 X. Wang et al.

generalized spike and sharp wave activity, encephalitis, the thalamus was involved in three
­multifocal sharp activity, independent bi-hemi- patients, the basal ganglion was involved in
spheric spike discharges, repetitive sharp waves, one patient, and the cortex was involved in four
focal spike or sharp wave discharges, continuous patients.
spike and spike wave activity, right or left tempo- In a study of RSE in patients with suspected
ral spike and sharp activity prior to generalized encephalitis by Glaser et al. [434], three patients
spread of activity, and rhythmic 2–4 Hz spike received brain biopsies, and another three patients
wave discharges [434]. However, more multifo- received autopsies. Biopsies from two patients
cal or generalized epileptiform discharges were showed mild astrogliosis with no inflammatory
observed in the patients with RSE than in patients cell infiltration and no histopathology suggestive
with NORSE in another retrospective study com- of a neuronal viral infection. The biopsy from
paring the EEG data from 20 patients with RSE the third patient showed microglial nodules and
versus 26 patients with NORSE. In the NORSE marked lymphocyte infiltration in both the cortex
group, the initial EEG was negative in four and leptomeninges, suggesting meningoencepha-
patients (15.4%), focal/diffuse cortical dysfunc- litis. No inclusions indicative of a viral infection
tion was observed in nine patients (34.6%), focal were noted and no pathogen was identified. The
epileptiform discharges were observed in eight autopsies of the brains from three other patients
patients (30.8%), and multifocal epileptiform dis- showed anoxic-ischemic damage with cerebral
charges were observed in five patients (19.2%). edema and neuronal necrosis, but no parenchy-
In the RSE group, the initial EEG revealed focal mal infiltration or other features indicative of
epileptiform discharges in one patient (5%), encephalitis. Among these patients, one patient
multifocal epileptiform discharges in 14 patients had a meningeal lymphocyte infiltration consis-
(70%), and generalized epileptiform discharges tent with lymphocytic meningitis.
in five patients (25%) [435].

4.8.5.2 Other Auxiliary Examinations 4.8.6 Treatments

The initial neuroimaging examinations may be
normal in many patients with encephalitis who The treatment for SE in patients with infectious
present with RSE. In a retrospective case study encephalitis is similar to the treatment for com-
of 43 patients with RSE caused by encephalitis mon SE, but the prognosis is associated with the
[434], the initial cerebral MRI or CT was normal etiology. Verma et al. [26] reported a case study
in 84% of patients, but the subsequent examina- of a patient with new-onset RSE caused by sim-
tion showed a focal or multifocal abnormality in plex herpes encephalitis who continued to have
the temporal lobe and other cortical, subcortical electrical SE after treatments with midazoline
gray matter or cerebella regions or a hyperintense and propofol. The seizures were eventually con-
T2 signal in the mesial temporal region, consis- trolled after treatment with acyclovir, and the
tent with herpes encephalitis. In another study of patient had a good prognosis.
29 patients with encephalitis-associated SE who Anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) is an
accepted the MRI examination [432], 20 patients established and effective treatment for patients
exhibited abnormalities on the MRI. All four with medically refractory TLE. In some patients
patients with herpes simplex encephalitis showed with encephalitis of unknown etiologies and RSE
abnormalities in the temporal lobe. Among the with a clear unilateral origin, ALT should also be
nine patients with Japanese encephalitis, eight considered to assist in the diagnosis, control the
patients showed an involvement of the thalamus, seizures, and reduce the mass effect. Bick et al.
the basal ganglion was involved in three patients, [439] reported a case study of a 60-year-old man
the brain stem was involved in five patients, and with encephalitis who presented with RSE and
the cortex was involved in seven patients. Among displayed a focus of hypoattenuation in the cere-
the 15 patients diagnosed with ­ non-specific bral CT and a hyperintense T2 signal in the right
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 135

anterior/mesial temporal lobe with a­ssociated the patients had returned to baseline, two died
edema and mass effect. The patient continued (one had RSE), two were in a persistent veg-
to have NCSE after an empirical treatment with etative state (both had RSE), three had a severe
the anti-infectious agents including vancomy- ­disability (two of them had RSE), and two had a
cin, ceftriaxone, ampicillin, and acyclovir and moderate disability (one had RSE) [436].
the antiseizure treatments including lorazepam,
levetiracetam, propofol, phenobarbital, and phe-
nytoin. His SE was ultimately controlled by ATL 4.8.8  E or RSE in Different Types
S
and eventually received a good prognosis. of Encephalitis

4.8.8.1 S  E/RSE in Herpes Simplex

4.8.7 Prognosis Encephalitis
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is the most
In most patients, RSE is independently associ- common type of virus encephalitis. According
ated with a poor prognosis for encephalitis. In a to different reports, the incidence of seizures in
study of encephalitis in 6- to 51-month-old chil- patients with HSE ranges from 75 to 89% [443,
dren [435], four of the 26 patients with NORSE 444], including SE or even RSE. The onset of SE
died, 16 developed epilepsy and/or a neuro- not only occurs in the initial stage as new-onset
logical disability, and six returned to baseline. RSE [26] but also occurs after the viral infec-
Among the 20 patients with RSE, six died, 13 tion as post-infectious autoimmune encephalitis
developed epilepsy and/or a neurological dis- [445] (please see the chapter on RSE in patients
ability, and none returned to baseline. Moreover, with autoimmune encephalitis). Patients with
the duration from seizure onset to complete HSE can present with GCSE [26], but more fre-
clinical seizure control or the appearance of the quently present with NCSE [446, 447]. Since
BS pattern on the EEG was associated with the HSE usually affects the limbic system, including
prognosis. Patients with a duration of less than the anterior/median temporal lobe, orbital fron-
3 days showed less cognitive delay at follow-up, tal lobe, and insular lobe, the EEGs of patients
and patients with a duration of less than 5 days with HSE are significantly more likely to exhibit
were less likely to have seizures [435]. In the periodic discharges and focal slowing in the fron-
California Encephalitis Project, 82% of the 43 totemporal and occipital regions compared with
patients with RSE caused by encephalitis died the EEGs of patients with encephalitis of other
within 2 years, and the survivors had a severe etiologies [448, 449]. The neuroimaging data
cognitive or motor disability [434]. Although from most patients are abnormal, and the clas-
mortality may be related to an unknown etiol- sic presentations on the MRI show asymmetric
ogy, the mortality within the 90 days after onset hyperintense T2 signals in the mesiotemporal and
was significantly higher in the RSE group than orbitofrontal lobes and the insular cortex, which
in NORSE group, and the multivariate analysis are corresponding to edema of these regions
showed that RSE was a dependent risk factor for [450]. Most patients with HSE respond to acy-
patients with encephalitis [433]. clovir [450] and have a good prognosis after
The prognosis of RSE in patients with treatment with antiepileptic and antiviral agents
Mycoplasma pneumoniae encephalitis is very [26]. However, malignant RSE has also been
poor because Mycoplasma pneumoniae encepha- observed. Bick et al. [439] had reported a case
litis itself is a severe disease with an incidence study of a 60-year-­old male patient who devel-
and mortality that is up to seven times higher than oped SRSE caused by HSVE. He continued to
encephalitis caused by other pathogens [442]. In have NCSE after empirical treatments with anti-
a case series of nine patients with Mycoplasma bacterial and antiviral agents and a three-level
pneumoniae encephalitis, all patients presented anti-SE treatment. His seizures were eventually
with SE. At the end of the study period, none of controlled by ATL.
136 X. Wang et al.

4.8.8.2 SE/RSE in Japanese Encephalitis most hMPV infections are mild to moderate,
Japanese encephalitis is a common type of ­several case reports of severe infections, such as
encephalitis in Southeast Asia. According to encephalitis, have been published. Most patients
previous reports, the incidence of seizures in with hMPV encephalitis had seizures. In the
patients with Japanese encephalitis was 46–54% California Encephalitis Project, the nasopharyn-
[444, 451], which was only second to HSE [444], geal swabs from five patients were positive, and
whereas the occurrence of SE was not common. three of these patients presented seizures [453].
Patients with Japanese encephalitis predomi- Among the 13 patients included in published case
nantly present primary focal seizures with sec- reports, ten patients presented seizures, includ-
ondary generalization. In a study by Misra et al. ing three cases of SE [437, 453–459]. HMPV
[451], 30 of 65 patients with Japanese encepha- encephalitis often occurs in children and is usu-
litis experienced a seizure within a week, includ- ally accompanied by severe lung infections. The
ing 17 GTCSs and 13 partial motor seizures with seizure type may be generalized seizures [455]
secondary generalization. Eleven patients had or partial seizure [437]. The interictal EEG may
a single seizure, eight had two seizures, 11 had be normal or exhibit focal sharp waves, and the
multiple seizures, and only two patients devel- neuroimaging examinations are usually normal
oped SE, both of whom presented partial motor [437, 455]. Most patients with hMPV encepha-
seizures with secondary generalization and not litis have a good prognosis after treatment with
RSE. However, in a study by Kalita et al., nine appropriate anti-infectious and antiseizure agents
of the 30 patients with SE caused by encepha- [437, 456]. Webster et al. [455] had reported a
litis were diagnosed with Japanese encephalitis case study of two patients with hMPV encephali-
[432]. The interictal EEG more likely showed tis who presented SE accompanied by respiratory
focal slowing and was less likely to exhibit epi- failure. Between these patients, one was a previ-
leptiform discharges. In a study of 65 patients ously healthy 15-month-old female who became
with Japanese encephalitis by Misra et al. [451], abnormally excited during the night and then
the interictal EEG of the patients with seizures presented uncontrolled full body twitching and
revealed theta to delta slow waves in all patients, eye deviation to the right after 2 days of nausea.
but epileptiform discharges were only observed After treatment with rectal diazepam followed
in four patients. The prognosis of the patients by intravenous lorazepam, fosphenytoin, and
with Japanese encephalitis who had seizures finally phenobarbital, her clinical seizure was
was poorer than that of patients without seizures. eventually controlled 35 min after onset. Another
In a study by Misra et al. [451], three of the 23 18-month-­old female toddler with a history of
patients with Japanese encephalitis and seizures one simple febrile seizure presented GTCS after
exhibited a complete recovery, eight exhibited a several hours of decreased oral intake and fever.
partial recovery, nine exhibited a poor recovery, After treatment with midazolam, lorazepam, and
and three died. Among the 34 patients without fosphenytoin, the patient’s SE was eventually
seizures, 17 patients exhibited a complete recov- controlled 45 min after onset. Both patients had
ery, five exhibited a partial recovery, seven exhib- lung infections and gradually developed respira-
ited a poor recovery, and five died. In the study of tory failure, but both had a good prognosis after
Kalita et al. [432], four of the nine patients with receiving the antiviral and antibacterial treat-
Japanese encephalitis and seizures died. ments. Vehapoglu et al. [437] reported a case
study of a 4-month-old male infant who devel-
4.8.8.3 S E/RSE in Human oped hMPV encephalitis and suddenly displayed
Metapneumovirus Encephalitis twitching of the right extremity and eye devia-
Since its initial discovery in 2001 [452], human tions to the right after 3 days of mild rhinorrhea,
metapneumovirus (hMPV) has been established cough, and fever. He was somnolent soon after
as a common pathogen of respiratory tract the seizures occurred, with a right frontal sharp
infections with a global distribution. Although wave discharge in the EEG and a normal cerebral
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 137

MRI. His seizure was not controlled by AEDs, MRI ­exhibited symmetrical ­abnormalities in the
including levetiracetam, phenytoin, phenobar- bilateral hippocampus, substantia nigra, central
bital, and midazolam and anti-infectious drugs, pontine, and dentate nucleus in the cerebellum.
including ceftriaxone and acyclovir. Finally, the The EEG displayed moderate diffuse slowing
seizure was gradually controlled by a thiopental with a poly-spike wave discharge. After treat-
sodium infusion, and the infant eventually had a ment with lorazepam, fosphenytoin, phenobarbi-
good prognosis. tal, propofol, valproic acid, and carbamazepine,
the electrical SE was eventually controlled.
4.8.8.4 SE/RSE in WNV Encephalitis Unfortunately, the patient ultimately died.
WNV is a mosquito-borne subgroup of arbo-
viruses that was, in 1937, first isolated from 4.8.8.5 S E/RSE in Patients with Human
the blood of a febrile woman in the West Nile Parvovirus B19 Encephalitis
province of Uganda in 1937, and WNV began As a pathogen of erythema infectiosum, human
to play a more prominent role in clinical prac- parvovirus B19 (hPVB19) usually causes a
tice since its first outbreak in the US in 1999. benign and self-limited disease. However, in
According to different reports, the incidence of immunodeficient subjects or children, it can also
seizure in patients with WNV encephalitis is cause a severe disease. According to the study by
approximately 0–9% [460–462]. WNV encepha- Barah et al. [466], hPVB19 caused 4.3% of cases
litis usually symmetrically affects the brain stem of undetermined meningoencephalitis during its
and midbrain. The most common type of SE is epidemic outbreak between 1997 and 1998. The
NCSE; the most frequent abnormality in the EEG incidence of seizure in patients with hPVB19
is symmetric generalized slowing with a frontal encephalitis is very low. In a study by Barah et al.
predominance and occasionally with a bilateral [466], only two of the 12 patients with hPVB19
or asymmetric temporal predominance. The cere- encephalitis presented seizures. According
bral MRI often exhibits bilateral symmetrical to published reports [466–469], the SE types
T2 hypertension in the brain stem and midbrain observed in patients with hPVB19 encephalitis
[463]. Most patients with WNV encephalitis include GTCS, partial seizure, or partial seizure
have a good prognosis, with the exception of with subsequent generalization. SE may be con-
several severe cases, which have a poor progno- vulsive SE or NCSE, with diffuse slowing or a
sis. Older patients and/or patients in a profound focal slow wave with epileptiform discharges.
coma tend to have a poor prognosis. During the The cerebral MRI usually does not show abnor-
epidemic of WNV encephalitis in the southeast malities. The pathogenesis is usually considered
district of Tunis in 1997, 25 of the 30 patients related to autoimmune inflammatory reactions,
recovered completely, one had a persistent head- and the patient usually has a good prognosis after
ache and asthenia, one had persistent arm tremor, receiving immunoregulatory, antiviral, and anti-
and three substantially older (mean age 62 ± 2 vs. epileptic treatments. Erol et al. [469] reported a
53.3 ± 23.3 years, p < 0.05) who were in a pro- case study of a 10-year-old girl who was even-
found coma died [464]. However, reports about tually diagnosed with hPVB19 and presented
the relationship between seizures and the progno- RSE. The patient displayed confusion and GTCS
sis of WNV encephalitis are not available. Bagic at onset, with diffuse slowing and epileptiform
et al. [465] reported a case study of a patient discharges in the left hemisphere in the EEG
with WNV encephalitis who presented RSE. The and a normal cerebral CT/MRI. Her electrical
patient initially experienced chills and fever and SE persisted after treatment with valproic acid,
gradually experienced asymmetric leg weakness, midazolam, and pentobarbital and was eventu-
double vision, and dysphagia and soon had a dis- ally controlled with high-dose corticosteroids. In
turbance of consciousness. On the fourteenth day another case report by Skaff et al. [468], a pre-
after onset, the patient began to exhibit “fast eye viously healthy 27-year-old woman initially dis-
movements with eyelid flickering.” The c­ erebral played an erythematous, ­maculopapular rash over
138 X. Wang et al.

her cheeks, frontal headache with ­intermittent, It can also lead to acute, severe diseases, such
low-grade fevers, myalgias, anorexia, and leth- as myocarditis and complications of the CNS,
argy and developed psychiatric symptoms, including meningitis, encephalitis, and neuritis.
including depression, hallucinations, and confu- In a study by Mazur-Melewska et al. [470], ten of
sion 5 days after onset. She began to have seizure the 194 patients with EBV infections had infec-
activity with facial twitching and eye blinking tions in the CNS, and five of these patients devel-
and progressed to CSE, with diffuse slowing on oped seizures, including four cases of GTCSs
the EEG and no significant abnormalities in the and one case of partial seizures. EBV encepha-
cerebral MRI. She continued to have NCSE after litis often affects the unilateral or bilateral basal
treatment with phenytoin and phenobarbital. A ganglion or thalamus [470–472], but it may also
right frontal lobe biopsy was performed 6 weeks affect the temporal and occipital lobes [438] or
after the onset of her illness and showed minimal, the brain stem, midbrain, and corpus callosum
chronic, leptomeningeal inflammations and mild, [473]. The presentations in the EEG include dif-
superficial, cortical gliosis. Since the serologic fuse or focal slow waves, fast beta activity with
evaluation for HPVB19 on day 53 was positive high-amplitude sharp waves, low-­voltage activity
for both IgM and IgG, she was diagnosed with with spike-wave discharges, high-amplitude slow
HPVB19 encephalitis. After multiple treatments, waves with unilateral or bilateral spikes, and
including acyclovir, carbamazepine, lorazepam, spike slow waves complexes appearing singly
topiramate, phenobarbital, VNS, and rehabilita- or in a group [438, 470]. The cerebral MRI may
tion, she eventually exhibited a near complete show T2 hyperintense in the unilateral or bilat-
recovery. Palermo et al. [467] also reported a case eral basal ganglion and thalamus or tempo-occip-
study of a previously healthy 18-year-old male ital region [470–472]. Most patients have a good
patient who initially presented with headache, prognosis after receiving antiviral and antiepilep-
fever, sleepiness, and irritability 7 days after tic treatments; however, a few have a persistent
an erythematous rash involving all four limbs neurological dysfunction [438, 470–473]. Greco
occurred. Five days later, the patient developed et al. [438] reported a case study of a 4-year-
GTCS preceded by auditory sensations, version old girl who initially presented with NCSE that
of the head to the right, and hyperextension of began with 3 days of fever and sore throat. After
the right arm. The EEG exhibited diffuse and 1 month, the patient had a complex motor partial
persistent slow delta activity with subcontinuous seizure involving the arms and left leg that lasted
recruiting sharp theta activity that was prevalent for less than 5 min and a subsequent acute con-
over the right frontotemporal region, whereas the fused state that lasted for 3 h. The EEG showed
cerebral CT and MRI were normal. After receiv- a generalized high-­amplitude slow wave activ-
ing levetiracetam, phenobarbital, and clonaz- ity with unilateral or bilateral spikes and spike
epam treatments, he continued to present eyelid slow waves complexes that appeared singly or in
flickering and GTCS. Since the serological tests a group. The cerebral MRI showed subcortical
for the PVB19 DNA, IgG, and IgM were all posi- T2 hypertension in the right occipital lobe. Since
tive, the patient was diagnosed with HPVB19 the patient’s serum was positive for IgM and IgG
encephalitis, and all symptoms, with the excep- antibodies and the EBV DNA was detected in the
tion of ictal epilepsy, recovered after receiving CSF using a nested PCR, she was diagnosed with
immunoglobulin treatments. EBV encephalitis and eventually recovered after
treatment with acyclovir and other agents. Nishie
4.8.8.6 SE/RSE in EBV Encephalitis et al. [474] reported a case study of a 37-year-old
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a lymphocyte female patient with RSE that was thought to be
virus belonging to Herpesviridae and is the patho- caused by EBV. She initially presented with fever
gen responsible for infectious mononucleosis and and headache followed by RSE 10 days later,
is closely related to the occurrence of nasopha- with a diffuse slow-wave outbreak and bilateral
ryngeal carcinoma and childhood l­ymphoma. paroxysmal diffuse sharp wave on the EEG. She
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 139

was treated with anesthetic agents for as long as l­eptomeningeal enhancement at the 6th day from
2 months but ultimately had a good prognosis. onset in one patient. The overall prognosis was
Delgado et al. [473] reported a case study of a poor. Two patients died (one had RSE), two
55-year-old female patient with EBV encepha- patients were in a persistent vegetative state (both
litis who had undergone renal transplantation had RSE), three patients experienced persistent,
and had been treated with immunosuppressive severe neurological dysfunction (two had RSE),
therapy for more than 7 years. She initially com- and two patients experienced a mild to moderate
plained of dizziness and influenza-like symp- neurological dysfunction (one had RSE).
toms and then experienced visual hallucinations,
a disturbance of consciousness, and continuous 4.8.8.8 S  E/RSE in Patients
motor partial seizures in the left limbs. The MRI with Bartonella Encephalitis
showed T2 hyperintense in the medulla, fornix, A type of gram-negative bacilli, Bartonella
midbrain, left thalamus, and around the corpus henselae, is the etiological agent of cat-scratch
callosum. Since the serological test for the EBV disease. It can also infect the CNS and cause neu-
DNA was negative, the patient was diagnosed rological symptoms including seizure, encepha-
with EBV encephalitis and had a good prognosis lopathy, neuroretinitis, and vasculitis. According
after treatment with ganciclovir. to published reports [475–478], the incidence
of seizure in Bartonella encephalitis is approxi-
4.8.8.7 S  E/RSE in Patients mately 50–79%. It may occur within 6 weeks and
with Mycoplasma pneumoniae may present as GCSE or NCSE, partial seizures,
Encephalitis or generalized seizures. The EEG abnormali-
Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M. pneumoniae) is ties include focal slow waves, sharp waves, or
also a common pathogen that causes encephali- spike-­waves. The cerebral MRI may exhibit T2
tis, particularly in children. Among 43 patients and DWI hypertension in the bilateral pulvinar or
with suspected encephalitis who presented with tempo-occipital region. If Bartonella encephali-
RSE in California Encephalitis Project, five tis is diagnosed early and effectively treated with
were diagnosed with probable M. pneumoniae antibiotics, such as erythromycin and rifampi-
encephalitis [434]. In a retrospective study cin, and antiepileptic agents, most patients have
by Lin et al. [436], SE was present in all nine a good prognosis. Singhal et al. [477] reported
cases of M. pneumoniae encephalitis occurring a case study of two patients with Bartonella
in children between 2002 and 2008 (100%), encephalitis. The first was a 27-year-old female
and the most frequent initial seizure type was patient with convulsive RSE whose cerebral MRI
partial seizure with subsequent generalization exhibited T2 and DWI hypertension in the bilat-
(4/9, 44%), followed by complex partial seizures eral pulvinar region. The patient had recently
(3/9, 33%) and GTCSs (2/9, 22%). Six patients received scratches from her pet cat, and her serum
developed RSE, including four patients with and CSF were both positive for anti-Bartonella
partial seizures and subsequent generalization, IgG. Thus, she was diagnosed with Bartonella
one patient with complex partial seizures, and encephalitis and gradually recovered after treat-
one patient with GTCS. The presentations in the ment with intravenous erythromycin followed by
EEG included focal epileptiform discharges in intravenous trimethoprim. The other case was a
two patients, multifocal epileptiform discharges 66-year-old female patient who initially presented
in three patients, diffuse epileptiform discharges with sudden right arm clumsiness and developed
in two patients, and cortical dysfunction in two right arm and facial twitching that gradually pro-
patients. Cerebral MRI was performed on seven gressed to RSE. The cerebral MRI showed T2
patients, and the abnormalities included atrophy and DWI hypertension in the left frontal lobe and
in three patients, T2 hyperintense in the bilateral parieto-occipital cortices. Based on a cat-scratch
hippocampus in two patients, acute dissemi- history and positive serological anti-Bartonella
nated encephalitis in one patient, and increased IgG test, she was diagnosed with Bartonella
140 X. Wang et al.

encephalitis and was treated with ofloxacin for high-grade glioma, that grow rapidly and cause
2 weeks, followed by minocycline for 3 weeks, severe damage to the local tissue [481, 482].
multiple antiepileptic agents, corticoids, electrical
shock, and eventually underwent surgical resec- Prevalence
tion of the lesions with subpial transections in Epilepsy is associated with cerebral tumors in
the left pre- and postcentral gyri. Upon discharge approximately 4–13% of patients [483]. Benign
to rehabilitation at 4.5 months, she had recurrent tumors are more likely to lead to chronic epi-
partial and generalized seizures and neurologi- lepsy that persists for more than 2 years [484].
cal disabilities, including profound aphasia and As shown in a study by Lynam et al. [485],
right-hand dystonia. Laswell et al. [478] reported approximately 30% of patients with primary
a case study of a 28-year-old female patient who brain tumors present seizures as the main clinical
presented with new-onset RSE and had a history manifestation, and 20% of patients with meta-
of recent exposure to a new cat and a positive static tumors present seizures. The incidence of
serological test for Bartonella. Thus, the patient seizures in patients with cerebral tumors is influ-
was diagnosed with Bartonella encephalitis. She enced by age, tumor type, tumor location, and
continued to experience NCSE after treatment other factors. (1) Age: The incidence of seizure
with benzodiazepines, fosphenytoin, propofol, is different between adult and pediatric patients
and levetiracetam and eventually recovered after with brain tumors. Ullrich et al. [486] conducted
receiving a combination of doxycycline, rifampi- a study in 298 pediatric patients with brain
cin, and high-dose corticosteroids. tumors. Seizure was a main symptom in 24%
of these pediatric patients, and approximately
14% of the patients presented SE, whereas, in a
4.9  pilepsy and Refractory
E study performed by Lynam et al. [485], 30% of
Status Epilepticus in Other adult patients presented seizures. (2) Tumor type:
Diseases Among patients with different types of tumors,
those with gliomas had the highest incidence of
4.9.1  pilepsy and RSE in Brain
E seizure. Gliomas include dysembryoplastic neu-
Tumors roepithelial tumors (DNETs) and ganglioglio-
mas, among others. The remaining tumor types
4.9.1.1 Epilepsy in Brain Tumors that tend to lead to seizure include metastatic
Both primary and secondary brain tumors can tumors and meningiomas [487]. (3) Tumor loca-
cause seizures. Hildbrand et al. [479] showed tion: The location of a tumor is one of the most
that in 158 patients with cerebral tumors, 86% important factors that affect the incidence of sei-
of the patients experienced a seizure shortly after zure. Patients with tumors in the parietal, frontal,
receiving a diagnosis of brain tumor, while the and temporal lobes may have a higher incidence
remaining patients experienced a seizure during of seizure, and patients with occipital lobe tumors
treatment for the tumor. Michelucci et al. [480] are the least likely to develop seizures [485].
showed that in 100 patients with brain tumors
complicated with epilepsy, approximately 70% Seizure Types
of the patients with brain tumors presented with Partial seizure is the most common seizure type
a seizure before the other symptoms, whereas and includes simple partial seizures and CPS
12–18% patients with brain tumors had SE. The [488]. Chang et al. [489] conducted a study in
onset of seizures in patients with brain tumors 332 patients with low-grade gliomas and found
may be associated with the following two factors: that approximately 80% of the patients had sei-
(1) a focal increase in excitatory transmission zures. The most common type was partial seizure,
caused by changes in the local tumor environment which was followed by generalized seizure. The
that leads to the onset of seizures or (2) s­ eizures type of epileptic seizure was different between
may occur because of tumor lesions, such as a children and adults. In a study of adult and pediat-
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 141

ric patients with brain tumors that was performed However, older AEDs, such as phenobarbital
by Wojcik-­Draczkowska et al. [490], secondary and phenytoin, have been shown to promote
generalized seizure was the most frequent seizure tumor growth in animal models. These two drugs
type in pediatric patients, whereas simple partial should therefore be avoided [496]. The American
seizure or CPS were the most common types in Academy of Neurology has suggested that the
adult patients. prophylactic use of AEDs in patients with brain
tumors is not useful [497], and a meta-analysis
Diagnosis of a randomized experiment performed in 2015
In patients with brain tumors, seizure is one of found that the prophylactic use of AEDs in
the most common clinical symptoms and can patients with brain tumors merely decreased the
occur before or after a brain tumor diagnosis. incidence of seizures [498].
Gottschalk et al. [491] reported a case study of
an old woman with a 60-year history of epilepsy Surgery
with an unknown cause. Eventually, a cerebral In general, surgical resection will largely reduce
tumor was determined to be the cause of her the frequency and severity of seizures [486, 499].
epilepsy. A complete medical history, a physi- The surgical resection of low-grade gliomas
cal examination, a neurological physical exami- should be conducted as soon as possible because
nation, an EEG, laboratory examinations, and patients with this type of tumor have a good prog-
imaging examinations are required to determine nosis after surgery [500]. The condition of most
whether the epilepsy is secondary to brain tumor. patients will clearly improve after surgery, but
MRI is essential for obtaining a diagnosis in some patients will continue to experience sei-
cerebral tumors because it helps to classify and zures [501].
identify the tumor, both of which can guide sub-
sequent treatment [492]. Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy
Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are used to pre-
Treatments vent the recurrence of a tumor after surgery, and
these treatments have recently been suggested for
Antiepileptic Treatment controlling seizures. In a study of patients with low-
Antiepileptic treatment can be applied in patients grade and high-grade gliomas published by Ruda
who do not conform to surgical indications or et al. [503], epilepsy was well controlled in patients
whose symptoms must be controlled before who received radiotherapy, and after 12 months of
surgery to obtain the benefit of the operation. radiotherapy, half of the patients had less frequent
Seizures caused by cerebral tumors are difficult seizures, and approximately 30% of the patients
to control. Statistical data show that approxi- were seizure-free. In a study of patients with low-
mately 24% of patients with brain tumors who grade gliomas published by Sherman et al. [502],
present with comorbid epilepsy require more temozolomide significantly reduced the frequency
than three types of AEDs [493]. Because few rel- of seizures, and 13–55% of the patients were sei-
evant experiments have been published, research- zure-free. However, chemotherapy may induce
ers have not yet determined which drug is the epilepsy, and patients should therefore be closely
most effective. When choosing a drug, clinicians monitored during chemotherapy.
should consider its tolerance and effectiveness
in addition to drug interactions. AEDs, such as 4.9.1.2 R
 SE in Patients with Brain
valproic acid, lamotrigine, and levetiracetam, Tumors
are recommended [494]. During chemotherapy,
AEDs that can induce the expression of hepatic Inducing Factors
cytochrome P450 enzyme should be avoided (1) The incidence of SE caused by brain tumors
[482]. Accumulating evidence indicates that varies according to the location of the tumor.
AEDs may have direct antitumor effects [495]. Patients with frontal lobe tumors are the most
142 X. Wang et al.

likely to develop SE, and these patients tend to c­omplicated by RSE. Multiple subpial transec-
develop RSE [504]. (2) Improper treatment is tions and other surgeries may be alternative treat-
one of the common causes of SE or RSE. In a ments. In a study by Ng et al. [513], a 48-year-old
study published by Tiamkao et al. [505], half of patient with a brain tumor presented with RSE
the patients with SE had a history of improper and then successfully underwent multiple subpial
therapies. (3) Hormonal abnormalities can also transections under the guidance of subdural grid
induce SE or RSE. Aladdin et al. [506] reported electrodes. Long-term AED therapy is required
a case study of a pregnant woman with cavern- in patients with brain tumors who present SE
ous angioma who had no history of epilepsy. even after the seizures are terminated.
However, during pregnancy, the patient presented
with RSE. Treatment included general anesthesia Prognosis
and appropriate tumor therapy, but these were not According to Hocker et al. [44], 75% of patients
effective. After terminating the pregnancy, the with RSE have a poor prognosis. This is particu-
patient’s seizures eventually stopped. Similarly, larly true in patients who are in a drug-induced
Kasai et al. [507] also reported a case study of coma or with severe electroencephalographic
a pregnant patient with a brain tumor who had suppression. Early diagnosis and good control
secondary SE. The patient’s epileptic symptoms predict a better prognosis.
gradually disappeared after cesarean section.

Clinical Manifestations 4.9.2  pilepsy and RSE in Diabetes

E
SE or RSE is common among patients with Mellitus
brain tumors. (1) Incidence: Based on previously
reported data from patients with brain tumors, Diabetes mellitus is metabolic disease that influ-
the incidence of SE is approximately 15–22% ences all systems of the body. Seizures frequently
[508, 510]. The location of the tumor affects the appear in patients with diabetes. In recent years,
incidence of SE, and the incidence is higher in epilepsy has been considered one of the impor-
patients with frontal lobe tumors [508]. (2) Time tant neurological complications of diabetes.
of onset: SE is more likely to occur during the
late course of the disease in patients with brain 4.9.2.1 Epilepsy in Diabetes Mellitus
tumors and reflects tumor growth [509]. Moots
et al. [510] conducted a study of ten patients with Pathogenesis
brain tumors to determine when they developed There is no unified conclusion regarding the
SE. Two patients presented SE when the tumor pathogenesis of epilepsy in patients with diabetes.
was diagnosed, four patients presented SE dur- Several possible etiologies are discussed below.
ing the period of tumor progression, and only
one patient presented SE during radiotherapy. (3) Immune Abnormity
Type: In these patients, the type of SE is similar Glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GAD-­
to seizure caused by brain tumors, but the dura- Abs) are detected in 60–70% of patients with
tion is longer. diabetes who present seizures [514] and are par-
ticularly common in patients with type 1 diabe-
Treatments tes mellitus (T1DM). As shown in a study by
In patients with brain tumors, diazepam may be Moloney et al. [515], GAD-Ab levels are higher
the first choice to treat SE. According to Chen in patients with T1DM and epilepsy than in
et al. [512], general anesthesia can be used to patients with T1DM alone, especially in patients
treat patients with RSE, and tumor resection who present with epilepsy as the first symptom
may be conducted after the seizure is controlled. of T1DM. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)
In addition, Swisher et al. [511] proposed that is expressed in neurons that secrete gamma
phenytoin, levetiracetam, and pregabalin are aminobutyric acid (GABA) and pancreatic beta
useful and safe in patients with cerebral tumors cells [516], and antibodies against this enzyme
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 143

can cause ­seizures [517]. This effect potentially Others

explains the relationship between GAD-Ab and Based on available evidence, diabetic epilepsy
diabetes-associated epilepsy. may be associated with focal brain damage [527]
and abnormalities in neurotransmitters [528].
Brain Microvascular Lesions
Patients with diabetes, particularly older patients, Clinical Manifestations
tend to develop systemic microvascular lesions, According to statistical data, approximately 25%
and this type of brain lesion can cause a variety of patients with diabetes will at some time pres-
of neurological complications. Kashihara et al. ent seizures [526]. Partial seizure, particularly
[518] reported a case study of a patient with partial motor seizure, is the most common type
non-­insulin-­
dependent diabetes who presented of seizure in patients with diabetes [529]. The
with seizures. Single photon emission computed most common types of epilepsy in pediatric
tomography images showed a diffuse decrease patients with T1DM are non-idiopathic TLE and
in cerebral blood flow, and high T2 signals were IGE [530]. Seizure may occur during any stage
observed in bilateral hippocampal on the MRI of diabetes. Seizure may present as the only clini-
examination, suggesting that seizure may be cal symptom or after the onset of other diabetic
associated with microvascular lesions in patients symptoms (such as polydipsia and polyuria).
with DM. During insulin treatment, epilepsy can also be
induced by hypoglycemia [531]. Diabetic sei-
Gene Mutations zures have a longer duration and can last approxi-
According to recent surveys, gene mutations may mately 15–30 min [532].
be an underlying cause of some syndromes that
present as both epilepsy and DM. In a study by Diagnosis
Yew et al. [519], two siblings who were diagnosed Currently, there are no unified criteria for diag-
with young-onset diabetes mellitus exhibited nosing epilepsy associated with diabetes [514].
microcephaly, intellectual disability, and epi- First, clinicians must clearly determine whether
lepsy. This syndrome is caused by a mutation in a patient has experienced a seizure. The clinician
the TRMT10A gene. In addition, mutations in the must then determine whether the patient has dia-
ABCC8 and KCNJ11 genes have been shown to betes. Next, the relationship between the seizure
be major contributors to developmental delay, epi- and diabetes must be determined using charac-
lepsy, and neonatal diabetes syndrome (DEND), teristics including incidence, onset time, seizure
which is characterized by diabetes, severe develop- type, and treatment effect (additional details are
mental retardation, and epilepsy [520]. Mutations presented in Chap. 2).
in other genes, such as the ALMS1 splice muta- When a newborn has refractory epilepsy,
tion [521] and IER3IP1 mutations [522], have severe developmental retardation, hypotonia,
been observed in other syndromes. and DM, DEND syndrome should be considered
as potential underlying causes [520]. When a
Metabolic Factors patient with diabetes presents epilepsy, dysaudia,
Huang et al. [523] conducted a retrospective recurrent headache, stroke-like episodes, demen-
study and found that the high blood glucose levels tia, hypotension, lactic acidosis, and short stat-
that are observed in patients with diabetes may be ure, clinicians should consider the possibility of
associated with seizure. Additionally, low blood MELAS syndrome [533].
glucose levels may increase the risk of seizure in
patients with diabetes [524]. In a study by Burns Treatments
et al. [525], seizures were the most c­ommon
clinical manifestations in newborns with severe Controlling Blood Glucose Levels
hypoglycemia. When the metabolic disorders The goal of treatment should be focused on con-
mentioned above are corrected, seizures gradu- trolling blood glucose levels and correcting the
ally stop. metabolic disorder. Hypoglycemic drugs may
144 X. Wang et al.

terminate the seizure. If blood glucose levels litus who presented with NCSE and increas-
are ineffectively controlled, epilepsy will recur. ing serum GAD-Ab ­ levels. Treatment with
However, epilepsy will no longer occur when methylprednisolone and intravenous immuno-
blood glucose levels return to normal, even if the globulin improved the patient’s condition and
patient stops using AEDs [514]. Moreover, a low ultimately decreased the patient’s GAD-Ab
carbohydrate diet may reduce the frequency of levels. As shown in a study by Kanter et al.
seizures by controlling blood glucose levels [514, [288], GAD-Ab levels are associated with
534]. In a study by Kim et al. [534], a low gly- RSE. Baglietto et al. [539] reported a case study
cemic index diet was an effective and tolerable of patients with T1DM who presented with
treatment in patients with generalized epilepsy. epilepsia partialis continua (EPC) and increas-
In addition, an increasing number of clinicians ing levels of GAD-Ab in the CSF at onset. The
are using the ketogenic diet to treat diabetes-­ epilepsy then became refractory, and during
associated epilepsy. Aylward et al. [535] reported slow sleep periods EEG recordings showed that
a case study of pediatric patients with T1DM who the patients exhibited continuous spike-waves.
presented with myoclonic astatic epilepsy. After Thus, GAD-Ab may participate in the pathogen-
2 months on a ketogenic diet, seizure frequency esis underlying diabetic RSE.
was reduced in these patients, indicating that the
ketogenic diet has an effect on diabetic epilepsy. Relationship with Hyperglycemia
Paiboonpol et al. [540] reported a case study of
Antiepileptic Treatment 22 patients with hyperglycemia who presented
AEDs not only control seizures but also regu- partial SE. The average duration was 9 days, and
late blood glucose levels. A unified perspective the seizures stopped when the patients’ blood
of antiepileptic treatments is not currently avail- glucose levels were controlled. Further studies
able. However, drugs such as phenytoin should have shown that most of these patients had meta-
be avoided because they inhibit insulin secretion, bolic disorders, such as high blood glucose lev-
elevate blood glucose levels, and increase the risk els, low serum sodium levels, and high osmotic
of seizure. According to the results of some stud- pressure.
ies, carbamazepine may be an effective treatment
for diabetic epilepsy. Roze et al. [536] reported Types of SE
a case study of diabetic patients who presented Schomer et al. [527] noted that focal SE and EPC
SE in whom seizures were terminated following are the specific manifestation of patients with
the administration of carbamazepine. Similarly, non-ketonic diabetes. Paiboonpol et al. [540]
Batista et al. [537] also reported a case study in reported a study of 22 patients with diabetes who
which carbamazepine effectively treated patients presented EPC as the initial symptom. Mukherjee
with diabetes and CPS. Topiramate may be a et al. [541] reported a case study of a pediatric
good alternative because it treats both epilepsy patient with T1DM who also showed EPC.
and diabetes [538].
Treatment
4.9.2.2 RSE in Diabetes Mellitus Researchers have not yet achieved con-
sensus regarding the optimal treatment for
Clinical Characteristics DM-associated RSE. Generally, the treat-
Diabetic seizures are long-lasting and difficult ment should be determined by the symp-
to control. Additionally, they tend to progress to toms. Phenytoin and phenobarbital should be
RSE. avoided because they influence insulin secre-
tion. Symptoms should be treated using fluid
Relationship with GAD-Ab Levels infusions and strategies that correct electrolyte
Cikrikcili et al. [266] reported a case study of disturbances and hyperglycemia. When neces-
a 63-year-old patient with Type 2 diabetes mel- sary, mannitol should be used to prevent cerebral
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 145

edema. The treatments used to terminate the sei- of 75 patients with SLE and epilepsy presented
zure are described in Chaps. 6, 7, and 8. tonic-clonic seizures during follow-up.

Onset Time and Disease Course

4.9.3  pilepsy and RSE in Systemic
E Seizures can occur at any time in patients with
Lupus Erythematosus SLE but most frequently occur in its early stage.
In a study by González-Duarte et al. [547],
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a com- approximately half of the patients developed sei-
mon autoimmune disease that is characterized zures in the early stage of SLE.
by multisystem damage caused by autoantibod- In some patients, epilepsy is the only clini-
ies and immune complexes. When the CNS is cal manifestation in the early stage of SLE, and
involved, the disease is called neuropsychiatric SLE is therefore diagnosed a few years after the
systemic lupus erythematosus (NPSLE), and its appearance of epilepsy [306, 548]. In this situa-
clinical manifestations include epilepsy, cogni- tion, epilepsy caused by SLE tends to be misdi-
tive dysfunction, and insanity. agnosed as primary epilepsy.
Patients with SLE who present seizures
4.9.3.1 Epilepsy in SLE as the first symptom should be distinguished
SLE is common in females. Thus, SLE should be from patients with SLE induced by AEDs.
considered when a female presents seizures with Degirmencioglu et al. [549] reported a case study
an unknown cause. of a pregnant woman who was using lamotrig-
ine to treat her epilepsy. In the 36th gestational
Prevalence week, SLE appeared. The symptoms disappeared
Tsai et al. [544] conducted a cohort study and after the patient stopped using the drugs, and
found that patients with SLE, especially young the patient was therefore diagnosed with drug-­
patients, are more prone to develop epilepsy, induced SLE.
and neurological complications and mental ill-
ness increase the risk of epilepsy. The inci- Reversible Posterior Encephalopathy and
dence of seizure varies among previous reports. Neonatal Lupus Erythematosus
Mikdashi et al. [542] reported an incidence of Reversible posterior encephalopathy (RPE)
approximately 14%. However, Ramsey-Goldman may be caused by SLE and characterized by
[543] conducted a cohort study of 1295 patients headache, vomiting, mental disorders, seizures,
with SLE and found that approximately 6% of and other neurological symptoms. Leroux et al.
these patients developed seizures after an SLE [550] reported a case study of four patients
diagnosis. with RPE caused by SLE. Their MRI results
showed edema in the posterior part of the brain.
Clinical Manifestations MRI also showed hemorrhagic complications
in one patient. Neonatal lupus erythematosus is
Seizure Types a rare autoimmune disease characterized by
SLE can cause a variety of seizure types, includ- focal seizures, skin lupus, anemia, and throm-
ing GTCS and partial seizures. Of these, GTCS bocytopenia [551].
are the most common [545]. In a study by
Mikdashi et al. [542], 28 of 195 patients with Auxiliary Examinations
SLE presented seizures. According to the interna-
tional standard for classifying epileptic seizures, EEG
three-fourths of patients present generalized sei- Patients with SLE who present seizures usually
zures, and the remainder present partial seizures. have obvious abnormalities on an EEG that may
González-Duarte et al. [547] conducted a large- be characterized by focal slowing or sharp or
sample cohort study and found that two-thirds spike-waves [552].
146 X. Wang et al.

Neuroimaging be avoided because they can cause d­ rug-induced

Imaging is an important auxiliary examination SLE. Antimalarial drugs have been suggested to
that is used to diagnosis epilepsy caused by prevent the recurrence of seizures [561].
SLE. In a study by Ainiala et al. [553], MRI was
performed in patients with SLE and epilepsy, and 4.9.3.2 RSE in SLE
it always showed cortical atrophy and T1- and RSE is not common in patients with SLE, but it
T2-weighted abnormalities. In a study of 133 should receive special attention because it is an
patients with NPSLE and epilepsy published by urgent and severe condition.
Jeong et al. [554], MRI mainly showed gray mat-
ter hyperintensities, suggesting that gray matter Pathogenesis
hyperintensity on MRI may help to diagnose this In patients with SLE, SE or RSE may be associ-
disease. ated with many factors, including cerebrovascu-
lar lesions caused by SLE, other neuropsychiatric
Laboratory Examinations symptoms, increased disease activity, and posi-
In patients with SLE and epilepsy, antiphospho- tive reactivity to anticardiolipin antibodies [305,
lipid antibodies (including aCL, LA, and anti-­ 544, 562].
β2GPI) are the most important antibodies. Hawro
et al. [555] found that anti-β2GPI is more valu- Clinical Manifestations
able than aCL and LA antibodies for diagnosing SE that occurs secondary to SLE can present as
seizures caused by SLE. multiple types of seizures. The most frequently
reported type is CPS. Tsuji et al. [308] reported
Treatments a case study of a female patient with SLE who
initially presented consciousness disorders and
Treatment for SLE in whom the results of CT and MRI indicated
Studies have demonstrated that treatments for brain atrophy. Then, her consciousness got
SLE can effectively alleviate epilepsy. Once SLE back to normal, and carbamazepine had been
is diagnosed, an appropriate treatment should given to her because of the abnormality in
be applied. Treatment may include hormones EEG. Later, she had abnormal consciousness
and immunosuppressants. Glucocorticoids and activity again. This time, her EEG showed
or a combination of glucocorticoids and continuous diffuse slow waves. The patient
immunomodulators are usually used to treat was therefore diagnosed with complex partial
­
patients with both SLE and epilepsy [556]. When SE. With the exception of CPS, other seizure
the disease is acutely exacerbated, a patient types are relatively rare. Nasri et al. [546]
should receive large doses of oral or intravenous reported a case study of a pediatric patient
glucocorticoids [557]. According to one recent with secondary SLE who presented SE twice
study conducted by Barile-Fabris et al. [556], over the course of the disease. The first epi-
long-term treatment with a combination of cyclo- sode involved generalized hypotonic seizures
phosphamide and methylprednisolone is superior and tonic seizures, while the second episode
to intravenous methylprednisolone alone in treat- involved generalized seizure that was second-
ing refractory epilepsy caused by SLE. ary to myoclonic seizure.

Treatment for Seizures Diagnosis

Most patients with SLE do not require AEDs at the When diagnosing SE or RSE induced by SLE,
first seizure episode [306], but the long-term use of a clinician should determine first whether the
AEDs should be considered in patients with recur- patient has experienced a seizure and then
rent seizures [558]. AEDs are selected according whether the cause of epilepsy is SLE. When a
to the type of seizure. However, drugs such as diagnosis is difficult, EEG monitoring may pro-
lamotrigine [559] and carbamazepine [560] should vide some useful information.
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 147

When patients present abnormal behaviors, caused the epilepsy should be ­positively treated.
clinicians should determine clearly whether (3) The treatment should maintain the stability of
the abnormal behavior is a neuropsychiatric the patient’s internal environment, use strategies
symptom of SLE or caused by complex partial including symptomatic treatment and the timely
SE. Fernandez-Torre et al. [305] reported a case control of complications, and prevent cerebral
study of a female patient with SLE who had visual hernia. (4) Treatments should ensure airway
hallucination and was eventually diagnosed with patency and the oxygen supply, and a tracheal
complex partial SE using an EEG examination. intubation or tracheotomy should be conducted,
When diagnosing such a patient, a clinician if necessary. If the patient still experiences diffi-
should always consider the possibility of NCSE culty breathing, a ventilator can be used. (5) After
because this disorder lacks specific clinical mani- the seizures have been terminated, appropriate
festations and can be easily misdiagnosed. drugs are needed to maintain treatment, and the
Park et al. [304] reported a case study of a patient should be monitored carefully throughout
17-year-old female patient with SLE who pre- this process (additional details are provided in
sented RSE as the initial symptom. The labora- Chaps. 6, 7, and 8).
tory examinations performed at admission did not
show significant abnormalities, whereas an MRI
showed an enhancement of the leptomeninges. 4.9.4  pilepsy and RSE in Hepatic
E
During follow-up in the outpatient department, Encephalopathy
an antinuclear antibody test was positive, and
an SLE diagnosis was therefore clear. Similarly, Hepatic encephalopathy is a syndrome that is
Polychronopoulos et al. [563] reported a rare case based on metabolic disorders caused by hepatic
study of a patient with SLE combined with refrac- failure or a portosystemic shunt. Hepatic enceph-
tory epilepsy. This patient showed a typical aura alopathy is characterized by personality disorder,
and frequent CPS. Upon admission, the diagnosis dystrophy, asterixis, an altered state of conscious-
was refractory temporal lobe medial epilepsy, but ness, coma, and death [565]. Seizure is not com-
a laboratory examination did not show obvious mon in patients with hepatic encephalopathy, but
abnormalities, and no other symptoms of SLE it does predict a poor prognosis.
were observed. Therefore, the diagnosis of SLE
was delayed. Based on the results of these studies, 4.9.4.1 E
 pilepsy in Hepatic
a diagnosis of SLE should be considered even if Encephalopathy
laboratory examinations performed at admission
showed no significant abnormalities and refrac- Pathogenesis
tory epilepsy is the only clinical symptom. The
appropriate examinations should be repeated to Abnormal Neurotransmission
document changes. Ardizzone et al. [566] observed that patients with
hepatic encephalopathy presented neurological
Treatments complications, such as seizure, mental disorder,
SLE is an autoimmune disease. Thus, hormone and focal movement disorders. These complica-
therapy is a suitable and effective treatment option. tions were primarily related to abnormal neuro-
As shown in a study by Gieron et al. [564], meth- transmission caused by a toxic substance, such as
ylprednisolone controlled symptoms and caused manganese and ammonium.
the lesions observed on MRI in a patient with
SLE and SE to disappear. The principles of treat- Metabolic Disorder
ing SE or RSE in patients with SLE are described Tanaka et al. [567] found that in patients with
below. (1) The use of effective AEDs and the hepatic encephalopathy, seizures were associated
timely control of SE are conducive to obtaining a with hyperammonemia, phenols, short chain fatty
better prognosis. (2) The underlying disease that acids, and false neurotransmitters. High blood
148 X. Wang et al.

ammonia levels are a risk factor for s­ eizures. As Ferro et al. [573] recommend levetiracetam as a
shown in a study by Kumar et al. [568], patients first-line drug. However, sedative drugs should
with hyperammonemia (≥122 μmol/L for 3 con- be avoided [574]. Additionally, in patients with
secutive days) are more likely to develop seizures. advanced liver cirrhosis, AEDs that are cleared
by the hepatic metabolism, such as carbamaze-
Others pine or phenytoin, should not be used [575].
In patients with acute hepatic failure, seizures Although phenytoin is recommended as a treat-
may be induced by cerebral edema and hernia ment for suspected seizures in patients with acute
[569]. In patients who have undergone a liver hepatic failure, Bhatia et al. [576] found that the
transplant, seizures are mainly caused by immu- prophylactic use of phenytoin did not prevent sei-
nosuppressors and some other drugs [570]. zures in these patients. Moreover, lactulose may
also be an alternative because it can reduce blood
Incidence ammonia levels and terminate seizures [577].
The incidence of seizures is approximately Moreover, attention should be paid to the
2–33% in patients with hepatic encephalopa- management of seizures in patients with hepatic
thy [565]. Ghosh et al. [571] conducted a study encephalopathy, which is caused by a special eti-
involving 65 children who underwent liver trans- ology. For example, in patients with hepatolen-
plantation and found that seizures were the most ticular degeneration, epilepsy is mainly caused
common neurological complication. by a vitB6 deficiency that results from penicil-
lamine therapy, which can be controlled by vitB6
Seizure Types or other chelators of copper cations [574].
GTCS is the most prevalent type in patients with
hepatic encephalopathy. Thabah et al. [572] 4.9.4.2 RSE in Hepatic Encephalopathy
reported a case study of a patient with Still disease SE and RSE are common in patients with hepatic
who manifested GTCS and in whom ­laboratory encephalopathy. Eleftheriadis et al. [577] reported
examinations indicated hepatic dysfunction. The a case study of a 54-year-old female patient with
patient was therefore diagnosed with hepatic liver cirrhosis who had a history of hepatitis B,
encephalopathy. Derle et al. [570] conducted a hepatic encephalopathy, ascites, and spontane-
study of patients who received a liver transplant ous peritonitis. Upon admission, examination
and found that GTCS was the most common sei- revealed clearly increased blood ammonia lev-
zure type. els, and an electroencephalogram showed diffuse
sharp waves. According to the patient’s medical
Diagnosis history and the results of auxiliary examinations,
A clear medical history, imaging, electroencepha- hepatic encephalopathy and SE were considered
logram, and laboratory examinations are required the diagnosis. AEDs such as clonazepam were
to diagnose epilepsy caused by hepatic encepha- ineffective, and the patient was diagnosed with
lopathy. In addition, seizure activity may lead to RSE. After the patient was treated with lactulose,
hypoxic brain injury and exacerbate brain edema. SE was controlled, and the patient’s blood ammo-
Therefore, subclinical seizures should be distin- nia levels and electroencephalogram returned to
guished when patients with hepatic encephalopa- normal. Jo et al. [578] reported a case study of
thy present an altered state of consciousness [573]. a 52-year-old male patient with liver cirrhosis.
He was sent to the emergency room as a result
Treatments of a change in consciousness but had no history
The guiding principles of treatment should of hepatic encephalopathy, epilepsy, or other dis-
involve the following: treat the primary disease, eases. Based on the results of physical and labo-
correct the inducing factors, complete imaging ratory examinations, the patient was diagnosed
examinations, choose safe drugs, and perform with hepatic encephalopathy. The corresponding
dynamic electroencephalogram monitoring. It is treatment was administered to the patient, but
not necessary to treat a single isolated seizure. no obvious improvement in consciousness was
4 Clinical Features of Refractory Status Epilepticus in Various Conditions 149

observed. Later, MRI and EEG showed that the fective. SE was controlled after the administra-
patient also had NCSE. After the patient was tion of thiopentone and the application of positive
treated with levetiracetam, the seizures were pressure oxygen therapy. The patient then gradu-
controlled and the EEG returned to normal. ally recovered. In patients with carbon monoxide
Thus, changes in blood ammonia levels and EEG poisoning, RSE may be associated with extensive
results may be characteristic clinical manifesta- cerebral anoxia. Therefore, treatments that pro-
tions that can help diagnose RSE in patients with tect the brain are crucial, and hyperbaric oxygen
hepatic encephalopathy. therapy is recommended if the patient’s medical
condition allows it [584].

4.9.5  pilepsy and RSE in Other

E 4.9.5.3 Pulmonary Encephalopathy
Encephalopathy Pulmonary encephalopathy can also induce
seizures. This may be related to brain anoxia-­
4.9.5.1 Uremic Encephalopathy ischemia [585], respiratory alkalosis [586], and
In patients with uremic encephalopathy, seizure other conditions. We were unable to identify a
may have some relationship with dialysis [579], typical case study involving RSE in patients with
uremic toxins, and disturbances in the inter- pulmonary encephalopathy. However, case stud-
nal environment [580]. RSE is rarely observed ies of patients with myoclonic SE have been pub-
in patients with uremic encephalopathy, and its lished. Zhang et al. [587] reported a case study
common cause is food poisoning, which may of a patient who underwent cholecystectomy and
be associated with the neurotoxicity of food. presented cardiopulmonary arrest. After cardio-
Cassinotto et al. [581] reviewed the literature pulmonary resuscitation, the patient presented
regarding star fruit intoxication and found that myoclonus, and midazolam only temporarily
some patients with uremia present RSE after star controlled the symptoms. The patient’s condition
fruit intoxication. Soliman et al. [582] reported a improved after a continuous intravenous infusion
case study of two patients with chronic renal fail- of phenobarbital and valproic acid, which was
ure who were poisoned after they ate corrupted administered for 4 weeks. The seizures recurred
salted mullet and showed local twitch and myoc- upon withdrawal of the phenobarbital treatment
lonus. The seizures were not controlled by phe- and then stopped after the phenobarbital was
nytoin, phenobarbital, and valproic acid. Thus, readministered.
the patients were diagnosed with RSE. The sei-
zures of one patient were controlled by propofol,
but the prognosis of the other patient was poor,
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Seizure occurrence in patients with chronic renal
 Applications
of Electroencephalography 5
in Status Epilepticus

Yida Hu and Shichuo Li

Abstract
Status epilepticus (SE) is a critical neurological condition that may appear
alone or during the course of a variety of neurological disorders, such as
encephalitis, cerebrovascular disease, or toxic metabolic or ischemic
hypoxic encephalopathy. Although the onset of prominent motor symp-
toms is usually noticed by medical staff and family members, patients who
lack prominent motor symptoms are often not treated in time because of
their atypical symptomology. Such patients are usually diagnosed with
nonconvulsive status epilepticus (NCSE), which is difficult to identify
without an electroencephalogram (EEG). Moreover, an EEG provides
guidance for determining the prognosis and treatment options in patients
with SE. In this chapter, we briefly introduce the history of EEG, its tech-
nical parameters, the principles used in interpreting abnormal EEGs, the
association between EEG results and prevalent types of SE, the role of
EEG in the treatment and prognosis of various pathologies, and the addi-
tional uses of EEG.

5.1 I ntroduction: the Basic

Characteristics of the
Electroencephalogram

5.1.1 The Development

Y. Hu, Ph.D. (*)
and Evolution
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology,
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated of the Electroencephalogram
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University,
1 YouYi Road, Chongqing 400016, China The first human EEG was recorded in 1924 by Hans
e-mail: [email protected]
Berger, the German engineer and psychiatrist, in
S. Li Jena. This important finding has contributed to
China Association Against Epilepsy (CAAE),
the rapid development of clinical neuroscience
Rm. 5102, Building 2, Beijing Exhibition Center
Hotel, 135 Xizhimenwai Avenue, Xicheng District, and neuroelectrophysiology. The earliest EEG
Beijing 100044, People’s Republic of China recordings relied on a ­machine-­driven marker to

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 171

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_5
172 Y. Hu and S. Li

depict the electrical activity of the human brain produces environmental noise and interference
on blank sheets of paper, but these were inconve- that ­overwhelms the EEG signal; thus, amplifiers
nient to read and resulted in massive paper waste. with high sensitivity and strong anti-interferent
With the rapid development of computer technol- properties are necessary. In modern digital EEG
ogy, the EEG evolved into analog signal EEG and systems, the amplifiers, as the core components,
digital signal EEG, the former simply simulating also contain adjustment and recording functions
the traditional recording on the paper, while the in addition to the traditional amplification func-
latter was truly a milestone that marked a new era tion. Since there is no mechanical damping dur-
in technology. Due to improvements in recording ing the recording and display of the digital EEG,
modes, output modes, and analysis algorithms, the term “damping” has disappeared from the
such as compressed spectral array technology, dig- vocabulary of modern clinical EEG. Therefore,
ital EEG enables real-time, noninvasive economic the EEG systems commonly observed in many
monitoring, analysis, and evaluation of patients hospitals consist of the following parts: (1) elec-
via storage of large amounts of data, adjustment trodes or electrode cap, (2) amplifier, (3) video
of analysis parameters, playback, automatic anal- monitor, (4) computer (monitor and recorder),
ysis, and other functions. Currently, in addition and (5) printer (Fig. 5.1).
to the common EEG instruments, the following
types of EEG are available: video EEG for syn-
chronous monitoring of EEG and the behavior of
patients; continuous EEG (cEEG) for long-term,
noninvasive monitoring and assessment of drug
efficacy and prognosis; intracranial EEG to locate
epileptic foci; index EEG to evaluate coma depth;
high-­frequency EEG to detect the origin of epi-
lepsy; and nuclear magnetic EEG, which can be
obtained in the MRI room and fused with MR
images.

5.1.2 Structure of the EEG Recorder

The traditional EEG recorder consists of several

parts: power, input, amplification, regulation, and
recording. Signal acquisition and input compo-
nents include electrodes, input box, lead selec-
tion, standard voltage, resistance measurement,
and other devices; the amplifying component
consists of a preamplifier and a postamplifier;
the adjustment components include gain, fil-
ter, running speed of paper, and damping; and
the recording portion is composed of a marker
and paper sheets. The core components of the
EEG recorder are the amplifiers. Because the
EEG signal is weak, in the range of millivolts or
microvolts, and is further attenuated on its way
through the skull, meninges, and scalp, it must
be amplified millions of times. However, this Fig. 5.1 The structure of an EEG recorder
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 173

5.1.3  asic Knowledge of the EEG

B analysis ranges from 0.1 to 100 Hz and is mainly
Wave within the 0.3–70 Hz interval. Internationally, the
range of EEG wave frequency is divided into five
To interpret an EEG, the EEG frequency, ampli- bands represented by five Greek letters, of which
tude, and waveform, as well as the distribution, delta and theta are slow wave bands, and beta and
form, and changes of abnormal waves, must be gamma are fast wave bands.
analyzed.
Alpha wave: 8–13 Hz (Fig. 5.2)
5.1.3.1 Frequency Beta wave: 14–30 Hz (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3)
Frequency equals the number of repetitions per sec- Theta wave: 4–7.5 Hz (Fig. 5.3)
ond of EEG waves that share the same period. The Delta wave: 0.3–3.5 Hz (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4)
frequency of EEG waves encountered in clinical Gamma wave: >30 Hz

Fig. 5.2 Box A shows an alpha wave, and Box B shows a beta wave. The subject is a 53-year-old male who is awake
with closed eyes

Fig. 5.3 Box A shows a delta wave, Box B shows a spindle wave in the beta band, and Box C shows a theta wave. The
patient is a 69-year-old male in coma who is believed to have an intracranial infection
174 Y. Hu and S. Li

Fig. 5.4 The boxes indicate diffuse delta waves. The patient is a 47-year-old male in a moderate coma with tuberculous
meningoencephalitis

5.1.3.2 Wave Amplitude Triphasic wave: this wave contains three phases;
Amplitude, also called voltage, measures the the first phase is generally a relatively small
potential difference between any two electrodes negative wave, the second phase is positive,
and is expressed in microvolts (μV). Age has a and the third phase is negative with an ampli-
large effect on amplitude; thus, for adults: tude usually higher than that of the first phase.
It is common in metabolic encephalopathy,
Low amplitude: <25 μV hepatorenal failure, and hypoxia. Positive-­
Medium amplitude: 25–75 μV negative-­positive triphasic waves exist.
High amplitude: 75–150 μV Spike: the shape is similar to a sharp nail, with a
Very high amplitude: >150 μV time limit of 20–70 ms.
Sharp wave: this waveform is similar to those of
For children: spikes, with a time limit of 70–200 ms; spikes
and sharp waves are usually abnormal wave-
Low amplitude: <50 μV forms, but the vertex sharp waves during sleep
Medium amplitude: 50–150 μV and sharp waves in the occipital region of
High amplitude: 150–300 μV children and in the frontal region of neonates
Very high amplitude: >300 μV should not be regarded as abnormal.
Complex: contains two or more continuous wave
5.1.3.3 Waveform components.
Whether EEG waveforms are normal depends on Spike (sharp) and wave: the first component is a
multiple factors including age, monitoring status, spike (sharp wave), followed by a slow wave.
and location. Common waveforms are as follows: Polyspike: two or more consecutive spikes.
Polyspike and wave: two or more spikes as the
Sinusoidal wave: the upward and downward initial wave, followed by a slow wave.
branches of the wave are smooth. K-complex: one of the signs of stage 2 sleep,
Simple wave and biphasic wave: the former refers appearing as high-amplitude 1 Hz slow activ-
to a wave that deflects in a single direction ity of the brain hemisphere; under sound stim-
from the baseline (up or down), whereas the ulation, short-range 12–14 Hz fast activity
latter contains one segment above the baseline will appear.
and the other segment below the baseline.
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 175

5.1.3.4 EEG of Normal Adults Generalized: appearing in regions of both

Alpha and beta waves are the basic waves in the ­hemispheres, basically symmetrical (Fig. 5.5).
awakened state (Fig. 5.2), and a few fast waves Diffuse: appearing in regions of both hemi-
and slow waves are scattered during this state. spheres, similar to the generalized type but
The primary brain wave is the alpha wave, which with less symmetry.
is distributed in the back of the head and is sym- Symmetrical: the waveform, amplitude, phase,
metrical on both sides. On symmetrical sites of and frequency of electrical activities are essen-
both hemispheres, the frequency difference of tially the same in both hemispheres (Fig. 5.6).
alpha waves should not exceed 20%, and the Asymmetrical: the waveform, amplitude, phase,
amplitude difference should be no more than and frequency of electrical activities differ
50% in the occipital region and no more than from one hemisphere to the other (Fig. 5.7).
20% in other regions. The average amplitude of Lateralized: abnormal electrical activity occurs in
alpha waves is less than 100 μV and that of beta one hemisphere or mainly in one hemisphere.
waves less than 50 μV. During the opening and Localized: abnormal electrical activity is limited
closing of the eyes, mental activity, or sensation in certain regions (Fig. 5.8).
of a stimulus, alpha waves should be attenuated. Migratory: characteristic EEG activity gradually
Slow waves of normal adults are random, low-­ shifts from one region to another on the same
amplitude waves, mostly theta waves, and contin- or opposite side of the brain, often manifested
uous high-amplitude beta or delta waves should as a weakening waveform in one region grad-
not be observed at any site. During sleep, brain ually emerging in another region.
waves should be symmetrical. Abnormal electri-
cal activity should not be detected. There should 5.1.3.6 Patterns of Abnormal Waves
not be spikes or spike and waves during waking The following terms are commonly used to
or sleep. describe abnormal waves according to the time
and number of their occurrence:
5.1.3.5 D  istribution of Abnormal
Waves Wave: wave in a single form.
According to the location of the abnormal waves Activity: several consecutive waves similar in
identified by the electrodes, the distribution of form and prevalent within a certain range of
abnormal waves is usually classified as follows: time and space.

Fig. 5.5 Demonstrates generalized delta activity. The patient is 27 years old with autoimmune encephalitis and is in
the lowest state of consciousness. The stars indicate eye-blink artifacts
176 Y. Hu and S. Li

Fig. 5.6 Demonstrates discharges of symmetrical bilateral synchronous periodic spikes. The patient is 74 years old and
in a deep coma after cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Fig. 5.7 Demonstrates asymmetrical electrical activity, the right side. The patient, a 59-year-old male, is in a stu-
in which the spindle wave is well developed on the left por after massive infarction of the right hemisphere
side of the brain (indicated by the box) but nonexistent on

Fig. 5.8 Demonstrates localized discharge of spikes under the F4 electrode. This 49-year-old female patient with epi-
lepsy is in a state of somnolence
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 177

Rhythm: the consecutive appearance of more than Paroxysm: brain waves prominent against the
three identical waves. According to the time background activity with milder prominent
limit of occurrence, rhythms are classified into components compared to bursts.
short-range (shorter than 1 s), medium-range Hypsarrhythmia: asymmetry of amplitude, fre-
(longer than 1 s but shorter than 3 s), and long- quency, and waveform plus asynchronicity.
range (longer than 3 s).
Random: a single wave appearing at irregular
intervals in the same lead or different leads. 5.1.4 Electrode Placement
Episode: only one or two occurrences of a and Montages
particular waveform during one period of
­
recording. The principle of electrode placement is to record
Transient: a certain waveform stands out the abnormal potential as much as possible.
from the background activity, with irreg- Currently, the most internationally used method
ularity, a short range, and infrequent­ of electrode placement is the 10/20 system. The
occurrence. electrodes on both ears are usually designated
Periodicity: waves or wave groups of similar reference electrodes, or the average potential of
forms and phases that stand out from the back- all electrodes is taken as the reference. Montages
ground activity and recur at similar intervals can be either referential or bipolar. The advan-
(Fig. 5.6). tages and disadvantages of common lead settings
Synchronous: bilateral EEG changes with a are summarized as follows:
fixed relationship of phase and the same fre-
quency (Fig. 5.6). Bilateral EEG changes 5.1.4.1 Ear Electrode Referential
may have a time difference less than 25 ms; Montage
otherwise, they are regarded as secondary Advantages:
synchronization.
Asynchronous: bilateral EEG changes occur in a It helps to analyze abnormal waves and general-
non-fixed relationship of phase and nonidenti- ized waveforms.
cal frequencies. The amplitude is higher and more stable than
Burst: brain waves prominent against the back- with bipolar montage.
ground activity with abrupt onset and termina- The potential difference is close to the absolute
tion (Fig. 5.9). value.

Fig. 5.9 Shows the typical pattern of burst suppression, The patient is a 78-year-old male in a deep coma after
with abrupt onset and termination. Box A indicates the cardiopulmonary resuscitation
burst phase, and Box B indicates the suppression phase.
178 Y. Hu and S. Li

It can be used to analyze the symmetry of b­ ilateral slow waves is constant; there is no time interval
normal phenomena. between a spike and wave and the next (if intervals
are present, the waveform should be described as
Disadvantages: a periodic waveform to be discussed below).
Periodic waveforms: repeated, relatively uni-
It is difficult to locate small-scale lesions. form, and continuous waveforms with approxi-
ECG artifacts may be obvious. mately the same discharge interval. Periodic
The activation of ear reference often leads to waveforms typically include periodic epilepti-
misunderstandings. form discharges (PEDs) and burst suppression.
According to the focus of epileptic discharge,
5.1.4.2 Average Referential Montage periodic epileptiform discharges in the EEG
Advantages: manifestation are divided into two types: gener-
alized and lateralized.
The detection during a limited period of time is EEG features of generalized periodic epi-
ideal. leptiform discharges (GPDs): epileptiform dis-
It can be used to locate polyspike foci not distinct charges, such as spikes, sharp waves, spike and
in the bipolar method. waves, and polyspikes, can be observed on EEG,
and they are bilateral, synchronous, and general-
Disadvantages: ized, with a similar discharge interval which is
often observed with low-voltage slow activity or
Some generalized events may cause “referential no activity. Periodic lateralized epileptiform dis-
montage activation,” resulting in difficulty charges (PLEDs) are characterized by occurrence
detecting focal lesions or the detection of in mainly one hemisphere, involving the entire
pseudo-diffuse foci. hemisphere or primarily a certain location.
EEG features of burst suppression: the alter-
5.1.4.3 Bipolar Montage nation of explosive activity greater than 20 μV
Advantages: and electrical suppression. The bursts can be
high-amplitude delta waves or theta waves with
Most electrical activities of the brain can be or without spikes or sharp waves. Between these
located by hemisphere and region. bursts is low-voltage activity, whose amplitude
The influence of unrelated electrodes is relatively should be less than 10 μV.
small. Characteristics of triphasic waves: as the
name suggests, triphasic waves are waves that
Disadvantages: reverse around the baseline up and down three
times. Its waveform is quite variable. The most
Electrode potential offset may occur, resulting in typical triphasic wave is a high-amplitude posi-
lowered amplitude. tive-phase wave preceded by a lower-amplitude
negative-­phase wave and followed by another,
with the width of the three waves in ascending
5.1.5 Related Terminology order. However, there are also triphasic waves
with a negative-phase wave between two posi-
In this article, we will use the following terms tive-phase waves. Using bipolar montages which
to describe the EEG. The characteristics of these links sequential pairs of electrodes longitudi-
terms are summarized as follows: nally, the frontal-occipital phase difference of
Spike and wave or sharp and wave: the alter- the main positive-phase wave is approximately
nating, repeated pattern in which spikes or sharp 25–140 ms. Triphasic waves are more frequently
waves are followed by slow waves. The relation- distributed at the front of the head, but they are
ship between the spikes (or sharp waves) and the not uncommon at the back of the head.
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 179

Rhythmic delta activity: its graphical appearance of all-electrode low-amplitude fast

c­ haracteristics include paroxysmal 2–3 Hz delta rhythm (20–40 Hz) or low-amplitude poly-
activity with a sinusoidal or zigzag waveform. spikes, gradually forming recruiting rhythms.
When it appears intermittently, it is called inter- The spike amplitude gradually increases, while
mittent rhythmic delta activity, which usually the frequency gradually decreases (10–15 Hz),
lasts for 2–5 s; when there is no time interval followed by the insertion of irregular slow theta
between successive waveforms, it is called con- waves; regular spike and waves have not yet been
tinuous rhythmic delta activity. Rhythmic delta formed. In this period, the EEG signals may be
activity can be unilateral or bilateral. overwhelmed by large amounts of electromyo-
gram (EMG) artifacts due to tonic muscle con-
tractions. In the clonic phase, the alternation of
5.2 Electroencephalographic spikes or polyspikes and slow waves is gradually
Manifestations of SE regularized. Simultaneously, spikes/polyspikes
correspond to the contraction phase of the mus-
5.2.1 Introduction cle, and slow waves correspond to the relaxation
phase of the muscle, which forms the so-called
As most recently defined by the International checkerboard-like EEG [2]. After the last spike
League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) in 2015, SE is a and wave disappears, the EEG signal goes into
condition resulting either from the failure of the diffuse depression; during this period, the patient
mechanisms responsible for seizure termination enters the postictal state when the disturbance of
or from the initiation of mechanisms that lead consciousness is usually present (see Fig. 5.10).
to abnormally prolonged seizures [1]. The clas- The diagnosis of generalized tonic-clonic SE
sification of SE by the ILAE in 2015 is based on is straightforward due to the clear and typical
semiology, etiology, EEG correlates, and age [1]. clinical symptoms. However, disturbance of con-
EEG to SE is what pathological examination sciousness usually follows the attack, and clini-
is to tumors: they both play an irreplaceable role cians are often confused regarding how to explain
in the diagnosis, classification, and treatment the disturbance of consciousness and whether it
monitoring of disease. There are many types of is necessary to take measures. In this scenario,
EEG manifestations of SE. Different types of SE an EEG can help classify the disturbance of
can manifest in the same EEG, whereas the type consciousness.
of EEG in the same patient with SE can change The first type of disturbance of conscious-
over time. Therefore, physician and EEG tech- ness is postictal suppression. This type of EEG
nician must know how to explain these uncer- features a generalized voltage suppression that
tainties when discussing electroencephalograms continues for several tens of seconds to several
of SE. minutes, followed by the gradual emergence of
diffuse high-amplitude delta waves, which last
for several minutes to more than 10 min. The
5.2.2  EG of SE with Prominent
E delta waves are succeeded by the gradual appear-
Motor Symptoms ance of the K-complex and/or sleep spindle. For
this postictal suppression, intravenous antiepilep-
5.2.2.1 Generalized Tonic-Clonic SE tics are not necessary.
Generalized tonic-clonic SE is a clinical emer- The second type of consciousness disturbance
gency with extremely high mortality and mor- is an anticonvulsant drug-induced sleep state.
bidity. The EEG of idiopathic generalized The EEG of this type is similar to the first type,
tonic-clonic SE is similar to that of self-limiting as there is no significant epileptic discharge,
generalized tonic-clonic seizure. At the begin- but there is a 15–20 Hz spindle-like fast rhythm
ning of the attack, the background amplitude mainly present in the front of the head. This type
is decreased in all electrodes, followed by the of rhythm must not be misinterpreted as epileptic
180 Y. Hu and S. Li

Fig. 5.10 Shows recurrent generalized tonic-clonic SE contraction and slow waves corresponding to muscle
in a 28-year-old female patient. (a) Low-amplitude fast relaxation, forming a checkerboard-like appearance. (d)
rhythm at the beginning of the attack. (b) Recruiting Termination of the attack and generalized low-voltage
rhythm formed by spikes, with gradually increasing suppression observed after the disappearance of the last
amplitude and gradually decreasing frequency. (c) Regular spike and wave
spike and waves, with spikes corresponding to muscle
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 181

Fig. 5.10 (continued)

low-amplitude asynchronous discharge because on the primary disorder, assisted by antiepilep-

this rhythm is fast wave and is induced by drugs, tic drug therapy.
such as benzodiazepines and phenobarbital. Another disorder that is easily confused with
The third type of consciousness disturbance is generalized tonic-clonic SE is pseudostatus epi-
subtle SE secondary to generalized tonic-clonic lepticus (PSE). The clinical manifestations of PSE
SE. Subtle SE is a type of nonconvulsive SE, can be tonic-clonic-like twitches similar to those
which often follows convulsive SE. However, the of generalized tonic-clonic SE, but the EEG shows
literature notes that subtle SE secondary to idio- no epileptic discharge; instead, significant EMG
pathic generalized tonic-clonic SE is rare, and artifacts are present. Patients may experience a
most cases are eventually diagnosed as second- coma after the onset, but good alpha rhythms can
ary generalized tonic-clonic SE [3]. This type of be demonstrated by EEG instead of generalized
patient has no visible clinical attack or has only postictal electrical suppression. At this time, if the
slight local twitching, but the EEG shows inter- patient is given light stimulation with their eyes
mittent or continuous epileptiform discharge. For open, an alpha block can be observed.
this type, it is necessary to actively follow the DeLorenzo, R. J. et al. used 24-h continuous
principle of antiepileptic drug treatment against electroencephalogram (cEEG) monitoring and
convulsive SE. found that 52% of patients did not have after-
The fourth type is coma caused by serious SE ictal discharges (ASIDs) after convulsive SE
primary cerebral disorders. The EEG of this was controlled; rather, they showed diffuse slow
type shows sustained diffuse slow waves that waves, wave amplitude attenuation, focal slow
are accompanied by varying amounts of spikes, waves, periodic discharges, or burst suppression.
sharp waves, spike and waves, sharp and waves, Furthermore, nonconvulsive seizures and non-
and other epileptiform discharges; however, it convulsion status appeared in 48% and 14% of
lacks sleep waveforms, such as K-complexes, patients, respectively [4]. After cEEG monitoring
sleep spindles, and other sleep waves. Even in in the emergency rooms of 198 patients with dis-
patients with intravenous antiepileptics, sleep orders of consciousness, Privitera, M. et al. found
waveforms or drug-induced fast rhythms are not that 74 (37%) patients were extremely likely to
present, and the epileptic discharges and state have NCSE [5]. Therefore, EEG, particularly
of consciousness are not significantly improved. cEEG, is very important for monitoring comatose
For this type, treatment should be based mainly patients, particularly after status convulsivus.
182 Y. Hu and S. Li

Because it can help identify potential patients clonic epilepsy, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, and
with nonconvulsive seizures, the 2012 American ­neurological diseases caused by infection, meta-
Neurocritical Care Society Status Epilepticus bolic disorders, or intoxication. Various EEG
Guideline Writing Committee has recommended patterns can be observed in this type of SE, such
EEG monitoring for the diagnosis and treatment as outbreaks of spike and waves or polyspike
of all types of SE [6]. and waves [8], triphasic waves with polyspikes
(Fig. 5.11), and burst suppression waveforms
5.2.2.2 Myoclonic SE [9–11]. Sustained myoclonic SE can usually be
Myoclonic SE can be divided into two catego- observed in comatose patients after cardiopul-
ries according to the etiology: idiopathic and monary resuscitation. These patients have a high
symptomatic. Idiopathic myoclonic SE is rare. mortality rate, and the EEG can show outbreaks of
It is observed in children or adolescents with periodic pseudoepileptiform ­discharges or burst
idiopathic generalized epilepsy, such as juvenile suppression that occur several times per second
myoclonic epilepsy [7, 8]. These patients are to once every few seconds. Ribeiro A. R. et al.
often clinically manifested with bilateral, irreg- monitored the EEG of 36 patients with cardiac
ular continuous fast myoclonic manual move- arrest accompanied by myoclonic SE and found
ments. EEG shows all-electrode 2.5–5 Hz spike that 24 patients (66.7%) showed generalized epi-
and waves, which are generalized outbreaks of leptiform discharges (GEDs), and 12 patients
polyspike and waves, with durations of a few sec- (33.3%) had bilateral independent periodic dis-
onds and intervals of 4–10 s. The corresponding charges. Only ten patients (27.8%) survived,
EMG of contracting muscles shows muscle con- and the patients with an EEG response to sound,
traction that is synchronized with epileptic wave light, and pain during first-time EEG monitoring
outbreaks or not. This discharge is increased had a better prognosis than the patients with no
when the eyes are closed or the patient is woken. response [12].
Symptomatic myoclonic SE usually occurs
in patients with secondary generalized epilepsy 5.2.2.3 Tonic Status
and in patients with non-epileptic acute or sub- Tonic status is a rare type of SE that occurs pri-
acute encephalopathy, such as early infant severe marily in children or adolescents diagnosed with
myoclonic encephalopathy, progressive myo- Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, some patients with

Fig. 5.11 Shows frequent episodes of generalized myoc- Cortical ribboning is observed on MRI, and the patient is
lonus of a 68-year-old male with rapid progressive cogni- suspected of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
tive impairment and mental and behavioral abnormalities.
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 183

idiopathic generalized epilepsy and patients with believe that not all cases of secondary g­ eneralized
drug-derived factors or specific infectious diseases tonic-clonic SE develop in this order of EEG
[13–15]. Clinical manifestations are short-­ time change, and some can be manifested with focal
axial muscle tonus, such as rigidity of the neck and low-amplitude fast rhythms at first and EEG
trunk muscles and lower limb straightening, which changes similar to primary generalized tonic-
is often accompanied by upward staring eyes and clonic SE during the late course of the attack [17,
facial muscle twitching. Clinical manifestations 18]. Therefore, although secondary generalized
of these patients are milder than in generalized tonic-clonic SE often begins as focal seizures, it is
tonic-clonic SE and can be difficult to detect. EEG difficult to distinguish between idiopathic and sec-
upon onset shows a continuous low-amplitude ondary generalized tonic-clonic SE purely by EEG
fast activity of up to 20–30 Hz of frequency on if the patient’s family and doctors failed to observe
the background of voltage attenuation in all elec- the onset [2]. It also requires attention to the differ-
trodes, followed by a recruiting rhythm and the entiation with PSE. Professor Richard P. Brenner
gradual slowing of spike frequency to 10–20 Hz noted that in patients with PSE, generalized tonic-
with gradually increasing amplitude. Tonic status clonic symptoms are obvious; however, EMG arti-
can occur as frequently as hundreds of times in a facts rather than actual EEG changes are displayed
single night and can be sustained for several days. on the EEG. In addition, PSE patients are usually
It may be exacerbated by a reduced level of awak- in a state of “coma” but show a significant alpha
ening due to the use of benzodiazepines. rhythm in the back of the head, which can be sup-
pressed by the passive opening of the eyes [2].
5.2.2.4 Clonic Status
Overall, 50–80% of patients with clonic status 5.2.2.6 E  pilepsia Partialis Continua
are children. Clinical manifestations are asym- (EPC)
metrical bilateral, rhythmic clonic tics. EEG First reported in 1895 by Koshenikov, EPC is
shows a synchronous bilateral discharge of a subtype of the former simple partial SE. At
spikes or slow waves or the discharge of spike present, common clinical causes are thought to
and waves f­ollowing the recruiting rhythm be infection, tumor, drug intoxication, cortical
formed by bursts of spikes. This disorder can be dysplasia, vascular malformation, genetics, and
cryptogenic or caused by an acute brain injury ­others [19–24]. The main presentation is focal
or chronic encephalopathy. Cryptogenic clonic myoclonus or clonus of the face and upper limbs.
SE in children is usually accompanied by fever. The typical EEG characteristics are slow waves,
The prognosis of cases with acute brain injury is spikes, or sharp waves in the Rolandic region
relatively poor. contralateral to motor symptoms [2, 3, 25], but in
other cases, the following is observed: (1) bilat-
5.2.2.5 S econdary Generalized Tonic-­ eral discharge of spikes and spike and waves,
Clonic SE with or without frequency differences between
Treiman [16] and his colleagues summarized the the two sides; (2) approximately 10% of patients
EEG characteristics of secondary generalized have a normal EEG despite the typical clinical
tonic-clonic SE and the order of its development: symptoms, which may be observed when the dis-
(1) EEG changes of discrete seizures accompa- charges originate from a very small region in the
nied by episodic slow waves; (2) merging seizures brain sulcus, and the direction of the electrode
with waxing and waning of the episodic discharge; recording is tangent to the direction of discharge;
(3) continuous epileptic discharge, such as spikes thus, the electrodes fail to detect the discharge.
and spike and waves; (4) continuous ictal activ- In this case, detection by intracranial electrodes,
ity punctuated by low-voltage “flat periods”; and magnetoencephalography, electric dipole, or
(5) periodic epileptiform discharges on a “flat” SPECT [3] is necessary; (3) approximately
background. However, Lowenstein D. H. and Nei 8–15% of patients can be detected with peri-
M. and other scholars have different views. They odic lateralized epileptiform discharges, which
184 Y. Hu and S. Li

mainly appears in cases with metastatic brain p­ rojection also explains the delay between dis-
tumors and brain contusion. Injury of the spinal charge and seizure onset [28].
cord, the cerebellum, or the basal ganglia can
also cause subcortical myoclonic-like twitches,
whose clinical manifestations are very similar to 5.2.3 EEG of NCSE
epileptic myoclonus; thus, clinical differentiation
is difficult, particularly when the EEG signals are 5.2.3.1 Overview
masked by EMG artifacts produced by myoc- NCSE refers to SE with no significant motor
lonus. However, these two types of myoclonic symptoms. NCSE patients usually have abnor-
status are significantly different regarding their malities in consciousness, cognitive status, men-
clinical treatment and must, therefore, be clearly tal state, and behavior, with or without minor
differentiated. First, appropriate amounts of mus- facial and limb tics, nystagmus, and involun-
cle relaxants can be administered to patients with tary blinking [29]. Because these symptoms are
secured respiratory conditions to remove EMG mild and atypical, they are easily overlooked
artifacts and determine whether there is epilep- by family members and medical workers; thus,
tiform discharge. Then, the median nerve or pos- EEG is essential for the diagnosis of NCSE [30].
terior tibial nerve can be stimulated to determine However, there are various EEG waveforms of
whether EMG shows myoclonus 50–90 ms after NCSE. Although there have been many studies
cortical somatosensory evoked potential (SEP) attempting to define the EEG characteristics of
is induced. Another method is jerk-locked back NCSE, a lack of consensus on the criteria remains
averaging, which assumes the outburst of myo- [31–35]. In the Salzburg Consensus Criteria for
clonic EMG signals as the trigger point, extracts Non-Convulsive Status Epilepticus, the new EEG
the precedent EEG signals, and then superim- diagnostic criteria for the NCSE were defined as
poses those to acquire the average, thus high- follows:
lighting the originally unclear spikes. If the EMG Part 1: In patients without epileptic enceph-
signal outburst appears 15–50 ms later than the alopathy: if there is a repeat of >2.5 Hz of
spikes and a fixed relationship can be established epileptiform discharges, regarded here as spikes,
­

between the former and the latter, then the myoc- sharp waves, polyspikes, or spike and waves,
lonus should be of epileptic origin. In patients then NCSE must be considered based on the
with partial SE, unilateral limb jerking is usually clinical and time criteria. In patients with epi-
located contralateral to the epileptic discharges leptiform discharges ≤2.5 Hz or slow waves
[26, 27], but there are also reports in which sei- >0.5 Hz AND at least one of the additional cri-
zures and discharges are located ipsilaterally. teria, EEG of NCSE should be considered: (1)
Young G. B. and W. T. Blume studied a 47-year- clinical and EEG improvements with IV anti-
old patient with a severely damaged right hemi- epileptic drugs (AEDs): note that if there is only
sphere and found that the patient’s right upper EEG improvement without clinical improvement
and lower extremity convulsions were associated or fluctuation without decisive improvement of
with lateralized periodic discharges beside the clinical symptoms, “possible NCSE” should be
sagittal sinus in the right frontal lobe, but these diagnosed, (2) subtle clinical phenomena, and
periodic discharges were associated with ipsilat- (3) typical spatiotemporal evolution. In fact,
eral convulsions with a delay of 100 ms in each all EEG specialists understand that to diagnose
episode. The clonic jerks were abolished after epilepsy from an EEG, EEG evolutions must
sectioning of the subcortical callosal and projec- be identified, especially those in the following
tion connections of the frontal lobe. Young, G. B. three categories: (A) incrementing onset (in
and W. T. Blume also indicated that ipsilateral voltage and frequency), (B) evolution of pattern
convulsions may be associated with the presence (change in frequency >1 Hz or change in loca-
of fibers from the ipsilateral auxiliary motor area tion), or (C) decreasing termination (in voltage
to the medullary reticular formation, and this and frequency).
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 185

PART 2: In patients with preexisting According to the above classification, Sutter and
e­ ncephalopathy, NCSE should be considered in Kaplan proposed the corresponding EEG fea-
case of observable changes of the clinical pre- tures and criteria of each type of NCSE in 2012
sentation compared to baseline, increased ampli- [37]. To view EEGs of each type of NCSE, please
tude or frequency of epileptiform discharges, or refer to the corresponding literature. In 2015, the
improvement of clinical and EEG features with ILAE updated the criteria of the classification for
IV AEDs [30]. According to the latest criteria, in NCSE [1]. According to the presence or absence
all patients with clinical and EEG improvement of coma symptoms, NCSE is divided into NCSE
after the administration of IV AEDs, a diagnosis with coma and NCSE without coma. Typical
of NCSE must be considered. The procedures of absence status, atypical absence status, aura con-
the auxiliary test for the diagnosis of NCSE with tinua, myoclonic absence status, focal NCSE
IV benzodiazepines are as follows [29]: with impaired consciousness, and aphasic status
are types of NCSE without coma.
Patient selection: patients with rhythmic or peri-
odic focal or generalized epileptic discharge 5.2.3.2 EEG of NCSE Without Coma
on EEG accompanied by impaired neurologi-
cal function. Typical Absence Status
Patient preparation: accompanied by nursing pro- Typical absence status can be observed at any age
fessionals under EEG, pulse, ECG, blood oxy- [38] and is not limited to children or adolescents.
gen, and blood pressure monitoring. Patients may or may not be diagnosed with epi-
Testing lepsy prior to this diagnosis. Unlike the transient
Test implementation: typical absence seizures, patients with typical
absent status rarely show complete loss of con-
1. Sequential injection of small doses of rapid-­ sciousness or stoppage of movement but are usu-
onset and short-acting benzodiazepine, e.g., ally in continuous confusion or a twilight state.
midazolam (1 mg per time). Although they can communicate with people, go
2. Evaluate clinical and EEG performance to work, or attend school, their work efficiency
­during each injection. and responsiveness are significantly compro-
3. Stop injection when: mised. Such an episode can last for hours or even
days. EEG during an episode shows outbursts of
(a) EEG continues to improve. continuous generalized 3–6 Hz spike and waves
(b) Clinical improvement is affirmative. [39, 40] or discontinuous spike and waves [38].
(c) Respiratory depression, dropping blood pres- The discharges of spike and waves are discon-
sure, or other adverse events occurs. tinuous but still frequent during sleep and regain
(d) Maximum dose of injection is achieved continuity after the patient wakes. Intravenous
(midazolam 0.2 mg/kg). benzodiazepines can terminate the discharge of
spike and waves, and the consciousness of the
Interpretation of the end result: NCSE should patient recovers immediately.
be confirmed with the disappearance of abnormal
EEG discharges with clinical improvement or the Atypical Absence Status
emergence of a normal EEG rhythm, e.g., alpha Atypical absence status is common in children or
waves in the back of the head. If the EEG abnor- adolescents with symptomatic epilepsy accompa-
malities disappear without clinical improvement, nied by psychomotor developmental disorders,
NCSE should be neither confirmed nor excluded. such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) [41,
In 2007, Shorvon studied and summarized 42]. Compared to the baseline non-attack state,
the etiology and clinical characteristics of each patients are confused during the attacks and may
type of SE and proposed the classification of have mild myoclonus jerks. In some patients, a
NCSE based on age and clinical subtypes [36]. slight tonus or atonia can also be observed [3]. Ictal
186 Y. Hu and S. Li

EEG shows continuous generalized ­discharge of discharge of spikes, spike and waves, 0.5–1 Hz
a 1–2.5 Hz wave-spike-wave complex [43], with delta rhythm, or 5–7 Hz theta rhythm, depending
varying amounts of spikes or epileptic recruiting on the depth of the epileptogenic foci. The dis-
rhythm occasionally observed [3, 44]. charges of epileptogenic foci near the scalp are
mostly fast rhythms, whereas the deep discharges
Myoclonic Absence Status demonstrate a slow frequency. Although the ori-
Myoclonus absence status is often observed in gin of the discharge is unilateral, the discharge in
children with idiopathic generalized epilepsy, some patients may extend to both cerebral hemi-
such as myoclonus absence epilepsy. The patient spheres [3, 43].
shows frequent episodes of myoclonic absence,
which is rhythmic myoclonic jitters of both Aphasic Status
shoulders and the upper and lower extremities Aphasic status is usually secondary to the sus-
during the course of absence, often accompanied tained discharge of the dominant hemisphere,
by a disturbance of consciousness. The myoclo- and the duration of aphasia is associated with the
nus component is more obvious than the absence site involved. Aphasia may persist for 1 h after
component. Ictal EEG is similar to the 3 Hz spike continuous temporal lobe epileptic discharges
and wave outbreaks typical of absence seizures. [46, 47], and mixed aphasia induced by frontal
If EMG is monitored simultaneously, the syn- lobe epileptic discharges can last for 48 h [48].
chronous myoclonic-like jerks and the discharge EEG of aphasic status mainly shows PLEDs or
of spike and waves on EEG are time-locked. lateralized rhythmic slow wave of the dominant
hemisphere [49, 50].
Aura Continua
The clinical manifestations of aura continua are 5.2.3.3 EEG of NCSE with Coma
continuous sensory episodes. During the attacks, Among patients with NCSE, the comatose
the patient’s consciousness is complete, and there patients deserve more attention. Because of the
are persistent superficial sensory, deep sensory, lack of clinical symptoms for ­ chronological
visionary, auditory, gustatory and autonomic comparison in these patients, EEG becomes
symptoms, and emotional or experiential sensa- the only basis for the diagnosis of NCSE with
tions. Most ictal EEGs can be normal because coma [51–53]. According to the scope of the
approximately 6 cm2 of cortical discharges is regions involved in the discharge, the EEG of
necessary for detection by scalp EEG, whereas NCSE with coma is divided into the general-
the range of the epileptogenic focus of aura ized type (coma-­GED) and the lateralized type
continua is smaller. Special electrodes, such as (coma-LED), between which the only distinc-
sphenoid or intracranial electrodes, can increase tion is the EEG. The EEG changes in coma-GED
positive findings. The few patients with ictal usually include bilateral periodic epileptiform
EEG findings show discharge of focal spikes, discharge (Fig. 5.12), burst suppression wave-
polyspikes, spike and waves, and rhythmic slow forms (Fig. 5.13), and bilateral triphasic waves
waves [34, 45]. (Fig. 5.11). The EEG of coma-LED mainly dis-
plays persistent focal spikes, PLEDs (Fig. 5.14),
Focal NCSE with Impaired Consciousness bilateral independent periodic epileptiform dis-
This type was formerly known as complex partial charges (BiPEDs), and lateralized burst suppres-
status epilepticus (CPSE) or psychomotor status. sion. Notably, the presence of NCSE cannot be
Patients are in varying degrees of a fluctuating dis- determined by the presence of these types of
turbance of consciousness or a dream-like state. EEGs, and the diagnosis of NCSE from EEG
Some patients are associated with automatism. changes must conform to the previously dis-
Ictal EEG can often be detected by scalp EEG, cussed diagnostic criteria of EEG changes in
but it has various forms, such as the ­continuous NCSE.
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 187

Fig. 5.12 A 66-year-old male with ischemic anoxic encephalopathy and in a moderate coma with NCSE, showing
bilateral periodic epileptiform discharge with intervals of 0.8–1 s

Fig. 5.13 A 78-year-old male with cardiac arrest after twitching. Sharp waves, delta waves, and theta waves
cardiopulmonary resuscitation and in a moderate coma were observed during the burst period. The amplitude in
with NCSE; the right side of his face was involuntarily the suppression period was less than 10 μV

Generalized Epileptiform Discharges the prognosis differs depending on the etiology.

GEDs are often observed in intensive care units The prognosis is poor in patients with ischemic
(ICU) [33]. In a follow-up study of over 3000 hypoxia and severe craniocerebral trauma or
cEEG monitoring results in the ICU, NCSE infection, but the prognosis is better in patients
was found in 27% of patients with generalized with metabolism disorders or intoxication with
discharges [54]. The study found that cerebral CNS-inhibiting drugs [43, 53, 55]. Although most
hypoxia, metabolism disorders, infection, intoxi- types of GEDs do not determine prognosis [29],
cation of central nervous system (CNS)-inhibiting Pederson and colleagues noted that for patients
drugs, and traumatic brain injury may all lead to with acute brain injury, mortality­and ­morbidity
­generalized epileptiform discharges (GEDs), but are high in patients with generalized­periodic
188 Y. Hu and S. Li

Fig. 5.14 A 71-year-old male in a deep coma with massive cerebral hemorrhage of the right basal ganglia region broken
into cerebral ventricles, showing periodic epileptiform discharges on the right side with intervals of approximately 1.5 s

pseudoepileptiform discharges (OR = 2.5, 95% significantly skewed distributions of correlation

CI 1.43–4.40) [56]. Burst suppression is another coefficients showed a poor prognosis, particularly
EEG waveform that is thought to be closely related patients with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy,
to prognosis. The EEG characteristic of burst among whom the mortality rate was significantly
suppression is the alternation of explosive activ- higher in patients who had bursts with a single
ity greater than 20 μV and the state of electrical feature within 12–36 h [57]. Yang et al. evaluated
suppression. The explosive activity may involve the prognosis of adults with post-anoxic coma
high-amplitude delta waves and theta waves, with and found that when burst suppression ratio was
or without spikes or sharp waves. Between those greater than 0.239, the mortality was significantly
explosive activities are low-voltage slow-wave higher, with a sensitivity of 97.1% and a speci-
activities. The inhibition phase should be less ficity of 73.3% [58]. Figure 5.15 shows the EEG
than 10 μV for at least 1 s. Burst suppression is a of a patient with a significantly increased rate of
common pattern in severely compromised brain burst suppression.
function. Its common etiology includes intoxica-
tion with CNS-inhibiting drugs, severe hypoxic Lateralized Epileptiform Discharges
encephalopathy, hypothermia, and anesthesia. The most common waveforms of lateralized epi-
Burst suppression after hypoxia often indicates leptiform discharges are PLEDs and BiPEDs.
poor prognosis; most drug intoxication-induced EEG features of PLED are spikes, sharp waves,
burst suppression allows recovery, but sequelae sharp and waves, polyspikes, and other epilep-
are common. Bursts with a single feature and tiform discharges in local or unilateral hemi-
increased rate of burst suppression usually indi- spheric electrodes. The epileptiform discharges
cate exacerbation of the patient’s condition and have similar intervals that are often manifested
a poor prognosis. Here, the features of bursts as no ­activity or ­low-voltage slow activity. There
refer to the burst duration, burst interval, maxi- has been ­controversy over whether PLEDs sug-
mum peak-to-peak voltage, and energy ratio of gest epilepsy or SE [59, 60]. Because PLED often
high/low frequency. After extraction and an all- occurs in cerebrovascular disease, infection,
electrode correlation coefficient analysis of the metabolism disorders, head injury, or tumors,
­
features of bursts, we found that patients with there is currently no ­consensus as to whether
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 189

Fig. 5.15 A 51-year-old male in a deep coma after a car accident injury, with left upper limb involuntary twitches,
showing the new type of burst suppression waveform with significantly prolonged periods of suppression

PLED is associated with epilepsy or caused by these numbers are still below the true incidence
a primary disorder. However, if post-PLED dis- because numerous patients remain undiagnosed.
charge is prolonged, followed by a burst of low- Misdiagnosis occurs largely because of the
amplitude electrical activity more frequent than inability to perform EEG monitoring in a timely
4 Hz, it is called PLED plus (PLED+). PLED+ manner or for a sufficient duration [53, 65, 66].
often indicates nonconvulsive seizures or NCSE The current study suggests that EEG should be
in comatose patients [2, 3, 61, 62]. BiPEDs have monitored after the patient enters the ICU [6].
the same waveforms as PLED, but bilateral hemi- The literature has slightly different points of view
spheric discharges are not synchronized in ampli- regarding the duration of monitoring. One docu-
tude, frequency, or distribution. These patients ment stated that approximately 50% of patients
often have positive symptoms, including minor with a final diagnosis of NCSE develop epilep-
limb or facial twitching, hallucinations, and tiform discharges within 1 h of admission to the
negative symptoms, including aphasia or corti- ICU [67]; 88% of patients will have seizures
cal blindness, resulting in a higher mortality rate recorded by EEG within 24 h, but the other 12%
compared to PLED patients [62–64]. of patients require 48 h or more for their EEG to
display evidence of seizures. Another document
5.2.3.4 D uration of EEG Monitoring showed that the likelihood of monitored NCSE
for NCSE Patients seizures during hospitalization was extremely
The incidence of NCSE is 32–85 cases per ten low if no seizure discharges were observed within
million person-years. In the United States, the first 4 h of admission to the ICU [68]. The
30,000–170,000 NCSE patients are newly diag- authors believe that the EEG of NICU patients
nosed every year. Of all patients treated in the should be continuously monitored for 48 h after
ICU, 8% have NCSE, 5% have epileptic status, routine admission; for those patients who have
8–15% of comatose patients have NCSE, and periodic discharges or burst suppression during
more than 14% of patients with tonic-clonic recording, the recording time should be extended
seizures experience NCSE afterward. Although appropriately. The detection rate of NCSE is
these data ­suggest that the occurrence of NCSE increased when patients with tonic-clonic SE
is considerably high, the authors conclude that continue to be monitored 24 h after onset.
190 Y. Hu and S. Li

5.2.4 EEG of Electrical SE 5.2.5  rolonged Febrile Seizures

P
and EEG
Electrical SE is a peculiar phenomenon in which
continuous electrical discharge is visible on Prolonged febrile seizures are a severe acute
the EEG in the absence of clinical symptoms. clinical condition that often occurs in children
Electrical SE is most commonly observed dur- with complex febrile convulsions. At present, it
ing sleep, particularly in the non-rapid eye move- is thought that long-time febrile seizures, particu-
ment (NREM) sleep phase. larly prolonged febrile seizures, are an important
Electrical SE occurring during stages of sleep risk factor for secondary epilepsy, such as mesial
is known as electrical status epilepticus in sleep temporal lobe epilepsy [72, 73], but there is lit-
(ESES). There is currently no unified definition erature stating that there is no direct correlation
of ESES. Because ESES is commonly observed between prolonged febrile seizures and tem-
as continuous spike and wave discharges during poral lobe epilepsy [74, 75]. Ictal EEG is often
slow wave sleep, some researchers consider a manifested as all-electrode or focal continuous
spike and wave index greater than 85% as one bursts of spikes and spike and waves. The EEG
of the diagnostic criteria of ESES [69]; that is, wave patterns have a low value in predicting the
ESES is considered when the spike and wave future possibility of epilepsy. A prospective blind
discharge comprises more than 85% of the total study evaluating the prognosis of children with
duration of the NREM stage of sleep. There are prolonged febrile seizures (The Consequences
also reports that ESES can be considered when of Prolonged Febrile Seizures, FEBSTAT) [76]
this rate exceeds 50%. As a special clinical phe- showed that nearly half of the patients (45.2%)
nomenon, ESES is not an independent epilepsy had EEG abnormalities after prolonged febrile
syndrome. ESES can be hereditary, symptom- seizures, with 36.2% showing focal slow wave
atic, or cryptogenic. ESES is often observed in or voltage attenuation. When a focal slow wave
Landau-Kleffner syndrome (LKS), benign epi- or voltage attenuation occurs within 72 h after
lepsy in childhood with central temporal spikes prolonged febrile seizures, it is considered to be a
plus its variants, epilepsy with continuous spike biomarker of neuron damage; this result was sup-
and waves during slow wave sleep and LGS. ported by MRI findings [76, 77]. Studies have also
Before the onset of ESES, the EEG of waking shown that the predictive value of ­epileptiform
patients mostly shows focal or random multifocal discharges is very low and appears only in a small
spike and waves, which are increased and often number of patients. This is likely because pro-
generalized during sleep; during ESES, the spike longed febrile seizures are not a type of epilepsy
and waves of waking patients are more diffuse but merely represent acute brain injury, which is
than before the onset, and slow-wave sleep is the one of the risk factors of epilepsy. Previous studies
emergence of continuous spike and wave dis- have found that hippocampal sclerosis induced by
charge. The spike and wave is usually 1.5–3.5 Hz prolonged febrile seizures is significantly more
in frequency and more generalized, but in some frequent in the right hemisphere than in the left;
children, the site with the maximum amplitude thus, patients with postictal EEG abnormalities in
can differ [70]. However, differences in the spike the right hemisphere are more likely to develop
and wave index and the site of peak amplitude epilepsy in the future [72, 78].
are not associated with the responsiveness of
children to antiepileptics. Mental and psycho-
logical trauma of childhood patients is usually 5.2.6  efractory Status Epilepticus
R
alleviated by the disappearance of ESES, but it (RSE) and EEG
is difficult for most patients to return to normal
levels. The duration, severity and cumulative site Refractory status epilepticus refers to prolonged
of ESES discharges are usually associated with seizures that remain clinically uncontrollable,
the patient’s prognosis and must be adequately even with sufficient doses of at least two cat-
addressed by the medical staff [69, 71]. egories of the first-line antiepileptic drugs,
5 Applications of Electroencephalography in Status Epilepticus 191

p­ articularly benzodiazepines, and often requires time) predicts whether refractory epilepsy will be
special treatment. The morbidity and mortality of ­terminated [97]. Some studies even suggest that
RSE are high [79, 80]. There is evidence that the prolonged burst suppression by narcotics cannot
longer the seizures last, the more difficult they reduce patient mortality or improve prognosis,
are to control [81, 82]. At least 14% of NCSE and it even prolongs hospital stays [98]. In 2016,
cases occur after the clinical signs of convulsions one article indicated that the number of epilepti-
disappear [4]. At this time, the failure to detect form discharges during bursts is associated with
and control continuous discharges is the great- seizure control, and a maximum burst amplitude
est potential risk for the clinical recurrence of less than 125 μV is a fairly good predictor of
convulsions [83, 84]. Once the SE relapses, ter- whether a seizure will be satisfactorily controlled
mination is more difficult, and it will very likely (sensitivity: 84.6%, specificity: 61.1%) [97]. The
develop into RSE [85, 86]. A survey of NICU suggested time of burst suppression maintained
construction in China showed that the number of by drugs ranges from 24 to 48 h in different stud-
devices used for EEG monitoring is insufficient: ies [90, 95, 96]. Our own experience is that in
less than 2/3 of NICUs are equipped with EEG the absence of significant epileptiform discharges
monitoring devices, only half of which are video-­ and clinical attacks during cEEG monitoring,
EEG monitors, whereas the rate at which EEG narcotic drugs used to maintain burst suppres-
was considered for monitoring SE or RSE was sion can be carefully reduced or withdrawn after
even lower [87]. Another study showed that in 24 h; in the case of recurrence, burst suppression
the absence of EEG monitoring, 62% of patients should be maintained.
with a prior history of epilepsy were immedi-
ately diagnosed in the presence of SE, whereas
only 22% of patients without a previous history 5.3  he Role of EEG in Predicting
T
were diagnosed with SE after its emergence; the the Prognosis of SE
median delay of diagnosis for these two types
of patients was 48 and 72 h, respectively [81]. The general view is that the prognosis of SE is
Although the overall prognosis of patients with closely related to the etiology, age, duration of
SE is most closely related to the etiology, lon- seizures, necessity to use mechanical ventilation,
ger attacks lead to more severe neuron damage. and other clinical factors [99–101]. Although
Thus, the duration of the attack also affects the EEG can be used to predict the likelihood of
prognosis [88]. Therefore, an increased rate SE recurrence [102], it is controversial whether
of cEEG monitoring and prolonged monitor- it can predict the prognosis. The literature sug-
ing time is important to reduce the incidence of gests that periodic epileptiform discharges may
refractory epilepsy [81, 89, 90]. Meanwhile, for indicate poor prognosis [59, 61, 63–64], and
the treatment of RSE, the termination of clinical the presence of PLEDs is associated with high
convulsion is not the only criterion; no epilep- mortality and high morbidity [103], regard-
tic discharges or burst suppression waveforms less of etiology. However, some scholars do not
should be observed on the EEG. When burst sup- support this claim, believing that the phenom-
pression occurs after drug use, it is only sufficient enon of periodic discharges, particularly PLEDs
for the criteria recommended in current guide- and GEDs, mainly occurs in hypoxic-ischemic
lines with intervals of at least 10 s. Although encephalopathy and severe intracranial infection,
there is a large body of literature supporting which have poor prognoses, and that statistical
burst suppression on EEG as a marker for a suf- correction indicates that the prognosis should
ficient dose of narcotics to control RSE [91–94], be related to age or etiology rather than periodic
some patients may still have epileptic episodes discharges [104, 105]. Another view is that eti-
during burst suppression sustained by narcotics ology and EEG types should be integrated into
[95, 96]. Others believe that neither the length of the evaluation of prognosis. For example, Orta
intervals between bursts nor the rate of burst sup- and colleagues found that compared to PLEDs of
pression (the ratio of time of suppression to total acute causes, PLEDs of chronic causes result in
192 Y. Hu and S. Li

a lower mortality rate [106]. Burst suppression a small sample size found that after an injection
is another EEG waveform considered to be rep- of ketamine, a narcotic commonly used to treat
resentative of a poor prognosis. Hofmeijer and refractory epilepsy, better curative effects and
colleagues collected the EEGs of 101 comatose prognosis of refractory epilepsy were shown in
patients with cardiac arrest after cardiopulmo- patients with the emergence of a generalized
nary resuscitation from 2005 and showed that 7–20 Hz arcuate theta or beta rhythm [108]. In a
if burst suppression waveforms with identical study of 62 patients with cardiac arrest, Milani,
bursts occurred within 12–36 h after cardiac P. and colleagues found that within 48 h after
arrest, the mortality was 100% compared to 36% cardiac arrest, 26 patients showed an initial
for burst suppression without identical bursts; background rhythm, of whom 16 patients (61%)
however, the accuracy of the results was reduced survived, and all 36 cases without an initial back-
beyond 36 h after cardiac arrest [57]. In another ground rhythm died. They noted that the progno-
study, Neligan, A. and Shorvon, S. D. reviewed sis was poor for those patients with continuous
all prospective studies between 1990 and 2009 inhibition of background rhythms, even if they
that enrolled more than 30 patients with tonic- had received mild hypothermia therapy after car-
clonic SE; the longer the duration of epileptic sei- diac arrest [109].
zures, which was found to be 1–2 h overall, the
poorer the prognosis, but this association disap- Conclusion
peared 10 h after onset. Moreover, only periodic EEG patterns, such as continuous spikes,
epileptiform discharge was found to be associ- spike and waves, polyspike and waves, or
ated with a poor prognosis, whereas the other rhythmic slow waves and periodic waveforms,
types of abnormal discharges were not closely can vary in SE. Diagnosis of SE is not difficult
related to prognosis [107]. Recently, more arti- when clinical symptoms are significant and
cles have focused on the relationship between the EEG manifestations are typical. However,
EEG background and prognosis. Many studies when clinical symptoms are atypical, particu-
have shown that in addition to particular abnor- larly when patients in the ICU display altera-
mal discharge waveforms that may be valuable tions of consciousness, cognitive functions,
for the prediction of prognosis, the EEG back- mental state, or behavior that are difficult to
ground rhythm, sleep-related waveforms, and explain, cEEG monitoring often helps to
drug-induced EEGs may also be useful as tools detect occult NCSE. Continuous or intermit-
to predict the prognosis of SE. In a prospective tent EEG monitoring is critical in the treat-
observational study designed by Alvarez et al., ment and evaluation of ESES prognosis,
120 adult patients with SE were enrolled. During prolonged febrile seizures, and SE. This arti-
the first 24 h of cEEG monitoring, 49 patients cle introduces the applications of burst sup-
(40.8%) had no periodic or rhythmic abnormali- pression, which may be an important marker
ties, 45 patients (37.5%) developed periodic dis- for drug use in the treatment of RSE. Finally,
charges, 20 patients (16.7%) had rhythmic slow it should be emphasized that explanations of
wave activity, and the other 6 patients (5%) EEG changes and EEG responses to sound,
developed spike and wave discharges. However, light, pain, or drug therapy are central when
after rectifying the Status Epilepticus Severity interpreting EEGs of SE.
Score (STESS), age, etiology, and other risk fac-
tors, no statistical correlation was found between
any of these EEG abnormalities and prognosis,
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 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat
Refractory Status Epilepticus 6
in Clinical Practice

Xuefeng Wang and Shichuo Li

Abstract
Status epilepticus (SE) is an emergency condition that requires immediate
treatment. Some cases of SE are resistant to traditional first-line antiepi-
leptic drugs (AEDs), a condition that is commonly known as refractory
status epilepticus (RSE). In RSE, long-duration and uninterrupted seizures
can cause irreversible brain damage and have been associated with a vari-
ety of serious complications. Thus, it is vital to select rapid-onset, safe,
and effective AEDs to control seizures while treating RSE. In this section,
we describe seven drugs that are commonly used to treat RSE. These drugs
are principally discussed with respect to their clinical pharmacokinetics
and pharmacodynamics and their use in clinical practice, including routes
of administration, time of onset, adverse reactions, and precautions. RSE
is also known to result from a variety of causes, and alterations have been
observed in neurotransmitters during its different stages. Polytherapy may
therefore be considered a feasible choice for treating RSE when single-­
drug treatment for SE fails.

6.1 Midazolam

6.1.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics

and Pharmacodynamics
X. Wang (*)
Midazolam (MDZ) is a water-soluble benzodiaz-
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology,
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated epine which will open its imidazole ring to
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, become hydrophilic in low-pH environment.
1 YouYi Road, Chongqing 400016, China While, in the physiological environment, it closes
e-mail: [email protected]
its imidazole ring to become lipophilic and acts
S. Li quickly on the central nervous system [1, 2],
China Association Against Epilepsy (CAAE),
MDZ is metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A
Rm. 5102, Building 2, Beijing Exhibition Center
Hotel, 135 Xizhimenwai Avenue, Xicheng District, (CYP3A) in the liver and intestine [3], and
Beijing 100044, People’s Republic of China approximately 60–70% of them are excreted by

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 197

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_6
198 X. Wang and S. Li

the kidneys. MDZ is a positive allosteric modula- MDZ was 1.6 h (range: 2.0–8.5 h) for all patients.
tor of GABA-A synaptic receptors in the brain, In 2012, Ferlisi et al. [10] conducted a review
which enhances the GABAergic inhibition, about therapy outcome in refractory and super-
reduces the release of neurotransmitters, opens refractory status epilepticus (SRSE). In the
up chloride ion channels to induce chloride report, 585 patients were treated with MDZ infu-
influx, and depolarizes the cell membrane to sions (with the doses varying from 0.02 to
inhibit excessive excitement and seizures. 1.8 mg/kg/h). The rate of initial control was 78%,
and only 0.3% of patients experienced with-
drawal seizures. Ninety-three percent of patients
6.1.2 Clinical Practice reported regaining control among those patients
whose episodes occurred upon tapering or with-
In 1983, Kaneko et al. [4] reported the clinical drawal and who accepted MDZ re-treatment.
use of MDZ in the treatment of SE for the first Due to the elevated efficacy and safety, MDZ
time: a 14-year-old female SE patient experi- might be a better choice compared to other anti-
enced successful control of her seizures by intra- ­SE drugs. In a retrospective review, 20 RSE
venous MDZ at the dose of 15 mg after the patients treated with MDZ or propofol were
previous failure by diazepam. included [11]. Similar efficiency was observed
Currently, MDZ, as a clinical guideline-­ between the two drugs (MDZ vs. propofol, 67%
recommended drug for anti-SE in many coun- vs. 64%, p ≥ 0.61). However, the mortality of the
tries, is known to work rapidly, potently, and patients with APACHE II scores higher than 20
safely and has been widely used as a first-line was lower in the MDZ group than that in the pro-
therapy for SE and for RSE after the failure of pofol group (p = 0.05). A prospective random-
other first-line drugs [5–7]. A retrospective study ized study reviewed the efficacy of MDZ (n = 54),
of continuous intravenous MDZ (cIV-MDZ) propofol (n = 33), and pentobarbital (n = 106) in
which has been used on 33 patients with refrac- 193 patients with RSE [12]. The rate of failed sei-
tory nonconvulsive status epilepticus (NCSE) (17 zure suppression in the MDZ group was higher
patients had generalized convulsive status epilep- than that in pentobarbital (20% vs. 8%, p < 0.01,
ticus (GCSE), 16 had NCSE, and all patients 6 h after administration), but hypotension was
were in NCSE at the time cIV-MDZ started) lower (30% vs. 77%, p < 0.001). Singhi et al. [13]
showed that the mean duration of cIV-MDZ ther- evaluated the efficacy and prognosis of MDZ and
apy was 4.2 ± 3.3 days, the mean loading dose diazepam in a clinical randomized controlled
was 0.19 ± 0.09 mg/kg, and the mean infusion trial (RCT). Forty RSE patients were enrolled
rate was 0.08–0.22 mg/kg/h. Eighty-two percent with ages ranging 2–12 years including 21
(27/33) of episodes were terminated within patients who received MDZ and 19 who received
60 min, 57.6% (19/33) recurred within 48 h after diazepam. There was no significant difference
withdrawal, and 6% ultimately were failed [8]. In between the two drugs regarding the response
an open prospective study, Ulvi et al. [9] reported rate (85.7% vs. 89.5%), time from therapy to sei-
that 19 patients (mean age: 40.4 years) with zure suppression (both means: 16 min), and
refractory generalized convulsive status epilepti- recurrence rate after withdrawal (19% vs. 16%).
cus (RGCSE) whose episodes were not con- The proportion of intubation or mechanical ven-
trolled by diazepam, phenytoin, or phenobarbital tilation was similar; however, there was a shorter
(PB) were administered with intravenous time of required mechanical ventilation in the
MDZ. In 94.7% (18/19) of patients, seizures MDZ group: 19.7 ± 15.9 h vs. 93.5 ± 78.1 h,
were completely controlled; and 21% (4/19) had p < 0.005.
a slightly increase in pharyngeal secretions. No The clinical and experimental data show that
patient experienced significant change in heart seizures may bring immediate and long-term
rate, blood pressure, or oxygen saturation. The adverse effects to immature brains and brains in
mean time to full consciousness after stopping development, and the mortality and incidence rate
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 199

of children’s SE are very high [14]. Therefore, often used to treat RSE. In Status Epilepticus
children’s SE requires timely and rational treat- Guideline Writing (2012) [19], the Neurocritical
ment. MDZ is also applicable in the treatment of Care Society recommended intravenous MDZ
children with RSE. Ozdemir et al. [15] included with an initial loading dose of 0.2 mg/kg via
27 patients (ages 5.1 ± 3.5 years) in a study injection (at a speed of 2 mg/min), followed by
wherein he gave each a bolus of 0.2 mg/kg MDZ 0.05–2 mg/kg/h continuous intravenous infusion,
intravenously followed by cIV-MDZ at 1–5 μg/ gradually adjusting the dosage according to its
kg/min (average: 3.1 μg/kg/min). Ninety-six per- success at controlling symptoms. To test the effi-
cent (26/27) of the children returned to normal, cacy of MDZ as an anticonvulsant drug, Galcin
without respiratory depression, hypotension, bra- et al. [20] treated 12 tonic–clonic SE patients
dycardia, or other adverse events. In the course of with intravenous MDZ 3.0–15.0 mg which rap-
medical treatment, serum electrolytes and blood idly terminated all seizures in 1 min without
glucose stayed within a normal range. Only one obvious cardiopulmonary inhibition. In a sys-
patient’s SE failed to be controlled, which was tematic review, a total of nine studies were
considered to be related to etiology (acute menin- included, involving 521 RSE patients with two or
goencephalitis). In another study including 17 three types of anticonvulsant drugs to which they
children with RSE (mean age: 3.5 years), intrave- were resistant. The patients received intravenous
nous MDZ was administered after first-line treat- MDZ therapy (an initial dose of 0.15–0.5 mg/kg
ment (including MDZ and other drugs) failed to injection, then a 1–2 μg/kg/min continuous infu-
control seizures. Fifteen episodes were terminated sion, adjusted according to the symptoms, with a
at an average time of 0.3 h (0.1–1.5 h), and the maximum rate of up to 5–24 μg/kg/min), and the
median of the peak infusion rates was 4 μg/kg/ efficacy was 76% (396/521) [21]. In response to
min (mean: 8.7 μg/kg/min, 2–32 μg/kg/min). No the recommended dose, some scholars have
patient experienced significant adverse event [16]. advocated a higher one. Fernandez et al. [22]
In addition to treating RSE secondary to infec- found that higher doses of MDZ (0.4 mg/kg/h or
tion, trauma, or unexplained etiologies, MDZ more) compared to smaller doses (0.2 mg/kg/h)
still has a therapeutic effect for some other etiolo- yielded lower recurrence (15% vs. 64%) at 48 h
gies of RSE. Bello-Espinosa et al. [17] reported after discontinuation, lower mortality (40% vs.
on a child with Sturge-Weber syndrome with 62%), and lower rate of tracheotomy (48% vs.
infraslow SE. Fosphenytoin, PB, lorazepam 59%), but a higher proportion of cases relying on
(LZP), and valproate were ineffective for 48 h; pharmacotherapeutic blood pressure support
then, MDZ was administered intravenously at (53% vs. 32%).
240 μg/kg/h. The seizure was quickly controlled, Intravenous MDZ acts quickly, usually in
and no significant sequelae remained. Another seconds to 45 min. Parent et al. [23] reported a
18-year-old patient was suffering from SE caused 64-year-old patient with SE secondary to hyperos-
by carbamazepine overdose. A bolus of 14 mg of mosis. After ineffective PB, phenytoin, and LZP
MDZ followed by 2 mg/h continuous intravenous treatment, injection of MDZ 17 mg (220 μg/kg)
maintenance was given after PB, phenytoin, diaz- was given and continued with a rate of 1.0 μg/kg/
epam, and other ineffective treatments. Seizures min infusion. The seizures stopped within 90 s.
gradually decreased and then stopped [18]. In a study by Singhi et al. [13], 21 patients with
RSE (2–12 years of age) underwent MDZ treat-
ment (viz., a loading dose of 0.2 mg/kg, sustained
6.1.3  dministration and Time
A 2.0 μg/kg/min infusion, gradually increased,
of Onset with the highest of 10.0 μg/kg/min). The effec-
tive rate was 85.7%, and the average time from
MDZ can be administered via intravenous, oral, administration to termination was 16 min. Ulvi
buccal, intranasal, and intramuscular routes. et al. [9] gave the RGCSE patients a 0.2 mg/kg
Among them, continuous intravenous infusion is MDZ injection, followed by continuous infusion,
200 X. Wang and S. Li

s­tarting at 1 μg/kg/min and ­gradually increas- rapid withdrawal may lead to a withdrawal
ing to an average of 8 μg/kg/min (3–21 μg/kg/ response. According to some reports in the litera-
min). The episodes of 18 patients were controlled ture, 17% of children in ICUs experienced with-
within 45 min (5–120 min), on average. drawal reactions due upon stopping MDZ
treatment too rapidly after long-term sedation
[30]. Common symptoms of withdrawal
6.1.4 Adverse Reaction responses include anxiety, irritability, diaphore-
and Precaution sis, fasciculation, tremor, and so on. Epstein et al.
[31] reported on a 4-year-old NCSE child who
The most common adverse effects of MDZ are was administered with large doses of MDZ
short-term dizziness and drowsiness [24] and, (cumulative dose: 26 mg/kg), fentanyl, and mor-
more rarely, euphoria, diplopia, and blurred phine. After the drugs were discontinued over
vision [25]. Furthermore, a larger dose of intrave- 12 h, she experienced a sustained mania, disor-
nous MDZ may lead to a decrease in conscious- dered periods of sleep, intermittent visual hallu-
ness, hypotension, respiratory depression, or cinations, orofacial dyskinesia, and somatic
acute, even life-threatening, respiratory distress myoclonic jerks. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
syndrome [8, 26]. In addition, there was a case of suggested diffused slow and triphasic waves,
metabolic acidosis induced by intravenous while the magnetic resonance and cerebrospinal
MDZ. A 9-year-old SE girl was given continuous fluid examination results revealed negative.
infusion of MDZ from 15 μg/kg/min, gradually Without any specific interventions, the patient
increasing to 200 μg/kg/min. Forty-eight hours recovered gradually in 4–5 days after the onset of
later, intense hyperchloremic and non-anion gap reactions, leaving no neurological sequelae.
metabolic acidosis occurred, which was mini-
mally corrected by carbonate. Moreover, arterial
blood pH reached as low as 7.16, and serum 6.2 Propofol
osmotic pressure, level of lactate, serum creati-
nine, and urea nitrogen were abnormal. Then, 6.2.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics
MDZ was discontinued after 81 h of treatment. and Pharmacodynamics
Less than 5 h later, the patient’s metabolic acido-
sis was corrected, and the administration of vaso- Propofol, having the chemical name
pressor drugs and positive inotropic agents was 2,6-­diisopropylphenol, is an alkyl acid used as a
also been ceased [27]. short-acting intravenous anesthetic; the agent is
Tachyphylaxis was observed in cIV-MDZ lipophilic at room temperature and is insoluble in
after treatment for 24–48 h, and its rate of occur- water. Its half-life is 1.8–8.3 min. It can be dis-
rence approached 38% [26, 28]. This forced a tributed throughout the body quickly after intra-
constant increase in dose over the course of con- venous injection; it induces anesthesia within
trolling seizures. At the same time, there was a 40 s and produces a rapid and steady anesthetic
cumulative effect of the drug, especially in criti- effect. It is mainly combined with glucuronic
cally ill patients and those with liver or kidney acid during liver metabolism, and its metabolites
dysfunction; thus, monitoring of vital signs was are excreted in the urine. Recovery from propofol
necessary. is also rapid, at approximately 8 min, even in the
After the seizures have been controlled for case of extended use. Propofol, as an inhibitor of
12 h, withdrawal should be considered. MDZ the central nervous system, can directly activate
should be reduced slowly until discontinuation GABA-A receptors and inhibit the expression of
over the next 12 h [29]. If the seizure recurs, N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptors (NMDARs)
another 12-h medication cycle should be given, [32], as well as adjust the influx of calcium ions
and the reduction be repeated then. Acute or through slow calcium channels.
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 201

6.2.2 Clinical Practice unit during 2001 to 2010. The average dose of
propofol used for those patients was 7885.1 mg,
Since Wood et al. [33] reported the first intrave- and the average duration was 34.4 h.
nous injection of propofol in SE treatment in Complications occurred in 17 episodes of
1988, propofol has been widely used in clinical RSE. The most common complication was pneu-
practice. monia (9/27), and one patient presented propofol
Propofol is a reasonable choice when first-line infusion syndrome (PRIS). Eight patients exhib-
AEDs are ineffective. Langer et al. [34] con- ited no sequelae after 14 episodes of RSE, minor
ducted a study on the treatment of GCSE and sequelae were observed in 7 seizures, severe
observed seizure termination, intubation rate, and sequelae were observed in four seizures, and two
mortality rate after drug therapy. It was found patients died. The study supports the use of pro-
that among the 177 GCSE seizures, the most pofol as an effective drug for the treatment of
commonly used first-line, second-line, and third-­ RSE, but it should be noted that PRIS may occur
line therapies were benzodiazepines, phenytoin, if propofol usage lasts for more than 48 h.
and propofol, respectively. The therapeutic effec- Rossetti et al. [36] found that in 20 seizures of the
tive rate of the first-line drug is 56%. Three quar- surviving RSE patients treated with propofol,
ters of the patients who were irresponsive to the chills, short-term dystonia, and hyperlipidemia
first-line drug were responsive to the third-line occurred after ten dosage iterations, and mild
drugs such as propofol. Melloni et al. [35] neuropsychological impairment occurred in five
reported three cases of SE who were nonrespon- cases after seizure termination. Seven cases of
sive to the first-line anti-SE drug, but their SE death were not directly related to propofol usage.
seizures and EEG abnormal activities were rap- Niermeijer et al. [41] also reported that several
idly controlled after continuous intravenous guidelines recommended the use of propofol in
injection of propofol [3–6 mg/(kg·h)]. After the treatment of RSE, but after the large-dose and
7 days of intravenous propofol injection, the extended course coupled with the use of propo-
patient woke up rapidly without sequelae. fol, the patient’s mortality increased.
Rossetti et al. [36] believes that it is necessary to Subsequently, the authors assessed the relevant
use intravenous anesthesia drugs such as propo- literature on the efficacy and safety of propofol in
fol, thiopental, and MDZ, among other AEDs, to the treatment of RSE. Through a Medline search,
treat SE resistant to diazepam and other AEDs, 22 reports about the use of propofol for RSE
and these drugs can control SE effectively. treatment were found, and there was no random-
Propofol is a commonly used drug for the ized clinical trial. Two nonrandomized studies
treatment of RSE [28, 37–39]. Rossetti et al. [36] were conducted to compare the effects of propo-
have retrospectively analyzed therapy in 27 adult fol with those of barbiturates and MDZ. Both of
patients with RSE (31 seizures) in the intensive these two studies reported high risk of death from
care unit of an internal medicine section of the propofol. In addition, several fatal cases were
hospital during years 1997 to 2002. After the use reported in case reports, and a case analysis of the
of propofol, 21 (67%) seizures were controlled use of propofol as an anesthetic or sedative drug
successfully; another three (10%) were also con- for children and adults was developed, which
trolled after the subsequent usage of thiopental. indicated the need to reevaluate the safety of pro-
From the author’s point of view, propofol may be pofol in the treatment of RSE.
a valuable drug under this condition. In recent The European Federation of Neurological
years, different views on the efficacy and safety Societies (EFNS) emphasized that achieving a
of propofol in treating RSE have been revealed. burst suppression pattern for at least 24 h on EEG
Power et al. [40] retrospectively analyzed the sta- is the important indicator of therapeutic success
tus of 18 patients with RSE (27 seizures) who in RSE treatment. Parviainen et al. [42] reported
accepted propofol treatment in the intensive care on the results of a prospective study of ten RSE
202 X. Wang and S. Li

cases treated with propofol and found that the effects on complex partial SE or absence
drug’s usage could rapidly terminate clinical SE. However, Begemann et al. [47] reported one
­seizures as well as electrophysiological seizures; case with refractory complex partial SE: a
however, it was necessary to increase the propo- 65-year-old female patient with subarachnoid
fol dosage to maintain the burst suppression EEG and intracerebral hemorrhage secondary to rup-
pattern. It was considered that it was not easy to tured anterior communicating artery aneurysm;
maintain a burst suppression EEG pattern with- moreover, she had phenytoin, phenobarbital, val-
out the use of a large dosage of propofol; as such, proate, and LZP resistance. Her EEG pattern
it is emphasized that the gradual increase of a showed burst suppression after continuous pro-
propofol dosage should be conducted under con- pofol injection for 7 days: seizures ceased, and
tinuous EEG monitoring. However, Kang et al. the patient regained consciousness. Despite some
[43] retrospectively analyzed the effect of EEG complications, the patient gradually returned to
burst suppression (induced by intravenous injec- normal and was discharged 4 months after sur-
tion of anesthetic drugs) on the prognosis of 22 gery. The authors believed that this was the first
cases with RSE, among whom three were treated case of a successful therapeutic usage of propofol
with MDZ and propofol, one was treated with in the treatment of a NCSE.
MDZ and phenobarbital, and the others were The Italian Association Against Epilepsy rec-
treated with MDZ. It was found that burst sup- ommended that continuous intravenous injection
pression induced by treating RSE with intrave- of thiopental, MDZ, and propofol could be used
nous anesthesia could not alter the mortality and for children with RSE to suppress EEG burst and
prognosis of RSE but could increase the duration epileptic seizures [48]. Van Gestel et al. [49]
of hospitalization. evaluated the efficacy and safety of propofol and
Propofol can also be used in the treatment of thiopental in the treatment of children with RSE
SRSE. Sabharwal et al. [44] retrospectively ana- and found that thiopental was effective for most
lyzed 67 cases with SRSE, who were treated with patients (34 seizures), but with serious side
propofol and ketamine (KE) used in combination effects; propofol was also effective, and its side
for 1–28 days (mean: 3.6 days) with a dosage up effects were unusual—and very light and revers-
to 145 and 175 mg/kg/min. Fifty-three patients ible. The author suggested a preferable use of
used hypertensor, 48 of which were administered propofol prior to thiopental usage. However, a
within 5 days after being admitted into the survey on experts of SE treatment found that phy-
ICU. The overall remission rate of SRSE was sicians often used MDZ and propofol for adults
91%, and the total mortality rate was 39% with RSE, while they were less likely to choose
(including patients with hypoxic brain injury). Of propofol for children patients [50]. Hubert et al.
these, 13 patients with SRSE had hypoxic brain [14] found that in the treatment of infants and
damage, and five cases of SRSE were controlled. children with convulsive status epilepticus (CSE),
A study by Höfler et al. [45] found similar results the efficacy/risk ratio does not support the use of
overall. In their retrospective study, 40% (17/42) propofol in children for RSE resistant to benzodi-
of patients with SRSE received propofol treat- azepines, phenytoin, or phenobarbital. Many
ment, among whom 65% (11/17) used propofol pediatricians tend to use large doses of MDZ
in the 12–72 h prior to KE usage (seizures were instead of propofol; however, Tully et al. [51]
controlled for all these patients), and 35% (6/17) reported that thiopental was commonly used in
used propofol and KE simultaneously (SE ceased children with RSE in the PICU (65.6%), whereas
in 4/6 of patients, and propofol dosage was propofol was only used in 4% of patients. The
2–6 mg/kg/h.) study was supported by research from Moreno-­
In SE treatment guidelines, EFNS noted that Medinilla et al. [52], who retrospectively ana-
anesthesia drugs should not be used in refractory lyzed 39 children with SE with an average age of
complex partial SE [46]. Rossetti [36] noted that 4.8 years and a total of 51 seizures. Among the
intravenous anesthetics had poor therapeutic patients, ten patients needed third-line drugs, and
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 203

MDZ was the most commonly used drug in this e­fficacy between propofol and MDZ in RSE
center, followed by thiopental and propofol. ­treatment. By reviewing the chart documentation
Compared with other AEDs, the efficacy of of patients with RSE treated between 1995 and
propofol is controversial. Propofol and thiopental 1999, it was found that in the initial treatment, 14
are two drugs commonly used in the treatment of patients were treated with propofol and 6 patients
RSE, and Prabhakar et al. [53] conducted a litera- were treated with MDZ. Propofol and MDZ,
ture review of the two drugs in the treatment of respectively, controlled 64% and 67% of the clin-
RSE. The search of multiple databases found ical seizures and 78% and 67% of the EEG sei-
only one small-scale, single-blind, multicenter zures. There was no significant difference, but
trial [54, 55]. The trial ended 3 years after start- the overall mortality rate (57%) of propofol was
ing and enrolled 24 patients, 14 of whom were higher than that of MDZ (17%) (P = 0.16).
treated with propofol and nine with phenobarbi- According to the APACHE II (Acute Physiology
tal (including thiopental sodium and phenobarbi- and Chronic Health Evaluation II) score evalua-
tal). The trial compared the efficacy and side tion, except for the fact that APACHE scores of
effects, as well as short-term and long-term prog- patients treated with propofol were greater than
noses of these two types of drugs for RSE treat- or equal to 20, a comparison of mortality between
ment, and found that the mechanical ventilation the propofol and MDZ subgroups showed no sig-
time in patients treated with barbiturates was lon- nificant difference. It was noted that in the small
ger than patients treated with propofol and that sample study of RSE patients, there was no dif-
there was no significant difference in a 3-month ference between the use of propofol and MDZ for
prognosis (such as seizure control and functional clinical and EEG seizure control. In RSE patients
prognosis). The side effects of the drugs were with APACHE II scores greater than or equal to
infection, hypotension, and intestinal ischemia. 20, the survival rate of RSE patients using MDZ
The authors noted that there was still a lack of a may be higher than those using propofol.
strong RCT comparing the efficacy of both drugs
in the treatment of RSE, and as such, a large-­
scale RCT was needed to verify efficacy. In a lit- 6.2.3  dministration and Time
A
erature review, Parviainen et al. [56] discussed of Onset
the state of propofol and barbiturate usage in
RSE treatment. Their team found that the use of The treatment of RSE requires continuous intra-
propofol in the treatment of RSE had increased venous injection of propofol. It was advocated
because it could quickly terminate the clinical that the first dosage should be 2 mg/kg IV bolus
seizures and EEG epileptic discharges in patients and then 3–6 mg/(kg·h) for intravenous mainte-
with epilepsy. However, 19–33% of the patients nance therapy [35]. The median of propofol injec-
had SE recurrence, especially when the drug dose tion rate should be 4.8 mg/(kg·h) [2.1–13 mg/
was reduced. The advantage of barbiturate treat- (kg·h)] [36], and the average duration for propo-
ment was that the frequency of short-term treat- fol usage was 34.4 h–7 days [35, 40]. Studies
ment failure was very low, but its long-term use have also shown that the median of usage time is
could lead to prolonged mechanical ventilation, 63 h (2–391 h) or 3 days (1–9 days) [36, 57]. The
intensive care, and hospital stay. The use of large maximum accumulated dose for the treatment
doses of propofol infusion should be limited to process was 7885.1–12,750 mg [40, 57], and the
48 h, and relevant personnel should always pay time required for propofol usage from the start of
attention to the risk of intravenous propofol syn- treatment to RSE being controlled was 2.6 min
drome; high doses of barbiturates can effectively [58]. The effective rate for seizure control of pro-
terminate seizures, but recovery to consciousness pofol was 63–100% [35, 36, 58].
needs some time after anesthesia, which has led Combination therapy of propofol and KE
to prolonged ventilation and intensive care. could be used to treat SRSE. Combined adminis-
Prasad et al. [11] explored the differences in tration should last for 1–28 days (3.6 days at
204 X. Wang and S. Li

average), and the infusion rates should be 145 epilepsy in the implementation of anesthesia
and 175 μg/kg/min, yielding a total remission should be considered, especially in patients with
rate of SRSE of 91% [44]. Studies have also epilepsy. Marik et al. [60] reported that dose-­
shown that [45] the use of propofol 12–72 h prior dependent hypotension often occurred in treat-
to the use of KE could control all seizures of ment with propofol, especially in patients with
SRSE patients, whereas the SRSE remission rate low capacity failure. In addition, Ku et al. [61]
for the simultaneous use of propofol and KE (the found that in a rare case, the urine of a patient
median of administration duration at 4 days) was with refractory epilepsy turned dark green after
approximately 66%. propofol treatment. The shade of the urine’s color
There is a case report on the successful treat- depended on the propofol infusion dose.
ment of refractory NCSE by propofol. Propofol Reducing the dose of propofol could lighten the
1 mg/kg was administered by intravenous injec- urine’s color and return it to normal. This phe-
tion and continued with infusion at 5 μg/kg/min. nomenon was benign and reversible.
Continuous electroencephalogram (cEEG) moni- PRIS, a fatal complication, may occur when
toring was provided, and the speed of infusion the dosage of propofol exceeds 4 mg/kg/h and the
increased to 110 μg/kg/min until burst suppres- usage lasts for more than 48 h. PRIS accompa-
sion. Drug withdrawal was carried out after con- nied with high-dose injection of propofol is a
tinuous intravenous injection of propofol for potentially fatal complication, with characteris-
7 days [47]. tics such as metabolic acidosis and severe circu-
The onset time of propofol is rapid. In the latory failure. PRIS has 30% mortality [62] and
study of propofol in the treatment of 16 patients over a 1% incidence rate [63]; its deduced risk
with RSE, Stecker et al. [58] found that seizures factors include the use of high doses of propofol
in 63% of patients were controlled after propofol (>83 μg/kg/min), treatment time > 48 h, and
usage, and therapeutic effect of propofol was simultaneous blood vessel pressure-raising ther-
slightly worse than that of barbiturates (at 82%), apy. Walli et al. [64] searched five databases and
but with no significant difference. From the start found 21 cases with PRIS: all patients had
of the treatment until RSE was controlled, the arrhythmias (100%), nine cases with rhabdomy-
time required for a large-dose intravenous injec- olysis (42%), 13 (62%) cases with lactic acidosis,
tion of barbiturate (123 min) was longer than that eight cases with renal failure (38%), seven cases
for propofol (2.6 min). The authors believed that with hyperlipidemia (33%), six cases with liver
propofol could terminate the attack quickly and enzyme elevation (28%), and 13 cases with death
effectively if used appropriately. However, it was (66%). Some scholars reported that a 17-year-old
not effective for all RSE patients, and patients woman with RSE treated with propofol (8.8 mg/
who were irresponsive to propofol still needed kg/h lasting for 58 h) had PRIS, and its manifes-
other drugs to control their seizures. tations were renal failure, severe metabolic aci-
dosis, and rhabdomyolysis [65]. In addition,
Da-Silva et al. [66] described a 4-year-old boy
6.2.4 Adverse Reaction with malignant SE treated with propofol as the
and Precaution dose increased from 0.6 to 15.6 mg/kg/h, where
EEG burst suppression occurred. PRIS occurred
Propofol has the advantages of rapid onset, short after 48 h of propofol use. In another retrospec-
duration, rapid and stable awakening, and fewer tive analysis by another scholar on the prognosis
adverse reactions, but it has a marked impact on of RSE when being treated by propofol, three
the central nervous system, cardiovascular sys- patients in a propofol treatment group (3/31,
tem, and respiratory system. Mäkelä et al. [59] 10%) experienced the occurrence of cardiac pul-
reported five cases of epileptic seizure induced monary sudden arrest, two of which were fatal,
by propofol and noted that although propofol can and 11 patients (11/31, 35%) had non-life-­
be used to treat SE, a possible sudden onset of threatening PRIS [57].
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 205

Baumeister et al. [67] reported fatal PRIS ward over 36 days and was discharge from
associated with the ketogenic diet. PRIS is caused ­hospital after 2 months. Some scholars have used
by abnormal fatty acid oxidation; therefore, a partial exchange of blood therapy (PEBT) to treat
ketogenic diet and a high-fat, low-carbohydrate PRIS, which improves the metabolic abnormali-
diet with appropriate protein diet, in addition to ties and cardiac insufficiency [66]. Moreover,
AEDs, can effectively reduce the seizures of Mayette [70] described the occurrence of PRIS in
RSE, but the literature has described a case of a a young female SE patient after propofol treat-
10-year-old boy with severe epilepsy who died ment, which progressed to refractory cardiac
from PRIS when he was on a ketogenic diet. arrest. Extracorporeal pulmonary membrane
Because the class of propofol drugs could hinder oxygenation was enabled during cardiopulmo-
fatty acid oxidation, using it together with a keto- nary resuscitation, and her heartbeat recovered
genic diet increases that risk. after cardiac arrest for more than 8 h. The patient
Kumar et al. [68] found that irreversible aci- was finally discharged with improved prognosis.
dosis occurred after extended injection of propo- Similarly, Levin et al. [71] also reported a
fol. The authors retrospectively analyzed three 16-year-old patient with SE accompanied by
cases of patients admitted to the NICU at head injury who had PRIS manifestations such as
Massachusetts General Hospital from October severe lactic acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, and
2001 to September 2004: case 1 was a 27-year-­ hemodynamic disorder and who recovered com-
old female patient with epilepsy secondary to pletely after plasma exchange treatment. In con-
arteriovenous malformation hemorrhage accom- clusion, renal replacement therapy, blood
panied by metabolic acidosis, hypotension, and exchange, and extracorporeal pulmonary mem-
bradycardia after propofol usage, who ultimately brane oxygenation appear to be promising
died; case 2 was a 64-year-old male with SE who approaches for the treatment of PRIS.
had metabolic acidosis, hypotension, and rhabdo- In patients treated with propofol, withdrawal-­
myolysis after long-term injection of propofol, related “seizures” should be noted. Zubair et al.
who died eventually; and case 3 was a 24-year-­ [72] reported a case in which an SE patient who
old female with SE secondary to encephalitis was successfully treated with propofol experi-
who was given propofol to control seizures; enced convulsive seizures upon each drug with-
whose presentation was characterized by hypo- drawal, despite EEG monitoring finding no
tension, metabolic acidosis, and chronic arrhyth- abnormal discharge. Therefore, propofol treat-
mia; and who eventually died despite transvenous ment was ceased; seizure occurrence gradually
pacing. These data suggest that in adult and pedi- reduced and disappeared. The author noted that
atric patients, the long-term use of propofol is seizure EEGs related to propofol withdrawal
related to metabolic acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, were in essence not seizures, so there would be
and death. no need for further propofol treatment. However,
Biochemical indicators should be closely Bhatt et al. [73] found that five patients receiv-
monitored in the case of long-term propofol ing phenobarbital and propofol to treat intracra-
usage to quickly identify PRIS, at which point nial hypertension, encephalopathy, and RSE
administration of the drug should be stopped showed generalized periodic discharges related
immediately, and appropriate therapeutic mea- to anesthetic withdrawal (GRAW). The anes-
sures should be taken. Fang et al. [69] reported thetic withdrawal was carried out 24–48 h after
that extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and EEG burst suppression, and all patients showed
sustained hemodialysis filtration could lead to generalized periodic discharges at 1–4 Hz after
successful recovery from PRIS in RSE treatment. drug withdrawal. Different from their previous
Guitton et al. [65] used blood filtration and extra- EEG pattern, this EEG performance could remit
corporeal membrane oxygenation to treat PRIS, spontaneously after 12–120 h. Because this did
which resulted in the gradual improvement of not constitute seizure recurrence, no treatment
symptoms; their patient improved in an ICU was needed.
206 X. Wang and S. Li

6.3 Ketamine the pronged SE that had persisted over 90 min.

Moreover, the neuroprotective effect of this drug
6.3.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics was still present regardless of whether SE had
and Pharmacodynamics ultimately ceased or not.

KE is a water-soluble drug with a low plasma

protein binding rate of approximately 10–30% 6.3.2 Clinical Practice
[74]. The peak concentration of a single dose is
reached in 20–30 min [75]. The elimination half-­ In 1962, KE was developed by a pharmaceutical
life period is 2–3 h, which is sooner in children company in the USA. Three years later, while
by approximately 100 min [76]. KE is metabo- researching electrically or chemically generated
lized through a microsomal enzyme system. It is animal models of epilepsy, McCarthy [82] first
mainly oxidized into norketamine, a component discovered that KE exerts anticonvulsant effects,
with pharmacological action, and KE is primarily which was soon confirmed in patients [83], raising
excreted via bile and urine. the possibility of treating SE using KE. However,
KE has both anticonvulsant and neuroprotec- this possibility was later questioned by Kayama
tive effects. The possible mechanism of KE on et al. [84]. Through their animal experiments
anticonvulsion is as follows. As a noncompetitive using cat models, they revealed that KE could
antagonist of NMDAR, KE can reduce the epi- induce epileptiform discharges in EEG record-
leptiform discharges and afterpotentials by com- ings. However, a similar study of human volun-
bining with the phencyclidine site that is located teers carried out by Corssen et al. [85] rejected
in the inner side of the cation channel, thus inhib- this conclusion; instead, these researchers argued
iting transmission of excitatory nerve impulses that KE caused epileptic changes neither in epi-
and playing an antiepileptic role [77]. The neuro- lepsy patients nor in normal subjects and that
protective effect of KE may be achieved through there was no evidence indicating that KE could
multiple approaches. The NMDAR antagonist exacerbate or induce convulsions.
KE not only can block the influx of Ca2+ but also Recently KE has been commonly used in
alleviate neuroinflammation, neuronal oxidative RSE. Gaspard [86] conducted a multicenter ret-
stress, and the decrease of brain-derived neuro- rospective study that included 58 RSE patients
trophic factor (BDNF) [78–80]. Therefore, KE receiving intravenous KE treatment between 1999
plays a neuroprotective role in RSE. Fujikawa and 2012, among whom were 46 adult patients
[81] induced 12 rat SE models with lithium and and 12 child patients. The results indicated that
pilocarpine; then, they were injected with saline among the 60 episodes of RSE that were iden-
(n = 5) or 100 mg/kg KE (n = 7) intraperitone- tified, among which approximately 57% (34/60)
ally after 10 min of SE onset. Three hours later, of the seizures were ultimately resolved, 32%
intraperitoneal injections with atropine, pheno- (19/60) considered KE to be the “likely” (7/19)
barbital, and diazepam were initiated to terminate or “possible” (12/19) agent responsible for gain-
seizures. Then, they performed perfusion-­fixation ing permanent control over the RSE. Similarly,
to the rat brain slices on the next day, with subse- the results of a prospective study published in
quent processing of these slices for microscopic 2015 [87] also approved of the possible effi-
examination. The researchers observed that 24 cacy and safety of KE in RSE treatment. This
of 25 brain regions had suffered from neuronal research included 13 children (0.16–11.4 years
injury in the saline group, whereas in the KE old) who experienced a total of 19 episodes of
group, none of the brain regions were damaged in RSE from 2009 to 2015, most of which (14/19)
the three rats whose SEs were terminated within manifested as CSE. The results indicated that
30 min after KE administration. In the remain- the RSE resolution rate achieved 73.6% (14/19)
ing four rats, KE also provides neuroprotection after intravenous KE a­ dministration and that KE
in 21 of the 24 damaged brain regions despite treatment was accompanied by no severe side
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 207

effects except mildly increased saliva secretion. earlier—just after the failure of those commonly
Additionally, KE was selected as the first anes- used first-line and second-line AEDs, including
thetic in five children when the first-­ line and sodium-channel inhibitors and γ-aminobutyric
second-line AEDs failed, and four out of the five acid (GABA) receptor antagonists [44, 87, 99],
patients avoided endotracheal intubation, which for the purpose of achieving earlier control of sei-
was due to KE’s minimal influence on cardiopul- zures to relieve the neuronal injuries and endotra-
monary function. cheal intubation ratios that would occur during
In 2003, Mewasingh [88] reported six cases prolonged SE; however, this view still needs fur-
of RSE in children manifesting NCSE; oral KE ther confirmation.
administration was initiated after the seizures A systematic evaluation of NMDAR antago-
had continued for approximately 4.4 weeks nists for the treatment of RSE published in
(2–10 weeks) despite the use of many anticon- 2014 [101] ultimately included 23 original
vulsants, and the results showed that all of the studies that consisted of 52 children (range:
seizures were controlled within 24–48 h after 2 months–18 years old) and 110 adults (range:
KE initiation, no matter their clinical manifesta- 19–88 years old), all of whom were RSE patients
tions or epileptiform discharges. Although one treated with KE. Finally, this evaluation revealed
of the patients suffered a relapse a few months that KE was responsible for 56.5% (59/110) of
later, oral KE was still effective in NCSE treat- the resolutions in adults and 63.5% (33/52) in
ment, and no significant adverse reactions were children and that the accompanying untoward
recorded during KE administration. effects consisted of arrhythmia in adults (1.8%,
In addition, in Tables 6.1 and 6.2, we have n = 2) and increased saliva secretion in children
summarized the studies of KE in RSE treatment (17.3%, n = 17). As a result, the authors deemed
over the most recent 2 years, and more reports that there was evidence to support the relative
that were published from 1996 to 2014 about efficacy and safety of KE for the treatment of
this topic were also summarized in a review RSE in both adults and children. However, some
[89]. From the results of all the published reports limitations also existed in this review, such as
stated above, we can draw a conclusion that the small sample size of the included studies, the
KE treatment is primarily suitable for RSE and heterogeneous nature of the retrospective studies,
SRSE. This conclusion is also supported by the the diversity of medications prior to KE, the tim-
animal experiment (n = 4) of Borris [90], who ing of KE initiation, and the dosages and dura-
found that if KE was initiated after 15 min of SE, tions of this drug. Therefore, more prospective
none of the seizures could be resolved, but when studies with larger sample sizes are warranted to
KE administration was selected 1 h after stimula- further confirm the efficacy and safety of KE for
tion, the seizure resolution rate was 100%; there- the treatment of RSE.
after, correspondingly increasing the dosages
of KE continued to be effective within a certain
period despite a prolonged SE. 6.3.3  dministration and Time
A
KE is primarily suitable for the treatment of of Onset
RSE and SRSE during prolonged seizures, but
the specific timing of KE administration is still Intravenous administration: (a) Intravenous bolus
controversial. According to the results of some followed by infusion: When KE is selected for
past successful studies [45, 86, 91–93], we con- adult RSE patients, the recommended average
cluded that KE might be suitable for RSEs that loading dose is 1.5 mg/kg, followed by continu-
have been resistant to five to six AEDs, which ous infusion at a median rate of 2.75 mg/kg/h,
is coincident with the gradual downregula- maintained for approximately 4 days (0–24 days)
tion of GABA-A receptors and upregulation of [86], and Gaspard [86] also summarized that the
NMDARs [94–98]. However, some scholars have peak loading dose could reach 5 mg/kg, with a
recommended that KE should be considered even maximum infusion rate as high as 10 mg/kg/h.
Table 6.1 Demographics and clinical data of ketamine treatment in RSE
208

Number History of SE duration Medications prior to

Year of patients Age (Y) Sex epilepsy Study type Etiologies SE types prior to KE KE References
2016 2 57,56 Female No Case report Autoimmune encephalitis, cardiac My, NC >5d, 5 (PRO, VPA, LEV, [91]
(2) arrest unknown PHT, PB), 4 (MDZ,
LEV, PB, VPA)
2016a 42 68 Male Yes (7) Retrospective CNS tumor (3), CNS infection (4), My (6), NC 3d 5 (4–7) (unknown) [45]
(59.3– (22) No (35) cerebrovascular disease (7), epilepsy (28), (2–6.8d)
72) Female relapse (7), unknown (7), postanoxic tonic–clonic
(20) encephalopathy (14) (6), focal
motor (20)
2015 67 58 Male Unknown Retrospective Gene mutation (2), autoimmune Convulsive 1-2d Unknown [44]
(8–85) (18) disease (3), tumor (3), systemic
Female infection (5), CNS infection (5),
(49) stroke (7), unknown (11), anoxic
encephalopathy (13), metabolic/toxic
encephalopathy (18)
2015 2 23, 30 Male Yes (1) Case report Unknown Convulsive 1-2d 6 (DZP, PHT, MDZ, [92]
(18) No (1) VPA,LEV, PB),
5(MDZ, PHT, VPA,
LEV, CLZ)
2015 11 54 Male Yes (4) Retrospective Cerebral hemorrhage (1), mucous NC (1), SPS 0.7-11d 1–5 [100]
(33– (5) No (7) cyst (1), anoxic encephalopathy (1), (2), (unknown)
68) Female brain abscess (1), drugs (1), CPSl + SG
(6) intracranial metastases (1), epidural (5), CPS (1),
and subdural hematoma(1, mesial SG (2)
temporal sclerosis (1), unknown (2),
autoimmune disease (3)
2015 13 5 Male Yes (11) Prospective Hemimegalencephaly (1), Focal (1), 7d Unknown [87]
(0.17– (6) No (2) mitochondrial diseases (1), focal focal, My (3), (5 h-26d)
11.5) Female cortical dysplasia (2), Rett syndrome focal, My, GC
(7) (1), MELAS (1), congenital (2);
malformation (1), unknown (6) focal ± SG (7)
AED antiepileptic drug, CLB clobazam, CPS complex partial seizure, CNS central nervous system, d days, DZP diazepam, GC generalized convulsive, h hours, KE ketamine,
LEV levetiracetam, MDZ midazolam, MELAS mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes, My myoclonus, NC nonconvulsive, PB phenobarbital,
PHT phenytoin, PRO propofol, SE status epilepticus, SG secondary generalization, SPS simple partial seizure, VPA valproate, w weeks, Y years
a
The drug selected was (S)-ketamine
X. Wang and S. Li
 6

Table 6.2 Ketamine treatment regime and efficacy

Dosages Time from
Number Duration ketamine Resolution
of Bolus Infusion of treatment initiation to rate of
Year patients Administration (mg/kg) (mg/kg/h) Oral (d) Onset time seizure cessation seizures Outcome References
2016 2 IV 0, 0 0.1, 0.5 0,0 2–3, 19 12 h, Unknown 100% Died (1), need [91]
Unknown nursing (1)
2016a 42 IV 200 mg 2.39 0 4 (2.0–6.8) Unknown Unknown 64% Died (45.2%) [45]
(200–250 mg) (1.52–3.02)
(only 7 (all)
patients)
2015 67 IV 0 1.5–10.5 0 3.6 (1–28) Unknown Unknown 91% Died (39%) [44]
2015 2 IV 1 2, 0,0 2–3 1-2d 1-2d 100% Died (1), [92]
rehabilitation (1)
2015 11 IV 1.1–4 (only 4 3.5 (1–5) 0 2–27 5–10 min Unknown 36% Died (3), [100]
patients) (2),10–15 min rehabilitation (3),
(1),35 min recurred (2), need
(1),2.75 h (1), nursing (3)
unknown (6)
2015 13 IV (2–3) × 2 1.8 0 3 (1–17) Unknown Unknown 73.7% Unknown [87]
Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice

(0.42–3.6)
d day(s), h hour(s), kg kilogram, mg milligram, min minutes, IV intravenous
a
The drug selected was (S)-ketamine
209
210 X. Wang and S. Li

Additionally, Synowiec [102] revealed that if a possible rapid-onset time of KE in the ­application
bolus of 1–2 mg/kg KE was injected first, fol- of RSE treatment. Similarly, Sheth [108] also
lowed by a median infusion rate of 1.3 mg/kg/h described that when KE was administered intra-
(0.45–2.1 mg/kg/h) for approximately 9.8 days venously to a girl, improvement of manifesta-
(4–28 days), all of the RSE patients (11/11) could tions and epileptiform discharges was observed
have their seizures completely resolved. When approximately 90 s after KE administration had
KE is used in pediatric RSE patients, a bolus of initiated, thereby supporting the rapid-onset prop-
2–3 mg/kg KE is administered every 5 min fol- erty of KE in the treatment of RSE. Additionally,
lowed by an initial infusion rate of 5–10 μg/kg/ it was reported that most seizures were termi-
min, with a gradual increase of the infusion rate nated within 2–3 days of KE initiation [101]. At
at a magnitude of 2–10 μg/kg/min every 10 min present, cEEG is a critical tool for us to recog-
according to the changes on manifestation and nize whether anticonvulsants work. Basha [100]
EEG, and the average infusion rate is 30 μg/kg/ used KE to treat 11 RSE patients, among whom
min (7–60 μg/kg/min) [87, 93]. (b) Continuous only four patients’ seizures were ultimately ter-
infusion: Zelier [103] selected continuous infu- minated; coincidentally, 5–35 min after KE
sion of KE at a rate of 10–40 μg/kg/min for administration, all of the four resolved patients
RSE treatment, and all of the seizures (2/2) were exhibited specific diffused θ-β rhythms (7–20 Hz)
ultimately terminated. Moreover, Basha [100] on cEEG. Therefore, the authors deemed that this
reported that when KE was initiated from 1 mg/ specific KE-induced EEG change might be a
kg/h, then gradually increased its infusion rate “marker” that could help us predict the success of
to 3.5 mg/kg/h (1–5 mg/kg/h), and was main- this drug in RSE treatment.
tained for 2–14 days, the complete response rate
could reach 57% (4/7), and in the remaining three
patients who did not respond, one of them was 6.3.4 Adverse Reaction
previously controlled by KE but relapsed and and Precaution
was ultimately resolved through neurosurgery,
and the other two died separately of sudden car- A systematic review conducted by Zeiler [101]
diac arrest and giving up of treatment. If infusion indicated that the side effects related to KE use in
administration of KE is used in pediatric patients, RSE were rare, but concerns remain warranted.
the recommended dosage is 32.5 μg/kg/min (10– Herein, we have described the major adverse
60 μg/kg/min) [104]. reactions.
Until now, reports of oral KE for the treatment Increased intracranial pressure (ICP): 40 years
of RSE have been few in number and only used in ago, researchers knew that KE could increase
NCSE, so we can only limitedly describe that the intracranial pressure through improving the
effective dosage of oral KE is 1500–2000 mg/d brain’s metabolic rate and increasing the brain
in adults [105]; in children, it is 1.5 mg/kg/d, blood flow [109]. However, further opinions
administered in two divided doses [88]. have been prompted regarding the effect of KE
From a pharmacological point of view, KE on intracranial pressure, and recent studies have
manifests the property of short onset time, which revealed that when RSE patients breathe spon-
could be due to its low binding rate with plasma taneously, KE increases ICP due to an elevation
protein, high lipid solubility, and high permeabil- of PaCO2 in the arteries, but when patients are
ity through the blood–brain barrier (BBB) [106]. sedated and breathe in the form of mechanical
A report by Kramer [107] supports this view ventilation, the effects of KE on ICP are actu-
insofar as the researchers immediately observed ally quite small [110]. Additionally, a systematic
decreased seizure frequency and duration and review published in 2014 indicated that when KE
reduced epileptiform discharge amplitude after was administered in RSE patients without trau-
a loading dose of 50 mg of KE followed by an matic brain injuries, it would not increase ICP and
initial infusion rate of 0.6 mg/kg/h, indicating a might even decrease ICP under proper c­ onditions
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 211

[111]. As a result, mechanical ventilation should ventricular tachycardia; moreover, all of these
be warranted during KE use, to minimize the arrhythmias were relieved after KE was with-
risk of KE-induced intracranial hypertension and drawn or after using amiodarone.
respiratory depression, and head CT should be Increased intraocular pressure (IOP): The
performed previously to exclude the intracranial effect of KE on IOP is still controversial [115]:
lesions that might aggravate the intracranial pres- some researchers deem that it could increase IOP
sure [112, 113]. Moreover, if KE use is combined [119], but others believe that it does not affect IOP
with GABA-A receptor activators for RSE treat- [120] or even believe that it reduces IOP [121].
ment, its adverse effects on ICP could be dimin- This controversy may be ascribed to the multiple
ished [114]. factors that affect IOP, such as the dynamic equi-
Psychiatric symptoms: The major psychiatric librium of aqueous humor, blood flow of choroid,
symptoms related to KE use for RSE treatment tension of extraocular muscle, and volume of vit-
include delirium, hallucinations, and blurred reous body [78]. Actually, KE exerts only a tri-
vision, and the incidence rate ranges from 5 to fling impact on IOP and is even weaker than the
30%, with children being at the lowest risk [115]. influence experienced during laryngoscopy [78].
These adverse reactions are easier to occur in Consequently, KE has little influence on IOP
female patients, in patients above 16 years old, when it is administered for RSE, and when it is
or when the KE dosage or administration rate combined with benzodiazepines, the effect of KE
is too high [116]. A relaxing and quiet environ- on IOP could be alleviated [115].
ment, slower administration rate, and gradual Neurotoxicity: The influence of KE on CNS
titration of the dose are helpful for reducing the for human beings remains controversial. Twenty-­
incidence of psychiatric symptoms [110, 112]. five years ago, it was reported that KE exerted
Additionally, prophylactic administration of neurotoxic effects that could induce neuronal
MDZ (3.75–7.5 mg) could reduce the severity degeneration and even necrosis on the pallium
and probability of these side effects [110]. of rats. Since then, clinicians have become more
Increased saliva secretion: The KE-induced cautious when considering this drug. However,
increase of saliva secretion is common in chil- KE-induced neurotoxicity has not been fully
dren, and this hypersecretion of saliva, accompa- identified in human beings [122]. Most research-
nied by increased secretion of bronchial mucus, ers have suggested that the neurotoxicity of KE
might cause transient respiratory depression or is often mild and might only be limited to chil-
apnea. Therefore, attention should be paid to dren during its clinical applications, and this mild
monitoring respiratory status during KE admin- effect is thought to be associated with the short
istration. A slower administration rate and a half-life of KE and the low affinity of this drug
gradual titration of the KE dosage can reduce the for NMDARs [123, 124]. In recent years, ani-
incidence of respiratory depression related to this mal studies have implicated the neuroprotective
drug [112], and prophylactic use of anticholiner- effect of KE combined with atropine, thus revers-
gic drugs, such as atropine or scopolamine, can ing KE-induced neurotoxicity [125, 126].
help us to prevent this side effect [106].
Tachyarrhythmia: This adverse reaction is
thought to be associated with KE-induced exci- 6.4 Levetiracetam
tation of the sympathetic nervous system and
shortening of the atrial conduction [117, 118]. 6.4.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics
Gaspard [86] and his colleagues studied the and Pharmacodynamics
adverse reactions of 58 RSE patients who had
undergone KE administration. They found that Levetiracetam (LEV), a pyrrolidone derivative
only three patients exhibited tachyarrhythmia, and piracetam analog with the trade name Keppra,
among whom one patient manifested as atrial is a novel broad-spectrum AED [127]. LEV is
fibrillation, and the other two exhibited supra- highly permeable and readily dissolvable and can
212 X. Wang and S. Li

reach its peak plasma concentration within 1 h. with a placebo, LEV can significantly reduce the
The bioavailability of LEV is 95%, which is not ­intensity of seizure and neuronal injury induced
affected by food [128, 129]. Animal experiments by the episode in pilocarpine-induced animal
show that LEV can rapidly penetrate the blood– models of SE. However, others have found that
brain barrier and is distributed into the brain tissue the prophylactic use of LEV after SE had no
and cerebrospinal fluid, where its concentrations effect on epileptogenesis, neuronal damage, and
are similar to its blood drug concentration [130]. behavioral changes induced by SE [142].
LEV has a linear pharmacokinetic profile [131,
132] and is not metabolized in the liver [133]. In
addition, its hydrolytic metabolism does not rely 6.4.2 Clinical Practice
on the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme system;
therefore, interactions of LEV with other AEDs The potential anticonvulsant effect of LEV was
are rare [134]. Furthermore, the drug plasma pro- originally discovered in animal experiments
tein binding rate is low (only 10%), 66% of LEV [143]. Furthermore, Klitgaard et al. [144] have
is renally metabolized, and the duration of action found that LEV not only controls seizures but
is twice the plasma half-life (6–8 h) [135]. The also has few effects on the normal behavior of
pharmacokinetics of the intravenous formula- animals even upon large doses in drug-induced
tion are similar to those of the oral formulations epileptic models, indicating its safe and effective
[136], indicating that oral and intravenous uses of antiepileptic effects. In 1999, LEV was approved
LEV are almost equivalent. for the treatment of adults with partial seizures
LEV can effectively reduce seizures in by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
pilocarpine-­induced and kainate-induced epilep- In 2005, this drug began to be broadly used as
tic models, but it was devoid of anticonvulsant an add-on therapy for children aged 4 years or
activity in acute maximal electroshock-kindled older with partial seizures. One year later, LEV
and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-kindled epileptic was recommended for the treatment of SE. Since
mice, suggesting that its mechanism may be dif- then, researchers [39, 145] have also found that
ferent from traditional AEDs [137]. At present, intravenous LEV can be a useful alternative to
studies suggest that LEV may exert antiepileptic traditional first-line AEDs for RSE. This con-
effects via binding to the synaptic vesicle pro- clusion was supported by the European Society
tein 2A (SV2A) and affecting neurotransmit- for Neuroscience and the Italian League Against
ter release, particularly the release of excitatory Epilepsy [48, 146].
amino acids [138]. In addition, Rigo et al. [139] Oral administration of LEV is a new method
have found that LEV can also block the downreg- of treatment for SE. Unfortunately, the major-
ulation of GABA receptors in the cerebral cor- ity of these studies have been retrospective.
tex and selectively inhibit N-type high-­voltage Especially rare prospective controlled trials
activated calcium channels in hippocampal pyra- have been conducted to evaluate the feasibil-
midal cells, thereby reducing the influx of cal- ity and safety of oral LEV for the treatment of
cium ions induced by excessive activation of the RSE. Patel et al. [147] reported six patients (five
NMDAR. This inhibition consequently reduces adults and one adolescent) who were adminis-
conduction of excitatory nerve impulses, which tered LEV via a nasogastric tube at a dosage of
exerts the antiepileptic effects. Animal experi- 500–3000 mg/day. Seizures of all patients were
mentation has shown that during the maintenance under control, and no significant adverse reac-
phase of SE, LEV can reduce or terminate sei- tions were observed. Rossetti et al. [148] used
zures, exhibit potent neuroprotective effects, and nasogastric LEV at an average dose of 2000 mg
decrease the incidence of epilepsy after seizure (range of 750–9000 mg) to treat 23 adult patients
[140]. Besides, the animal experiment results with SE (including nine patients with RSE).
of Zheng et al. [141], which also support the Finally, remission was observed in 43% (10/23)
above conclusion, further found that compared of the patients after the treatment. Trabacca et al.
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 213

[149] reported that one 9-year-old child with (6/14) of these children. In particular, remission
­refractory NCSE was given oral LEV at a dosage was observed in 57% (4/7) of the patients younger
of 10–40 mg/(kg d) for 2 weeks, resulting in the than 2 years of age, with no obvious side effects.
improvement of symptoms. However, with such Isguder et al. [156] used intravenous LEV to treat
a long period of drug administration, seizure ter- 46 pediatric patients with RSE, at the loading
mination may not be an effect of drug action. dose of 20 mg/kg; the response rate was 78.3%
Currently, there are many reports about (36/46), and no adverse effects were observed
intravenous LEV therapy for RSE. Knake et al. during or after the course of the treatments. In
[150] used intravenous LEV to treat 18 patients addition, some studies have reported that LEV is
with benzodiazepine-resistant SE, with an aver- also effective and safe for the treatment of elec-
age dose of 944 mg/30 min (range of 250– trical status epilepticus in sleep (ESES) in pedi-
1500 mg/30 min) and a mean maintenance dose of atric patients [157, 158]. Taken together, these
2166 mg/day. Seizure termination was observed studies demonstrate that intravenous LEV is
in 16 patients. Möddel et al. [151] reported 36 also effective and tolerable in pediatric patients
RSE patients with intravenous injection or con- with RSE. In light of the good pharmacokinetic
tinuous infusion of LEV, at the loading dose of characteristics of LEV, the drug becomes a better
500–2000 mg/30–60 min. Seizure termination option to control seizures in elderly and critically
was observed in 69% (25/36) of the patients, ill patients with SE, but the use of LEV for the
and no obvious adverse reactions occurred. Eue treatment of RSE in these specific populations
et al. [152] used intravenous LEV to treat 43 SE has rarely been reported. Bevenburg et al. [159]
patients after ineffective treatment with benzodi- reported on 14 elderly patients with repeated
azepines. Patients with NCSE and subtle SE were complex partial seizures, CSE, or NCSE who
administered LEV as a short infusion at a dose were treated with intravenous LEV. The mean
of 1000 or 2000 mg, and in cases of CSE, a frac- age of the patients was 73.9 years (range: 61–97).
tionated injection of 1000 or 2000 mg was used. The average dosage of LEV was 1643 mg/d
Eventually, 44% (19/43) of the patients showed (range: 500–4000 mg/d). Treatment failure was
cessation of SE. Tripathi et al. [153] administered observed in only three patients. Berning et al.
intravenous sodium valproate and LEV to treat 82 [160] examined the use of LEV to treat 30 SE
patients diagnosed with RSE. Effective control of patients with comorbid conditions with an aver-
RSE was achieved in approximately 68% of the age age of 71 years. The average bolus dose was
patients in the sodium valproate group (28/41) 2000 mg, and the median total dose was 3500 mg
and in 73% of those in LEV group (30/41). No per day. Ultimately, the seizures were controlled
severe adverse reactions occurred during the in 76.7% (23/30) of the patients. Fattouch et al.
course of administration. [161] treated nine elderly SE patients with LEV
LEV for the treatment of RSE has been studied at a loading dose of 1500 mg/100 mL/15 min and
in specific populations. In 2009, a study of pedi- an average maintenance dose of 2500 mg/d. All
atric patients with RSE, NCSE, or acute recurrent of the patients presented with comorbid medi-
seizures showed that LEV can completely abol- cal conditions (arrhythmia/respiratory distress/
ish seizures and reduce epileptiform discharges hepatic disease). LEV therapy resulted in con-
on EEG and no significant adverse reactions were trol of the clinical symptoms in eight patients
observed [154]. Kim et al. [155] retrospectively (including seizure termination in seven cases)
analyzed 14 pediatric patients (eight boys and six and was ineffective in only one patient. In 2008,
girls) with a mean age of 4.4 ± 5.5 years (range: Rüegg et al. [162] administered intravenous LEV
4 days to 14.6 years) who received intravenous to treat 50 critically ill patients, and nearly half
LEV for the treatment of RSE. The average load- of these patients’ conditions were characterized
ing dose of LEV for intravenous infusion was by myoclonic SE induced by anoxia. The initial
26 ± 4.6 mg/kg. Ultimately, they found that the dose was 20 mg/kg in 15 min, and the mainte-
clinical symptoms were under control in 43% nance dose was 15 mg/kg. The seizure ended in
214 X. Wang and S. Li

67% (16/24) of the patients. Additionally, LEV in the treatment of children and adolescents has
does not affect liver metabolism and has no sig- not yet been unified. However, one scholar has
nificant interactions with other AEDs. Thus, one recommended that the loading dose of intra-
­
liver transplant patient with NCSE [163] and one venous LEV should be set at 20–30 mg/kg and
patient with acute intermittent porphyria [164] administered over 15 min [168].
achieved good results after the administration of From the pharmacology point of view, LEV
LEV. has high solubility and permeability, a short time
Yasiry et al. [165] performed a meta-analysis to peak, and the property of penetrating the BBB
on the efficacy of five AEDs—LEV, phenobarbi- rapidly. Thus, LEV can be used to treat seizures
tal, phenytoin, valproate, and lacosamide—for the in RSE and exhibits short onset time. Patel et al.
treatment of convulsive benzodiazepine-­resistant [147] successfully controlled seizures in six
SE. Twenty-seven studies were identified, and 22 patients through the use of a nasogastric tube
were included in the meta-analysis. Ultimately, injection of LEV. The termination time of the sei-
they found that the efficacy of LEV was 68.5% zure was 12–96 h. Rossetti et al. [148] reported on
(95% CI: 56.2–78.7%). Meanwhile, those of 23 adult patients with SE treated with nasogastric
phenobarbital, phenytoin, and sodium valpro- LEV. Seizure termination was observed within
ate were 73.6% (95% CI: 58.3–84.8%), 50.2% 72 h after the start of the treatment. Möddel et al.
(95% CI: 34.2–66.1%), and 75.7% (95% CI: [151] analyzed 25 patients whose seizures were
63.7–84.8%), respectively. There is not enough successfully controlled among 36 patients with
evidence to support the routine use of lacos- RSE treated by intravenous LEV and found that
amide due to insufficient data. Thus, from the seizure termination was observed within 3 days.
above results, the author drew the conclusion Gallentine et al. [169] performed the study of 11
that LEV could be used as an effective therapy pediatric RSE patients who received intravenous
in benzodiazepine-resistant SE. However, this LEV. The median time to cessation of seizures
study has certain limitations, such as the limited was 1.5 days after the start of the treatment. Thus,
number of included prospective studies, lack of the duration from oral LEV administration to
randomized double-blind controlled trials, insuf- achieving seizure control was 12–96 h, and the
ficient homogeneity of the findings, and interfer- intravenous use time of LEV for the treatment of
ence of benzodiazepine administration prior to RSE was 1–3 days.
LEV treatment. Therefore, additional RCTs are
urgently needed to further confirm the efficacy of
LEV for the treatment of RSE. 6.4.4 Adverse Reaction
and Precaution

6.4.3  dministration and Time

A There are rare reports of SE patients receiving
of Onset LEV having had significant side effects. Some
patients have drowsiness, weakness, and diz-
For the treatment of RSE in adults, the initial ziness, especially when the initial dose is high
dose is considered to be 1000–1500 mg IV at a [169]. Rare adverse reactions are behavioral and
rate of 2–5 mg/(kg min). If seizures do not stop, psychiatric side effects (PSEs), such as depres-
additional doses can be used according to EEG sion, nervousness, hostility, mood swings, and
findings, but sustainable infusion is limited to anxiety; these reactions are not clearly associated
0.05–2 mg/(kg h), and the recommended daily with dose but can be reversed after withdrawal
dose of LEV is 1500–3000 mg [150, 166, 167]. [170]. Möddel et al. [151] reported on only two
Attention is called to the need for further inves- patients with nausea and vomiting after having
tigations to confirm the regimes of LEV to treat examined 36 patients treated with intravenous
RSE because the patient numbers of most stud- LEV therapy for RSE. Berning et al. [161] exam-
ies are quite low. The effective dosage of RSE ined 32 RSE patients treated with LEV, observing
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 215

only one patient who had nausea and vomiting the ratio of total and uncombined plasma ­protein
and one case of elevated liver enzymes during [178]. The apparent volume of distribution is
intravenous administration of LEV. McTague 0.13–0.19 L/kg [175]. The half-life of VPA
et al. [171] reported that among 45 pediatric is approximately 9–18 h; when paired with
patients with acute seizures or RSE, only three enzyme-inducing co-medication, its half-life
children exhibited aggressive response after LEV will be reduced to 5–12 h [179–181]. In new-
treatment. It is necessary to note that Atefy et al. borns, its elimination is slower, particularly
[172] reported on two patients with astrocytoma in premature neonates. Its clearance rate will
following LEV treatment for the complex partial also increase in children [175]. Although the
seizures caused by radiotherapy and central tem- total plasma concentrations of VPA in elderly
poral lobe sclerosis. NCSE was observed during and young people are the same, unbound VPA
the course of the LEV treatments and was pre- concentrations in elderly are increased because
sumably associated with LEV. This may be the of their reduced plasma protein binding and
only report on LEV-induced SE, although it was reduced clearance [182]. Pregnant women,
difficult to determine whether this was caused by because of changes in the pharmacokinetics of
LEV. VPA, experience reduced drug total concentra-
PSEs may be caused by LEV, and patients tions of VPA in their blood, but free VPA con-
with underlying psychiatric disorders may centrations are basically unchanged [183], so
exhibit pejorative behavioral changes after treat- the dose should be adjusted depending on the
ment with LEV, which is concerning [173]. patient. VPA is primarily metabolized in the
For patients with severe hepatic impairment, liver though mitochondrial β-oxidation, micro-
their renal function should be examined first to somal glucuronide conjugation, and cytochrome
establish the dose adjustment requirements cor- P450 (CYP)-dependent ω-, (ω-1)-, and (ω-2)-
responding with the creatinine clearance rates of oxidation. Plasma clearance of VPA in healthy
patients [174]. Due to differences in individual people ranges from 0.4 to 0.6 L/h [175, 178,
sensitivity, drowsiness or other central nervous 179, 184], whereas only a small portion of VPA
system symptoms may occur at the initial stage is excreted unchanged in the urine.
of treatment or after an increased dose, which is VPA possesses broad-spectrum antiepileptic
concerning. In addition, patients who are aller- effects. The characteristics by which it can be
gic to LEV, pyrrolidone derivatives, or any of the safe and effective to treat various types of epi-
ingredients in the drug should not use LEV. lepsy, which determine its antiepileptic mecha-
nism, may be varied. Currently, the antiepileptic
mechanism of VPA is still being explored.
6.5 Valproic Acid Increasing GABA concentrations in the brain:
VPA can increase the synthesis of GABA and
6.5.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics reduce the degradation of GABA. Taberner et al.
and Pharmacodynamics [185] confirmed that VPA can increase the synthe-
sis of GABA in a similar experiment with mice,
Valproic acid (VPA) is a type of short-chain especially with respect to the substantia nigra
fatty acid and has a chemical structure different of the brain. The synthesis of GABA by VPA
from that of other clinical AEDs [175]. It can is mainly via increasing the activity of glutamic
be widely combined with plasma proteins, espe- acid decarboxylase (GAD), but high dose of VPA
cially albumin. With the increase of VPA dos- will decrease the activity of GAD. Recent stud-
ages, the degree to which it can be combined with ies have shown that VPA increases GABA which
plasma proteins is reduced [176]. A nonlinear potassium ion induced in the cerebral cortex of
shape exists between the total plasma drug con- rats. Similarly, VPA in clinical doses can increase
centration and the drug dose [177]. VPA concen- the release of GABA, which showed potassium
tration ratios in the brain and plasma depend on ion induction in cultured cortical neurons. At
216 X. Wang and S. Li

present, however, the antiepileptic mechanism of outflow, which causes neuronal ­hyperpolarization
VPA by increasing the GABA concentrations of and increases the conductance of the potassium
the brain is not fully elucidated. ion across the membrane. Although the concen-
Inhibiting release of γ-hydroxybutyrate trations of VPA used in these studies were high,
(GHB): Whittle et al. [186] studied the changes this may yet represent the antiepileptic mecha-
made by VPA in the brain homogenate of mice nism of VPA [192, 193].
and found that VPA can inhibit the release of Influencing calcium ions: Ethosuximide
GHB, and Snead [187] confirmed that GHB has treats absence epilepsy by preventing the use-­
an epileptogenic effect in a variety of species. dependent activation of T-type Ca+ channels of
Potentiating neuronal responses to GABA: thalamic neurons (which are associated with a
Macdonald et al. [188] was the first to find that spike wave produced in absence epilepsy). VPA
VPA can enhance the neuronal reaction to GABA can also treat absence epilepsy as effectively as
via the postsynaptic effect, thereby increasing ethosuximide, but in contrast to ethosuximide’s
the depolarization reaction of IPSPs. However, antiepileptic mechanism, VPA may play a role
subsequent in vitro research suggested that only through blocking low-threshold T-type calcium
at high concentrations of VPA can neuronal ion channels of the peripheral nerve [192, 194].
responses to GABA be potentiated. Olpe et al. Reducing the cGMP of the cerebellum: In the
[189] proved that VPA in therapeutic doses also experimental model of induced epilepsy seizures,
potentiates neuronal responses to GABA and at the beginning of the seizure, the cGMP of the
summarized how different research results may cerebellum and cortex increases rapidly [192].
reflect how VPA increases GABA in specific Lust [195] and McCandless [196] proposed that
areas of the brain. at the beginning or during the maintenance of sei-
Reducing the excitability of NMDAR: Zeise zures, the cerebellum’s cGMP level increases are
[190] studied that VPA can effectively inhibit regulated by Purkinje cell activity, and VPA has
NMDAR-evoked transient depolarization in the been proven to reduce the levels of cGMP in the
rat neocortex. zeise assert that VPA can reduce cerebellum during epileptic seizures.
the excitability of NMDAR-mediated, which is
the important antiepileptic mechanism of VPA.
Recently, many studies have also confirmed 6.5.2 Clinical Practice
that VPA can inhibit transient depolarization of
the rat hippocampus and the amygdala and that VPA was synthesized having a history dating
NMDAR activation triggers the transient depo- back more than 100 years as a derivative of pen-
larization; such research has also confirmed that tanoic acid. Prior to 1963, it was a solvent of
VPA can antagonize the excitability of neurons organic compounds; a novel systematic screen-
that the NMDAR serves to stimulate. ing of a series of derivatives of kellin dissolved
Influencing neuronal membrane: McLean in VPA has permitted scientists to find out the
[191] posited that VPA can inhibit the high-­ antiepileptic effects of VPA [197]. Then, Honack
frequency repetitive firing of action potentials et al. [198] found that VPA has anti-SE effects in
of central neurons (the effect might be involved a mouse GCSE model and proposed that intra-
in antiepileptic action of valproate on general- venous injection of VPA may be used to treat
ized tonic–clonic seizures (GTCS)), the most diazepam-­resistant SE.
probable explanation behind which is that VPA Neurological intensive care guidelines (2012)
produces a use-dependent inhibition of inward recommend that VPA can be used as a choice
sodium current. Yet the study of the effects of for controlling RSE in emergencies [199]. A
VPA on the sodium channel is indirectly inferred number of studies and reports show that intra-
from changes in the increased maximum rate that venous injection of VPA can be safe and effec-
sodium-dependent action potentials produce. tive to ­control RSE in children [200–204]. Mehta
Research data show that VPA increases potassium [202] conducted an RCT to compare the efficacy
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 217

and safety of intravenous VPA and diazepam trose 5%) over 5 min (repeated after 10–15 min,
in the treatment of RSE. The test was carried if necessary), then continuous ­ valproate at
out according to strict standards of diagnosis 30 mg/kg, infused at the rate of 6 mg/kg/h to
and inclusion/exclusion criteria. The research- maintain. Ultimately, 42 patients with RSE
ers brought in 40 5-month- to 12-year-old chil- (87.5%) were effectively controlled. SE in all 42
dren with RSE who were randomly divided into patients had been relieved within 1 h, neurologic
a VPA group and a diazepam group; the two function returned to baseline at the same time,
groups were given intravenous VPA or diazepam and CSE did not recur within the next 12 h. The
intravenously. First, the loading dose of the VPA Italian League Against Epilepsy (2006) estab-
group is 30 mg/kg (diluted 1: 1 with normal lished guidelines for the treatment of adult SE
saline), which should be intravenously injected and recommended the use of phenytoin and then
within 2–5 min; should SE not be controlled after to try phenobarbital to treat SE patients who do
approximately 10 min, a bolus dose of 10 mg/ not respond to benzodiazepine drugs in the initial
kg is repeated, followed by intravenous infu- treatment for SE. If there are contraindications
sion of VPA at the rate of 5 mg/kg/h. The diaz- with both, it is recommended to use VPA to treat
epam group began to intravenously infused at RSE (Level 3, Rating B).
10 μg/kg/min and then every 5 min, with the rate VPA can be used in the treatment of various
increased by 10 μg/kg/min, until the SE was con- types of epilepsy. A systemic evaluation [207],
trolled or diazepam achieved the maximum dose which included 166 generalized tonic–clonic SE
of 100 μg/kg/min. Experimental results show that patients from ten studies, found that VPA effec-
within 30 min of treatment, the effectiveness of tively treated the majority of the research subjects
valproate and diazepam for controlling RSE is (119/166), and the overall efficiency is 71.7%
80% and 85%, respectively. Moreover, Uberall [200, 205, 206, 210–215]. A systemic evalua-
et al. [200], in a retrospective study of control tion [207] that analyzed 107 simple or complex
children with RSE, found that the efficiency of focal SE patients from nine studies established an
VPA treatment for RSE was 78% (32/41). In a effective rate of treatment of 83/107; the overall
number of related reports on VPA treatment for efficiency of VPA is 77.6% [200, 203, 205, 206,
RSE in adults, the effective treatment rate of VPA 211–216]. Intravenous VPA administered alone
is 63–91% [205–207]. To understand how differ- for the absence SE is rare. A systemic evalua-
ent drugs provide treatment for SE when patients tion [207] included a total of 16 patients with the
do not respond to benzodiazepine drug treatment, absence SE from six studies. The results showed
Yasiry et al. [208] systematically analyzed 798 that the absence SE can quickly be eliminated
patients from 27 studies and found that the thera- by VPA. The overall efficiency of VPA is 75.0%
peutic response rate for RSE that benzodiazepine [200, 205, 210, 211, 217, 218]. Giroud [211] and
drugs failed to treat but VPA successfully treated Jha [205] studied VPA treatment for myoclonus
was 75.7%. Chen et al. [209] studied intravenous SE. The total effective rate was 71.0%. Uberall
valproate to treat refractory CSE for which ben- et al. [200] reported that VPA treated two cases of
zodiazepine drugs were ineffective for treatment infant patients with spastic SE successfully.
in Mainland China; their study included a total of Some studies have compared the efficacy of
48 patients who came from the neurology depart- VPA with other AEDs. Tripthi (2010) and col-
ment at West China Hospital in China’s Sichuan leagues [153] chose 209 patients older than
province between January 1996 and December 14 years with RSE in neurology and neurosurgery
2007, with all patients according with the inclu- at AIIMS hospitalized in December 2006–June
sion and exclusion criteria of the research objec- 2008 as the research objects, in which 82 patients
tives. After the initial failure of diazepam and with RSE were randomly divided into an IV val-
phenobarbital treatment, VPA was begun via proate group (41 patients) and an IV lamotrigine
intravenous injection, at a first loading dose of group (41 patients). The two groups received
15 mg/kg (diluted 1:1 with normal saline or dex- 30 mg/kg of valproate or lamotrigine intrave-
218 X. Wang and S. Li

nously at a rate of 5 mg/kg/min; the ­treatment 2–6 min of VPA administration in bolus. Several
effectiveness of RSE in the valproate group was studies show that intravenous injection of VPA to
68.3%, whereas in the lamotrigine group, it was treat RSE in children is effective and has almost
73.2% (p = 0.696). The differences in treatment no obvious side effects [200–204]. Intravenous
efficiency for RSE were not statistically sig- administration of VPA works quickly; for
nificant, and liver function damage, low blood instance, its maximum serum levels are achieved
pressure, respiratory depression, and thrombocy- with minutes after the start of infusion. An open-­
topenia in the two groups were not found in the label, multicenter, parallel-group, randomized,
process of treatment. Agarwal [219] (2007) and prospective epileptic treatment trial involving
others, in RCTs that compared the efficiency of 112 patients (37 were randomized to 1.5 mg/kg/
valproate and phenytoin sodium for the treatment min valproate injection, other 75 were random-
of RSE, ultimately found that the treatment effec- ized to 3.0 mg/kg/min valproate injection) deter-
tiveness of valproate was 88%, and the treatment mined that intravenous valproate is well tolerated
effectiveness of phenytoin sodium was 84%, when the dose is up to 15 mg/kg per infusion at
thereby suggesting that VPA treatment for RSE a rate of 3 mg/kg/min [221]. Only two patients
might be effective by targeting those individu- had significant hypotension. Thus, in an emer-
als who do not respond to benzodiazepine drugs. gency, the intravenous application of VPA can
Malamiri [220] compared the treatments of intra- feasibly occur quickly and in a large quantity to
venous VPA and phenobarbital for children with treat RSE.
SE against diazepam and other benzodiazepine Varieties of oral VPA include syrup, capsules,
drugs that had failed to be effective in children; and ordinary, enteric-coated, and sustained-­
the results showed that both types of drugs effec- release tablets. Enteric-coated tablets increase
tively control SE. In 24 h, VPA showed less gastrointestinal tolerance; sustained-release tab-
recurrence of RSE (37% vs. 77%). lets reduce the plasma wave of drug concentra-
tion, extending the dosing intervals, to improve
the patients’ compliance [179, 222–224]. Oral
6.5.3  dministration and Time
A VPA absorbs quickly and completely; the tra-
of Onset ditional common tablets and syrup reach peak
concentrations after oral medication for 1–2 h.
VPA can be administered intravenously, orally, Enteric-coated tablets and sustained-release
and rectally. VPA is used to treat RSE mainly via tablets reach peak concentrations in the blood
intravenous administration. In 1996, the US FDA after 3–6 h and 10–12 h, respectively, although
approved intravenous administration of VPA and absorption occurs more slowly with oral medica-
later approved it for the treatment of SE. The tion after a meal [225].
most commonly used effective doses of VPA VPA can be absorbed quickly with rectal
were intravenous injection with 15–40 mg/kg administration, and the drug concentration in the
(<6 mg/kg/min), followed by 1–2 mg/kg/h infu- blood that results from anal suppositories or solu-
sion. Ueberall et al. [200] used intravenous VPA tions is roughly similar to the blood drug concen-
to treat 41 pediatric patients with SE who did not tration following oral administration [225].
respond to benzodiazepines, phenytoin sodium,
or phenobarbital. All were given IV VPA at first
loading doses of 20–40 mg/kg (diluted 1:1 with 6.5.4 Adverse Reaction
normal saline or dextrose 5%) over 1–5 min (and and Precaution
repeated after 10–15 min, if necessary) and then
infusion at a rate of 5 mg/kg/h for maintenance. VPA is a broad-spectrum, non-sedating drug for
Ultimately, the RSE of 78% of the children the treatment of RSE. Intravenous VPA has a low
was effectively controlled, and the majority of incidence of adverse events: the overall incidence
patients (65.9%) responded immediately after of adverse events is <10% [207]. Devinsky et al.
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 219

[226] studied 318 children and adults who had 10 days of VPA treatment. Blood ammonia level
been hospitalized with epilepsy and ­administered significantly increased, but hepatic function and
a first dose of VPA at 15 mg/kg/day in four VPA serum level were within normal ranges.
divided doses, and the subsequent doses were The classic manifestations of valproate-induced
adjusted by the researchers based on VPA func- hyperammonemic encephalopathy are distur-
tional blood drug concentrations. Among them, bances of consciousness, somnolence, focal or
54 patients reported transient adverse reactions bilateral signs, and increased seizure frequency
mainly dizziness, headache, drowsiness, injec- [228]. DeWolfe et al. (2009) [229] prospectively
tion reaction, nausea, and other symptoms. Limdi studied intravenous injection of VPA with load-
[227] reported an open-label, prospective clinical ing dose (20 or 30 mg/kg) at 6 or 10 mg/kg/min
study about securing prompt intravenous injec- for the treatment of 40 epileptic patients and
tion of valproate. Forty patients with epilepsy found that 30/40 of the patients after treatment
received an intravenous valproate loading dose of for 1 h experienced high blood ammonia with-
20 or 30 mg/kg (undiluted), and each dose group out symptoms, but the incidence of high blood
was divided into ten individuals to infuse at the ammonia without symptoms decreased after
rate of 6 or 10 mg/kg/min; the results show that infusion for 24 h. Consequently, no patients’ con-
rapid intravenous injection of VPA is well toler- sciousness changed or transaminase levels rose.
ated. Only 60.5% of patients complained of pain Some scholars believe that reducing the dose
,burning and sensation in the injection site which of VPA is effective for those non-symptomatic
last not for more than 3 min, moreover the injec- hyperammonemia [230].
tion site did not appear red, swollen. Although Using VPA during pregnancy is related to
sodium valproate was not diluted, there was no major fetal malformation. Hernández-Díaz et al.
significant stimulation in the injection site. Only reported that 9.3% (30/323) of patients who used
7.5% of the patients complained of sedation; VPA during pregnancy had major malformation
moreover, patients complained about somno- of fetuses. They believed that compared with
lence. Thus, rapid intravenous administration of using other AEDs such as lamotrigine or LEV,
undiluted valproate in the treatment of epilepsy using VPA is more likely to cause major mal-
at infusion rate of 10 mg/kg/min and doses up to formation [231]. Jentink et al. found that the use
30 mg/kg is safe and well tolerated. Ramsay et al. of VPA monotherapy during early pregnancy is
(2003) [221] compared intravenous infusion of more likely to cause major congenital malforma-
VPA at the rate of 1.5 and 3 mg/kg/min to treat tions compared with not using AEDs or using
112 patients with epilepsy in a hospital; the maxi- other AEDs [232]. Thus, avoiding the use of VPA
mum doses per infusion in the two groups were in pregnant women is reasonable.
both 15 mg/kg. The results show that two patients
had temporary low blood pressure initially, but
the overall patients’ average blood pressure did 6.6 Phenobarbital
not change with intravenous infusion at the rate
of 3 mg/kg/min. Moreover one patient who was 6.6.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics
infused at the rate of 3mg/kg/min experienced and Pharmacodynamics
encephalopathy that resolved within 3 days upon
discontinued use of oval VPA. Other most com- This drug is easy to absorb, and its bioavailability
mon adverse reactions are vomiting, nausea, is above 95%. Its peak plasma concentration is
drowsiness, and dizziness. usually reached in 0.5–4 h [233, 234]. In adults,
VPA may lead to hyperammonemia, with or its plasma half-life period is approximately
without encephalopathy. Sousa C et al. reported 50–120 h, whereas in children, it is approximately
that valproate-induced hyperammonemic 60–180 h. The drug is a liver enzyme inducer
encephalopathy in one diagnosed patient. This and can improve the activity of liver enzymes,
patient manifested altered consciousness after which means that it not only accelerates its own
220 X. Wang and S. Li

metabolism but also accelerates the metabolism activity within the next 6 h. In total, 135 patients
of other drugs [235]. Most of this drug combines received phenobarbital (20 mg/kg) treatment,
with glucuronic acid or sulfate and is excreted by with an effectiveness rate of 67.4% (91/135). In
the kidneys into the urine. Twenty-five percent of a meta-analysis including two studies, an efficacy
the drug is excreted via the kidneys into the urine of 73.6% (95% CI: 58.3–84.8%) of phenobarbital
in its original form [236]. in benzodiazepine-resistant CSE was observed
The exact antiepileptic mechanism of phe- [208]. These studies suggest that phenobarbital is
nobarbital remains unknown. Phenobarbital an effective drug for the treatment of SE and RSE.
increases GABA receptor activity by increasing Phenobarbital is not the first choice for the treat-
their mean open time without altering channel- ment of SE. In 2013, the Italian League Against
opening frequency or burst frequency [237]. In Epilepsy’s treatment guidelines for SE in children
conditions characterized by a lack of GABA, noted that phenobarbital or phenytoin is consid-
Phenobarbital can also directly activate GABA-A ered when the treatment of benzodiazepine fails.
receptors [238]. For adults, the efficacy of phenobarbital is better
than that of phenytoin. For children, phenobarbital
can be used as a second-line therapy for SE treat-
6.6.2 Clinical Practice ment [241]. Muramoto et al. [242] observed 43
cases of SE patients who received phenobarbital
Phenobarbital was first synthesized by German treatment. Thirty-nine cases identified potential
organic chemist Emil Fischer in 1911 and sub- etiologies. Eighteen patients had been treated with
sequently used as a hypnotic agent for epilepsy AEDs prior to SE. Before receiving phenobarbital
patients by Alfred Hauptmann, who found phe- treatment, 39 patients received intravenous ben-
nobarbital to have anticonvulsant properties. The zodiazepine therapy, 17 patients received intrave-
World Health Organization now recommends phe- nous phenytoin treatment, and 15 cases received
nobarbital as a first-line drug for treatment of par- lidocaine treatment. The first dose of phenobarbi-
tial and generalized tonic–clonic seizures [239]. tal was 125–1250 mg (1.9–20.0 mg/kg), and 24
Thus far, a few studies have confirmed that of the 43 patients experienced the end of SE after
phenobarbital can be an effective treatment for the first dose of phenobarbital. Twelve patients
RSE. In 1998, Treiman et al. [240] conducted a used additional phenobarbital, leading to the end
5-year randomized, double-blind study. Patients of seizures for 11 of the 12. Three patients expe-
were randomized to one of the following four rienced respiratory depression, one patient expe-
regimens: diazepam (0.15 mg/kg) followed by rienced drug eruption, and no patient experienced
phenytoin (18 mg/kg), LZP (0.1 mg/kg), pheno- any other serious adverse reaction. In addition, in
barbital (15 mg/kg), or phenytoin (18 mg/kg). a retrospective cohort study, Mayer et al. [243]
Successful treatment was considered when sei- observed 74 patients manifesting 83 consecutive
zure activity ceased within 20 min without the SE episodes. The average patient age was 63 years.
return of seizure activity during the next 40 min. The patients were first administered with benzodi-
For overt GCSE (384 patients), the success rate of azepine drugs, but 69% of SE cases could not be
phenobarbital was 58.2%, which was comparable effectively controlled. When phenytoin was used,
to the other three regimens. For subtle GCSE (134 SE went uncontrolled 26 times, which became
patients), the success rate of GCSE was 24.2%, RSE. Finally, upon being treated with phenobar-
showing that phenobarbital had a better trend that bital, 15 of the 26 patients achieved control of SE.
did not reach statistical significance for the other Some studies reported phenobarbital in the
regimens. Kravljanac et al. [26] retrospectively treatment of SRSE. Byun et al. [244] observed
studied 602 episodes of CSE in 395 children. the administration of megadose of phenobarbi-
Among these SE cases, 50.57% were RSE, and tal (MDPB) to treat ten patients with SRSE who
7.1% were SRSE. Treatment was judged to be were viral encephalitis patients without previous
effective when seizures clinically ceased within histories of epilepsy. The six patients were expe-
20 min and when there was no return to seizure riencing CSE and NCSE, whereas four patients
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 221

were experiencing CSE. Before MDPB treat- phenobarbital and VPA have been compared with
ment, the median duration of SE was 17.5 days inconsistent conclusions. Malamiri et al. [220]
(range: 6–60 days). The median treatment time of conducted a study comparing phenobarbital and
anesthesia was 14 days (range: 2–54 days). The VPA in children with SE and acute prolonged
patients had taken at least two AEDs. For these seizures. Thirty patients in each group were
SRSE patients, the median duration of MDPB recruited. The efficacies were observed within
treatment was 45.5 days (range: 11–84 days), the 20 min of anticonvulsant drug administration.
median of the maximum 24-h drug concentrations The seizure termination rate was 77% (23/30)
was 38.6 mg/kg/day (range: 18–95.7), and the for the phenobarbital group, which was compa-
median of the maximum plasma concentrations rable to that for the VPA group (90%, 27/30). In a
was 151.5 mg/mL (82.2–353.7 mg/mL). SE was recent prospective RCT, 73 adult Chinese GSCE
under control for eight of the patients after their patients who had failed diazepam treatment were
initial treatments, including five cases of MDPB randomly assigned to receive either phenobarbi-
without recurrence after withdrawal from the drug. tal or VPA therapy. The success rate of the phe-
One case died of septic shock during the treat- nobarbital group was 81.1%, which was better
ment, two cases recurred upon withdrawal from than that of VPA group (44.4%). The relapse rate
phenobarbital, and two cases failed to respond to of SE within 24 h for the phenobarbital group
initial MDPB treatment and thus did not continue was 6.7%, which was lower than that for the VPA
MDPB treatment. All patients had systemic infec- group (31.3%). These inconsistent results may be
tions, with five cases presenting with pneumonia, primarily due to the patients included in the two
four cases presenting with urinary tract infection, studies: the former study included newly treated
two cases presenting with fungal infection, and patients, whereas the latter included refractory
two cases presenting with central line infection. patients who had failed diazepam treatment
Other adverse reactions included seven cases of [246]. This demonstrates the superiority of phe-
hypotension, four cases of intestinal obstruction, nobarbital in the treatment of benzodiazepine-­
three cases of elevated liver enzymes, one case resistant SE.
of pseudomembranous peritonitis, one case of In recent years, LEV, a new type of AED,
atelectasis, and one case of rhabdomyolysis. In has become widely used in the treatment of epi-
addition, Pugin et al. [245] conducted a retrospec- lepsy. Intravenous LEV is gradually administered
tive cohort study and observed the effects of con- in SE. In a retrospective study, Lee et al. [247]
tinuous intravenous phenobarbital treatment for reviewed 88 children with benzodiazepine RSE
SRSE. The study included 31 patients treated with or acute repetitive seizure. Fifty patients received
phenobarbital. The patients also received other phenobarbital, and 38 patients received LEV. The
treatments. Twenty-five of the 31 patients also median initial loading dose of PB was 20 mg/
received combined benzodiazepine and phenytoin kg (range: 10–20 mg/kg) and that of LEV was
treatment. Twenty-nine of the 31 patients received 30 mg/kg (range: 20–30 mg/kg). The success rate
MDZ treatment. Depending on the nature of how was 74.0% (37/50) in the phenobarbital group
the SE was controlled, the dose of phenobarbital and 57.9% (22/38) in the LEV group, showing
was maintained at 0.5–3.7 mg/kg/h, with 6 days as a superior trend of phenobarbital to LEV, but the
the median duration of phenobarbital treatment. therapeutic effect was not statistically significant.
Eventually, SE was controlled in 28 cases (90%),
but recurrence after phenobarbital withdrawal
occurred in 15 cases (48%). Complications of 6.6.3  dministration and Time
A
the 31 patients included ten cases of pneumonia, of Onset
nine cases of hypotension and the need for boost
therapy, four cases of urinary tract infection, and Routine intravenous administration: The most com-
one case of cardiac arrest. mon administration route is intravenous admin-
VPA is a commonly used drug for istration. Several treatment guidelines and expert
benzodiazepine-­ resistant SE. The efficacies of opinions have offered recommendations for intra-
222 X. Wang and S. Li

venous administration. In 2005, Finnish scholars recommended in its ­treatment guidelines that in
recommended that in children, ­intravenous admin- children with refractory CSE, high-dose pheno-
istration starts with a loading dose of 15–20 mg/ barbital can be used for the induction of coma
kg with a maximum infusion rate of 100 mg/min. when the use of sodium thiopental and propofol
The 24-h maintenance doses should be 2.5 mg/ are contraindicated. The recommended dosage
kg. Maintaining administration for 48 h is suffi- is a bolus of 20 mg/kg, with a maximum daily
cient to ensure the serum concentration is within maintenance dose of 80–120 mg/kg, to achieve
the therapeutic range for 72 h [241]. In 2012, the serum levels greater than 100 μg/mL. The patient
Neurocritical Care Society recommended intrave- should be intubated and ventilated.
nous administration with an initial dose of 20 mg/ Non-intravenous administration: Non-­
kg and an administration rate of 50–100 mg/min for intravenous administration, including intramus-
critically ill adults and children. If efficacy is poor, cular and rectal administration, is rarely reported
an additional 5–10 mg/kg in 10 min may be con- for the treatment of multiple drug-resistant
sidered [199]. In 2013, the Italian League Against SE. Sudoh et al. [250] observed three patients
Epilepsy recommended a dose of 15–20 mg/kg with long-term RSE whose seizures were not
with a maximum dose of no more than 1 g, and an controlled by continuous MDZ and/or pentobar-
administration rate of no more than 1 mg/kg/min bital. The authors used non-intravenous high-­
be used for children. Usually, the administration dose phenobarbital treatment. Phenobarbital was
time is no less than 20 min, and the drug concen- initially administered intramuscularly or rectally
tration is no higher than 10 mg/mL [48]. followed by orally to achieve a phenobarbital
High-dose intravenous administration: An serum concentration of 50–58 mg/mL, com-
increase in the drug’s dosage may increase its pletely controlling the seizures. The patients did
adverse effects. However, studies have indi- not develop significant hypotension or respira-
cated that high-dose intravenous administration tory depression.
for RSE, especially multidrug-resistant SRSE, In addition, Tiamkao et al. [251] observed the
shows good effects and safety. In 1988, Crawford efficacy of adjunctive rectal phenobarbital in six
et al. [248] reported on 50 patients with RSE who patients with RSE, including five patients with
were treated with very-high-dose phenobarbi- CSE and one patient with NCSE. All patients
tal, which yielded maximum serum levels rang- first received 10 mg diazepam treatment and
ing from 70 to 344 mg/mL (median: 114 mg/ other intravenous anticonvulsants, but SE was
mL). The results showed that the seizures of all not effectively controlled. Finally, rectal admin-
50 patients were effectively controlled. In terms istration of phenobarbital was initiated with load-
of safety, 40 patients were intubated prior to the ing doses of 900 mg, with a repeated 900 mg if
very-high-­ dose phenobarbital administration needed. The SE of three patients was completely
and successfully removed from their ventilators. controlled; however, for two patients, complete
Hypotension was uncommon and easily treated. control yielded to relapse within 24 h, and one
This study showed that, in the treatment of RSE, patient did not respond to this treatment. After
high-dose phenobarbital had marked effec- the initial dose, the dose was gradually reduced to
tiveness and acceptable safety. Lee et al. [249] 180 mg/day for maintenance treatment. No severe
reported on three children (7–9 years of age) with adverse reaction was observed in any patient.
RSE that likely was the result of viral encepha- In 1987, Simon et al. [252] observed the brain
litis. The conventional doses of phenobarbi- uptake of phenobarbital during SE in sheep. In
tal, phenytoin, and MDZ intravenous infusions the first 30 min of SE, hypertension, increased
were unable to effectively control SE. When cerebral blood flow, and decreased brain pH
their daily doses of phenobarbital reached were observed. Phenobarbital administered dur-
80 mg/kg (i.e., serum concentrations exceeding ing this time produced a higher phenobarbital
1000 μmol/L), the seizures were effectively con- concentration in the brain compared with non-
trolled. The Italian League Against Epilepsy has seizure sheep. The highest brain concentration
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 223

was achieved 5 min after infusion, and elevated and decreased blood pressure. Respiratory
brain phenobarbital concentration persisted for depression is the most dangerous adverse reac-
3 h. During the established phase of SE, blood tion. The Italian League Against Epilepsy rec-
pressure and cerebral blood flow returned to pre-­ ommends that patients who are spontaneously
seizure levels. Phenobarbital administered during breathing should be assisted by profession-
this phase did not produced different brain phe- als with cardiopulmonary resuscitation train-
nobarbital concentrations between the sheep with ing when using phenobarbital treatment for the
SE and those in the non-seizure group. purpose of providing high-level ventilator sup-
The SE termination time was consistent with port (mask or nasal intubation) [48]. Ultra-high-
the peak time of drug concentration. In 1988, dose phenobarbital has more obvious inhibitory
Shaner et al. [253] carried out a randomized, effects on respiration. Therefore, putting this into
nonblinded clinical trial. In 36 cases of GCSE practice, Byun et al. [244] reported that MDPB
patients, phenobarbital monotherapy was com- treatment for ten cases of SRSE patients, all of
pared to combination diazepam and phenytoin whom underwent tracheotomies for respiratory
(DZ/DPH) therapy. For the phenobarbital condi- support, resulted in eight smoothly going offline
tion, the dose was 10 mg/kg, the rate of adminis- of said support, with a median phenobarbital con-
tration was 100 mg/min, and the results showed centration of 81.3 μg/mL (range: 24.0–124.6).
that the median time of cumulative convulsion in The incidence of hypotension is not high, and
the phenobarbital group was 5 min, shorter than low blood pressure can be treated with vasocon-
that of the DZ/DPH group (9 min). The response strictors. After high-dose treatment, blood pres-
latency of the phenobarbital group was 5.5 min, sure decreases significantly. Byun et al. [244]
less than that of the DZ/DPH group (15 min), but used MDPB to treat ten cases of SRSE, seven of
there were no differences in the rates of endo- whom had low blood pressure, which was main-
tracheal intubation, hypotension, or arrhythmia. tained by one to two vasoconstrictors.
Moreover, because administration of phenobar-
bital occurs rapidly, a time of 20 or 30 min to
SE control has been used as the therapeutic index 6.7 Clonazepam
in several clinical studies. For example, Malamiri
et al. [220] reported seizure termination at 20 min 6.7.1 Clinical Pharmacokinetics
as the outcome. Treiman et al. [240] recom- and Pharmacodynamics
mended that seizures were completely controlled
once the effects were delivered within 20 min and Clonazepam (CZP) belongs to the class of ben-
when no recurrence had occurred after 40 min. zodiazepines (BZDs). CZP can be administered
Kravljanac et al. [26] recommended that seizures orally, intravenously, or rectally. When CZP is
be judged to be terminated once the effects were taken orally, it is absorbed quickly via the gas-
delivered within 20 min and when no recurrence trointestinal tract. Via intravenous injection, CZP
had occurred within 6 h. In a retrospective study, can rapidly pass through the BBB and diffuse
Lee et al. [247] used termination within 30 min into the central nervous system [254]. Seventy
and no recurrence within 24 h to judge successful percent of CZP is eliminated through the urine,
outcomes. with an elimination half-life of approximately
40 h. To control most epileptic seizures, the
CZP blood concentration must be 15–50 μg/L
6.6.4 Adverse Reaction [255]. CZP is an agonist of γ-aminobutyric acid
and Precaution A receptors (GABAARs) and binds to the BZD
recognition site of GABAARs [256], which con-
The Italian League Against Epilepsy has clearly sists of alpha and gamma subunits. This binding
stated that [48] phenobarbital can lead to adverse induces a conformation chance in the GABAARs.
effects such as sedation, respiratory ­depression, Consequently, the GABAAR chloride channel
224 X. Wang and S. Li

also undergoes a conformation change that leads CZP was used in 73 episodes of NCSE or par-
to hyperpolarization of the cell. Thus, the inhibi- tial SE (efficacy rate of 42%). Compared with
tory action of GABA in the central nervous sys- diazepam, MDZ, LEV, and sodium valproate,
tem is imitated. CZP is a long-acting GABAAR CZP seems to be more effective in terminating
agonist with high efficiency [257]. GCSE. Nevertheless, no significant differences
were observed among these AEDs regard-
ing the efficacy for terminating partial SE or
6.7.2 Clinical Practice NCSE. Singh et al. [262] examined 24 SE
patients administered with CZP intravenously.
The use of CZP for the treatment of SE was After the administration, all (7/7) patients with
first reported in 1971 [258]. Gaustaut et al. con- absence seizures, half of the patients with
ducted a study that included 37 patients who had GTCS (7/14), and two patients with complex
39 episodes of SE and were administered with partial seizures (2/3) were fully controlled.
CZP. These patients with SE included unilat- Moreover, these patients exhibited no obvious
eral SE, partial SE, absence SE, and generalized vital sign changes before and after the adminis-
SE. All but one patient was able to control their tration. Thus, intravenously administered CZP
SE. The authors believed that CZP had a short is a safe option with rapid onset and effective-
onset time, mild side effects, and a low effective ness in treating SE, and it is an alternative to
dose. diazepam. Furthermore, Fernández-Torre and
CZP can be used to treat generalized or colleagues [263] reported a patient with simple
partial SE. Sorel et al. [259] compared the partial frontal lobe SE. After CZP was admin-
efficacy of 4–10 mg of intravenously injected istered intravenously, this 44-year-old patient’s
LZP and/or 1 mg of CZP for the treatment of seizures were fully controlled.
SE in 61 cases. LZP was administered in 22 Navarro et al. [264] performed a double-blind,
cases, CZP was administered in 9 cases, and add-on, randomized, and placebo-controlled
both drugs were administered at different times phase III clinical trial that concerned the pre-­
in 30 cases. In the cases treated with LZP, hospital treatment of patients with GCSEs. This
the EEG improvements were better compared study compared the efficacy of combination
with cases treated with CZP. Meanwhile, the therapy of intravenous LEV and CZP with CZP
clinical symptoms were more improved in the alone in treating GCSE. The treatment group was
cases that were administered with CZP com- administered with 1 mg of CZP and 2.5 g of LEV,
pared with cases treated with LZP. CZP and and the control group was treated with 1 mg of
LZP both showed effectiveness in treating CZP and a placebo. The patients were included
secondary generalized epilepsy with mild side in this study when they had episodes of GCSE
effects. Moreover, Alvarez et al. [260] utilized lasting more than 5 min, and the outcome was
CZP, LZP, or MDZ as first-line drugs to treat primarily measured by the percentage of patients
SE in a prospective observational study. To who showed seizure cessation within 15 min
compare the relative efficacies of these drugs, after the administration of these drugs. The study
they estimated the risk of developing RSE was terminated because there was no treatment
and the number of drugs required to control difference. However, the researchers recently
SE. They found that when MDZ and LZP were analyzed the modified intention-to-treat popula-
not appropriate, CZP was a reasonable alter- tion. In this analysis, 68 patients were included in
native. A group of scholars [261] conducted a each group. The researchers found that convul-
retrospective study that included 167 seizure sions ceased within 15 min after drug injection
episodes of 118 patients with SE from 2000 to in 84% of patients (57/68) using CZP and pla-
2009 in the neurology department of Rostock cebo and in 74% of patients (50/68) using CZP
University. Forty-eight episodes of GCSE were and LEV. Therefore, LEV combined with CZP
treated with CZP (efficacy rate of 63%), and showed no advantage compared with CZP alone
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 225

in the pre-hospital treatment of patients with patients, and these seizures ultimately stopped
GCSEs. after the administration of diazepam. The authors
NCSE commonly occurs in children and the believed that CZP had a longer duration of action
elderly. The manifestation of NCSE ranges from than that of diazepam, and neither drug exhibited
confusion to coma, which is caused by different severe side effects. Therefore, the authors sug-
etiologies. This range makes NCSE difficult to gested that CZP could be the primary choice for
diagnose and treat [265, 266]. In addition, there the treatment of SE, especially in children. Their
are currently no unified treatment guidelines opinions have been supported by several studies.
for NCSE [267]. Livingston and his colleagues Padma et al. [270] reported a case in which the
[268] examined seven NCSE patients, ranging electrophysiological and clinical manifestations
from 3 to 13 years of age (mean age: 7 years), of an 11-year-old child with focal SE were mark-
who all had Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Every edly improved after oral CZP administration.
patient had at least one seizure with NCSE and
was intravenously administered with BZDs
under cEEG monitoring. Diazepam at the dose 6.7.3  dministration and Time
A
of 0.2–0.3 mg/kg was injected in five cases, CZP of Onset
at the dose of 0.02 mg/kg was injected in one
case, and a combination of diazepam and CZP When CZP is used to treat SE in adults, the first
was administered in one case. After treatment, dose should generally be a 1–2 mg intravenous
the seizures were completely controlled in only injection [258, 259, 261, 262]. The injection
one patient, indicating that BZDs are probably rate should be within 0.25–0.5 mg/min [271],
not the most effective drugs for the treatment and the drug can be readministered after 20 min
of NCSE in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syn- when necessary [259]. When the duration of
drome. However, regarding the limitations in this GCSE is within 5–30 min, CZP monotherapy is
study for treating this condition, the unrespon- ­reasonable. If the seizure duration exceeds 30 min
siveness to BZDs might not be generalizable to before treatment, the initial treatment dose of
other subtypes of NCSE. Other scholars [261] CZP should be combined with phenobarbital or
retrospectively studied and compared the effica- fosphenytoin [272, 273]. When intravenous CZP
cies of diazepam, CZP, MDZ, VPA, and LEV is used in pediatric patients ranging from 2 weeks
for treating NCSE and observed no significant to 15 years old, the dose should be adjusted to a
differences among these drugs. Additionally, total dose of 0.25–0.75 mg or 0.01 to 0.09 mg/kg
other studies have found that CZP is effective in based on the child’s weight [269]. For recurrent
treating absence SE. Gaustaut et al. [258] found cases, seizures ceased after the administration of
that all 12 patients with absence SE were rapidly diazepam at 0.25–0.75 mg/kg.
controlled after the administration of CZP, and CZP can be used orally, and this route is com-
Singh et al. [262] used intravenous CZP to treat monly seen in treating partial SE and prolonged
seven patients with absence SE, which ended in convulsive seizures (PCSs). For the treatment of
all seven patients. partial SE, CZP could be administered orally at a
Hubert et al. [14] suggested that CZP should dose of 1 mg three times per day [270]. For the
be the first-line treatment for infants and children urgent treatment of PCSs in pediatric patients,
with CSE lasting longer than 5 min and that the oral CZP wafers at a total dose of 0.25–2 mg
intravenous administration of phenytoin/fosphe- were given, based on the child’s weight [274].
nytoin or phenobarbital could be the second-line Kosterskov and colleagues [275] examined
option. Congdon and colleagues [269] treated 17 the absorption of CZP when it is administered
patients with SE ranging from 2 weeks to 15 years rectally. A dose of 0.02 mg/kg of CZP was given
old with intravenous administration of CZP. In to ten non-epileptic adults, and blood samples
all the patients, the SE was quickly controlled. were collected at various times to evaluate the
However, seizures subsequently relapsed in six concentration of CZP by gas chromatography.
226 X. Wang and S. Li

CZP (1 mg) was intravenously administered [277]. Some studies have found that BZDs are
to two additional volunteers, and the plasma related to memory impairment [278]. Induced
­concentrations were measured after intravenous anterograde amnesia is less likely to occur in
administration. The peak plasma concentration response to treatment with CZP when compared
was reached 10–30 min after rectal administra- with other BZDs, given its low lipid solubility
tion and approximately 10–15 min after intra- [257]. Upon applying CZP to treat SE, Sorel
venous administration. The peak concentrations et al. [259] demonstrated that CZP had good
were approximately equal for both rectal and safety and tolerability; drowsiness appeared fol-
intravenous administration, indicating that CZP lowing administration, and psychomotor agita-
can be well absorbed upon rectal administration. tion was identified in only 12% of cases. When
Consequently, the rectal administration of CZP is Congdon et al. [269] administered CZP to treat
a choice for the treatment of SE. SE, no obvious respiratory depression or serious
SE can be controlled within 1–3 min by the side effects occurred. Moreover, some scholars
administration of intravenous CZP [258, 262, have observed that heart rate, respiration, and
269]. The seizures of 50% of patients with PCS blood pressure have no significant changes when
can be controlled within 1 min, 24% within CZP is administered intravenously for the treat-
1–5 min, and 26% within 5–10 min after the ment of SE [262], and only transient, mild to
administration of oral CZP wafers [274]. moderate somnolence was observed in 40% of
patients [262]. Thus, intravenous CZP seems to
be an effective and safe choice for the treatment
6.7.4 Adverse Reaction of SE. Although CZP can be safely administered,
and Precaution it is necessary to pay attention to a rare but seri-
ous side effect of CZP, respiratory depression.
CZP is a BZD. Because sedation can be induced
by BZDs, excitatory symptoms could also
develop, such as excitement, emotional release, 6.8  olytherapy as a Treatment
P
increased speech, and excessive movement. for Status Epilepticus
The incidence of these excitatory symptoms is
relatively low, at less than 1% [276]. Patients 6.8.1 Introduction
using BZDs often show fatigue, drowsiness, and
lethargy [257]. Additionally, dizziness, vertigo, SE is a common neurological emergency with
blurred vision, slurred speech, motor coordina- high mortality and disability rates. Terminating
tion disorder, euphoria, and mood swings can SE early and effectively can improve the prog-
appear in patients who have been administered nosis of patients. The traditional therapeutic regi-
higher doses of BZDs, and erratic or hostile men is ineffective in 30–40% of SE cases [38].
behavior can occur in some patients. Major Considering the diverse etiology and complex
symptoms, such as confusion, disorientation, pathogenesis of SE, polytherapy using anticon-
slurred speech, and impaired thinking, may vulsants with diverse mechanisms might be more
occur in overmedicated patients. Hyperactivity, beneficial for SE patients than monotherapy for
hypotonia, obvious ataxia, and dystonia have increasing curative effects and reducing side
been observed in a few cases, and these side effects. This paper expounds upon the advantages
effects have disappeared if the administration of polytherapy by studying the combination drug
was continued longer than 2–4 weeks. The therapies in clinical trials. The study of combina-
primary reasons for treatment withdrawal are tion drug therapies for SE may be useful due to
fatigue and lethargy, and bronchial hypersecre- the recent date of which the advantage of poly-
tion and excessive salivation are the main side therapy over monotherapy has been identified
effects after administration in pediatric patients [279, 280].
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 227

6.8.2 Definition of Polytherapy apy using LZP and phenytoin controlled 68%
(34) of GCSE cases. The polytherapy of LZP
A treatment meeting any of following three crite- and valproate controlled 68% (34) of GCSE
ria can be defined as polytherapy: cases, and LZP + LEV controlled 78% (39) of
GCSE cases. The efficacies of three combination
1. The simultaneous use of two or more therapies were not remarkably distinguished sta-
­anticonvulsants (including add-on therapeutic tistically. The polytherapy of LZP and the first
regimen) AED controlled 71.3% (107/150) of total GCSE
2. Progressive sequential therapy, such that prior cases. By adding the second AED, the GCSE
anticonvulsants interact with following ones of 130/150 (86.7%) patients was controlled. By
to produce a combined effect adding the third AED, the GCSE of 138/150
3. Anticonvulsants combined with immunomod- (92%) patients was controlled. In other words,
ulating drugs, non-pharmacological drugs, or SE was controlled in 92% of patients by AEDs,
neuromodulatory drugs and anesthetic was avoided, thereby prevent-
ing admission to the ICU and the occurrence of
ICU-related complications. This study demon-
6.8.3  olytherapy in Clinical
P strated that the progressive sequential protocol
Practice of IV AEDs was quite beneficial for those SE
patients who were nonresponsive to the initial
Initial polytherapy may be effective to prevent monotherapy.
the SE from progressed to RSE. Mundlamuri The polytherapy may be more effective if the
et al. [281] carried out a prospective RCT to patient recovers from SE upon administration of
study the efficacy of polytherapy of LZP along the first- or second-line anticonvulsants. In a ret-
with phenytoin, VPA, and LEV separately for rospective study by Synowiec et al. [102], 11 SE
the SE treatment. The study enrolled 150 GCSE patients used KE intravenously as an additional
patients (33.71 ± 17.0 years; 88 males and 62 drug. All of the patients were resistant to ben-
females). All patients meeting the inclusion cri- zodiazepines. The etiologies included infections
teria were treated with 0.1 mg/kg LZP (4–6 mg) (n = 7), metabolic disease (n = 1), and inadequate
within 5 min of arrival. Then, the patients were initial dose of AEDs (n = 3). The termination of
randomly divided into three groups. Within RSE was defined as the complete arrest of SE
10 min, the patients were treated with a prede- in clinical and/or EEG evaluation after 24 h of
signed progressive sequential protocol: Group KE discontinuation. The polytherapy of KE and
1 (n = 50), phenytoin (first AED) → VPA other anticonvulsants such as LZP and phenytoin
(second AED) → LEV (third AED); Group 2 was effective in 11 (100%) patients. Patients in
(n = 50), VPA (first AED) → phenytoin (sec- the study did not experience obvious adverse
ond AED) → LEV (third AED); and Group 3 drug events. In a retrospective study [167], 11
(n = 50), LEV (first AED) → phenytoin (second RSE children using LEV as an additional drug
AED) → VPA (third AED). The loading dose of were studied to understand the feasibility, safety,
the drugs was phenytoin 20 mg/kg (0.8–1.6 g), and efficacy of LEV. All of the patients with
VPA 30 mg/kg (1.2–2.4 g), and LEV 25 mg/ RSE had symptomatic etiologies. LEV added to
kg (1–2 g), followed by maintenance dose (in the traditional AEDs showed definite efficiency
three divided doses): phenytoin 5 mg/kg/day, in 45% (5/11) of cases and possible efficiency
VPA 30 mg/kg/day, and LEV 25 mg/kg/day. in 27% (3/11) of cases. The termination time of
According to the protocol, the next AED was RSE was 1–8 (mean: 1.5) days after the adminis-
given if seizure termination failed within 30 min tration of LEV. No LEV-related adverse reactions
after the last drug was used. The initial polyther- were observed in this study.
228 X. Wang and S. Li

6.8.4  he Potential Advantages

T were attributable to posttraumatic nonconvul-
of Polytherapy sive electrographic seizures.
Polytherapy may shorten SE duration: The
The above date of clinical trials proved the feasi- delayed treatment of SE may make SE diffi-
bility of polytherapy for SE and RSE. Cook et al. cult to control and further develop into RSE or
[282] found that polytherapy for SE and RSE is SRSE or increase the incidence of poor prog-
much more common in clinical practice than has nosis or even death [38, 295, 296]. A review
been previously reported. In recent years, with by Sutter et al. [297] studied the factors related
further study of the mechanisms by which RSE to the outcomes of SE patients. The duration
develops, polytherapy has also received more of SE is a crucial factor in the prognosis of
attention. Why is polytherapy useful for SE and SE patients. With the increased SE duration,
RSE? The answer is as follows: both the hospital stays and fatality rate were
distinctly increased as well.
Polytherapy may act on multiple mechanisms:
As a multifactorial and heterogeneous dis-
ease, SE has both various causes and com- 6.8.5  olytherapy of Different
P
plicated pathogenic mechanisms [283–285]. Anticonvulsants
Polytherapy with anticonvulsants having dif-
ferent pharmacological effects may be more 6.8.5.1 KE
effective in stopping SE than monotherapy KE is a potent noncompetitive N-methyl-d-­
with anticonvulsants of a single mechanism of aspartic acid (NMDA) antagonist with proper-
action [279, 280, 286]. ties such as not causing cardiac or respiratory
Polytherapy may act on different neurotrans- depression and facilitating neuroprotection [298,
mitters: Some studies have proven that the 299]. The hemodynamic stabilization profile
pathogenesis is distinguished at disparate of KE along with aggressive fluid resuscitation
time points of the development process of SE makes it dependable for RSE patients. Numerous
[287, 288]. Complex brain alterations happen basic studies [208, 209, 292] have found that
in the process of SE. As found by Wasterlain prolonged seizures are accompanied by the
et al. [289], the number and activity of recep- decline of GABA agonists and upregulation of
tors on the postsynaptic membrane changed NMDAR. Increasing attention has been directed
as seizures became more prolonged and epi- to the polytherapy of KE with other anticonvul-
lepsy attacks iterated. Moreover, it was found sants for the treatment of SE. It has been proven
that the GABA receptors decreased, and the that KE has evident synergism to combine with
NMDAR increased in the progress of SE, diazepam in SE animal studies [102, 280, 300].
which might result in drug resistance and the In case reports and small series [102, 301, 302],
formation of RSE [290]. Polytherapy might KE has been used as an add-on drug for the treat-
be more efficient because different anticon- ment of RSE in humans. KE is administered as
vulsants can act on different neurotrans- an adjunctive anticonvulsant if SE is resistant
mitters to avoid drug resistance. It is worth to the standard first-line or second-line drug or
noting that the addition of some novel anti- administered together with other anticonvulsants
convulsants may be helpful for terminating [44, 102].
SE [38, 279, 291]. Polytherapy of KE with other anticonvulsants
Polytherapy may moderate brain insults: is indicated for children or adults with RSE or
Persistent repeated attack of epileptic seizures SRSE [44, 303]. Sabharwal et al. [44] retrospec-
can seriously damage the brain, leading to the tively studied 67 SRSE patients (8–85 years; 18
death of brain neurons [289, 292]. The study males, 49 females) who were treated with poly-
by Vespa et al. [293, 294] found that the poor therapy of intravenous propofol and KE from 2012
outcomes of traumatic brain injury patients to 2015. The start time of KE occurred earlier in
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 229

this study than in other previous clinical studies, In the clinical trial by Synowiec et al. [102],
and the initiation time of polytherapy of propofol the duration from KE administration to seizure
and KE was within 24–48 h mostly. KE was the termination (i.e., behavioral and/or electro-
initial agent used in six patients and propofol in graphic seizure disappearing over 24 h after drug
61. The duration of KE combined with propofol discontinuation) was 4–28 (mean: 9.8) days. In
ranged from 1 to 28 (mean: 3.6) days. SRSE had the clinical trial of Sabharwal et al. [44], the time
a higher resolution rate compared to previous of joint use of KE and propofol was 1–28 (mean:
clinical studies, and the study attributed this to 3.6) days.
the early administration of KE. The t­ermination Zeiler et al. [101] found that KE was
proportion of SRSE was 91% (n = 61). The ­responsible for rare side effects such as arrhyth-
final mortality rate was 39%, and patients with mia, mental symptoms, and ICP. The study by
anoxic brain injuries were included. Among the Synowiec et al. [102] found no clinically signifi-
13 patients with anoxic brain injuries, SRSE was cant treatment-limiting adverse events in patients
controlled in five (56%). Despite the mortality using KE. In the study of Sabharwal et al. [44],
rate of the study being high, the main determining SRSE patients were treated with polytherapy of
factor was the basic cause of the serious systemic propofol and KE, and 53 (79%) patients needed
or nervous diseases. According to the research, to use vasopressors. A variety of factors were
the combination scheme of KE and propofol is considered, such as the hemodynamic/intravas-
very effective for treating SRSE. Importantly, cular status of the patients upon presentation and
KE was thought to be quite effective in control- the side effects of the anesthetic agent.
ling SRSE whether with short-­term or long-term
use or whether used with or without propofol. A 6.8.5.2 MDZ
small retrospective series [102] analyzed 11 RSE MDZ is a water-soluble benzodiazepine that
adults who used KE intravenously as an add-on inhibits GABA neurons. Multiple existing formu-
agent, and other anticonvulsants, such as LZP lations of MDZ exist: intravenous, intramuscular,
and phenytoin, were administered with KE. The buccal, and intranasal. Continuous IV MDZ is
time of KE use was 4–28 days. The study con- not a coma-inducing treatment, and mechanical
sidered that, due to the use of KE, six of seven ventilation is not conventionally used. MDZ pos-
patients were able to be removed from vasopres- sesses better results for SE children with rapid
sors early in the treatment. Seizure termination initial effects, no obvious side effects, high con-
was ultimately achieved in all 11 RSE patients. venience, and no contraindications [304, 305].
Sabharwal et al. [44] treated SRSE with poly- Monotherapy effects are not as good in SE chil-
therapy of intravenous propofol and KE. The dren, whereas the progressive sequential pro-
weights of the 67 patients (8–85 years; 18 males, tocol of MDZ has lower mortality and a better
49 females) ranged from 20 to 176 (median: prognosis [306, 307]. The rationally progressive
82.5) kg. The initial dosage of KE was 25 μg/ sequential protocol of administering drugs by
kg/min, and the maximum dose was 175 μg/kg/ degrees could avoid arbitrary drug administra-
min. Propofol infusion rates ranged from 25 to tion effects, such as improper medication times
140 μg/kg/min. The SRSE of 91% of patients or drug alterations; as a result, sequential proto-
was terminated. Synowiec et al. [102] treated cols will reduce the occurrence of adverse events
RSE with polytherapy of intravenous KE with [306, 308]. The polytherapy method of MDZ and
other anticonvulsants such as LZP and phenyt- other anticonvulsants is mainly via progressive
oin. The administration process was as follows: sequential protocol [306, 308].
first step, a loading dose of 1–2 mg/kg and, sec- Polytherapy of MDZ is mostly applicable to
ond step, intravenous 0.45–2.1 mg/kg/h (mean: CSE children [306, 308]. To know the efficacy
1.3 mg/kg/h) continuously. The maximal dose of the progressive sequential protocol called
was 1392–4200 mg/d. Seizure termination was the Ege Pediatric SE Protocol (EPSEP), Saz
finally achieved in all 11 RSE patients. et al. [308] studied 27 SE (including nine RSE)
230 X. Wang and S. Li

patients. The etiology was meningitis or enceph- limiting side effects. In a study of Brevoord et al.
alitis in 11 (40%) children, cortical dysplasia in [306], another progressive sequential protocol for
5 (19%), hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in children with GCSE was recommend:
three (11%), trauma in one, and febrile seizures
in seven (26%). Polytherapy of diazepam and Step 1: An initial administration of MDZ was
MDZ was given to 22 children, and it was effec- rectally (0.5 mg/kg) or intravenously (0.1 mg/
tive for 21 (95%) episodes (including nine RSE). kg) employed, and another administration of
Brevoord et al. [306] studied 122 SE children IV MDZ (0.1 mg/kg) was given 10 min later.
(ages 0.5–197.4 months) treated with the second Step 2: If SE persisted, 10 min later, IV ­phenytoin
progressive sequential protocol exhibited below. (20 mg/kg) was given over 20 min.
Idiopathic epilepsy was demonstrated in 37.7% Step 3: When SE continued, 0.2 mg/kg IV
of children. Febrile epilepsy was observed in MDZ was given, followed by 0.1 mg/kg/h
36.1% of children. Polytherapy of MDZ and phe- ­intravenously (increased by 0.1 mg/kg/h per
nytoin was effective for 89% of the SE children. 10 min, up to 1 mg/kg/h).
Some studies recommended the progressive Step 4: Before MDZ reached the maximum
sequential protocol. In a retrospective clinical 1 mg/kg/min in Step 3, the following treat-
trial [308] for pediatric SE, a four-step therapy ment could start early based on the SE fea-
protocol was assessed: tures: (1) phenobarbital (20 mg/kg) IV and (2)
a load dose of pentobarbital (2–5 mg/kg) IV,
Step 1: In the first 10 min of the episode, rectal followed by a 1–2 mg/kg/h infusion.
diazepam (0.5 mg/kg) was twice administered
when the seizure was lasting over 5 min. The study included 122 SE patients. Fifty-­
Step 2: After 15 min of the episode, there were eight children achieved complete arrest of SE
two administration choices, 20 mg/kg of phe- in Step 1, 19 in Step 2, 32 in Step 3, and 13 in
nytoin intravenously or a bolus of 0.15 mg/kg Step 4. In Step 3, the dosage of MDZ was 0.05–
IV of MDZ. 0.8 mg/kg/h. In Step 4, the dosage of MDZ was
Step 3: If the arrest of SE was not achieved by the 0.1–1.0 mg/kg/h. In conclusion, 89% of chil-
former two steps, a dosage of MDZ was added dren achieved complete arrest of GCSE, treated
per 5 min (up to 0.6 μg/kg/min) until the sei- sequentially with MDZ and phenytoin.
zure stopped, and this added dosage lasted for The reported side effects of MDZ were altera-
24 h. Then, MDZ infusion was decreased by tion of the cardiovascular system, the respiratory
0.05 μg/kg/min every 6 h. If the arrest of SE system, consciousness, and urinary retention
was not achieved over 1 h of 0.6 μg/kg/min IV [309]. In the EPSEP therapy [308] study, mild
MDZ, the dosage was increased to 1.2 μg/kg/ hypotension was observed in three children and
min, and the monitoring of life sign param- transient desaturation in one. No patients died in
eters became necessary. the study. In the trial of Brevoords et al. [306], 52
Step 4: If the seizures lasted for 1–1.5 h, 1 mg/ children needed assisted ventilation. Respiratory
kg/h IV of propofol was preferable. dysfunction was observed in 39 children using
MDZ. All of the patients who died in the study did
The study included 27 SE children, and nine not do so because of anticonvulsants or SE. MDZ
(33%) had RSE. Two children achieved complete should be given slowly and progressively; in the
arrest of SE in Step 1, six in Step 2, 18 in Step meantime, monitoring of vital signs is obligatory.
3, and one in Step 4. The peak dose of MDZ is Mechanical ventilation is a requisite to prevent
1.2 μg/kg/min in this study. The polytherapy of the side effect of respiratory dysfunction.
diazepam and MDZ was given to 22 children
(including nine RSE children) sequentially, and 6.8.5.3 LEV
21 of 22 episodes were halted completely. The LEV is a broad-spectrum AED that acts on the
protocol was valid with no severe treatment-­ NMDAR, calcium channels, and GABA recep-
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 231

tors [167, 291]. As a novel AED, LEV has a favor- therapy of LEV and CZP for GCSE is not supe-
able pharmacological profile marked by rapid rior to CZP monotherapy. LEV is a safe drug,
action, neuroprotective effects, and limited influ- with no apparent side effects being observed in
ence on other drugs, among other characteristics either study.
[138, 310], making it a favorable agent for use in The recommended IV dosage of LEV is
patients with SE. Valid synergistic effects were 15–70 mg/kg in RSE children [314]. In the
found in the polytherapy of diazepam and LEV in retrospective study by Gallentine et al. [167],
SE animal models [138]. In clinical studies, poly- LEV was administered as an add-on drug for
therapy of LEV and other ­anticonvulsants for SE 11 RSE children. During the period of LEV
patients has been increasingly valued [167, 264, use, other anticonvulsants (diazepam, MDZ,
291]. LEV is used either in conjunction with ben- barbiturates, etc.) were simultaneously used or
zodiazepines or is added if the first- or second- concomitantly added. LEV (15–60 mg/kg) was
line anticonvulsants fail [167, 264, 291]. LEV given by nasal feeding or orally in four patients.
polytherapy is used to treat SE and RSE in adults LEV (15–62.5 mg/kg) was given by intravenous
and RSE and ESES syndromes in children [167, administration in six patients. LEV was given
264, 291, 311]. rectally (70 mg/kg) and followed by nasal feed-
LEV and benzodiazepines are simultane- ing (20 mg/kg) in one patient. The effective rate
ously used to treat SE and RSE in adults. The of this treatment proposal was 73% (8/11). The
recommended dosage of LEV is 2.5 g, and LEV termination time of RSE from its initial use of
is administered by IV (>5 min) [291, 312, 313]. LEV was 1–8 (mean: 1.5) days. No obvious side
Earlier treatment with LEV may lead to a bet- reactions were observed. The working dose of
ter control of SE than when treatment occurs LEV was more than 30 mg/kg/d (median: 40 mg/
later [148]. The 11 SE adults in a study by Uges kg/d) in this study. The recommended initial dose
et al. [291] all received 2.5 g LEV while being of LEV in polytherapy was 30 mg/kg/d for RSE
administered first-line and/or second-line anti- children. The administration method of LEV was
convulsants (benzodiazepines and phenytoin). intravenously, orally, and via nasal feeding.
The time from hospital admission to the admin- Polytherapy of LEV and CZP in children with
istration of LEV was 15–90 (mean: 36) min. The ESES syndrome was studied by Su et al. [311].
simultaneous polytherapy of LEV and benzodi- The study consisted of 15 patients with ESES
azepines was used in nine patients at the begin- syndrome, in whom LEV monotherapy was use-
ning of treatment; LEV was added later in the SE less for both the EEG and clinical symptoms.
process for two patients when sufficient first-line Later, LEV (20–40 mg/kg/d) together with CZP
and/or second-line anticonvulsants (e.g., benzo- was used orally at bedtime for 2 months. The
diazepines, phenytoin, VPA) were invalid. All treatment method of CZP was 0.02–0.03 mg/kg
patients had terminations of the SE within 24 h once per day for the first month and once every
after the administration of LEV; the only fatal- other day for the second month. Clinical convul-
ity was attributed to multiple organ failure rather sions disappeared in 14/15 patients. Sleep EEGs
than as a side effect of LEV. However, a random- of the 14 patients were normal or showed mild
ized, double-blind, phase III study by Navarro low-amplitude discharge. The neuropsychologi-
et al. [264] compared the curative effects of IV cal functioning of all of the patients was appar-
LEV (2.5 g) or placebo in combination with CZP ently improved in terms of language expression
(1 mg) for the pre-hospital treatment of adults and academic performance. The polytherapy of
(>18 years) with GCSE. The treatment was effi- LEV and CZP was proven to be more effective
cient if SE was terminated within 15 min from than monotherapy in this study.
the first injection of drugs. CZP combined with Within 24 h after being given LEV, adults’
LEV was efficient in 57 of 68 patients (84%). SE was controlled in the research of Uges et al.
CZP combined with placebo was efficient in 50 [291]. The mean time until children’s RSE was
of 68 patients (74%). The study proved that poly- controlled was 1.5 days after LEV use [167].
232 X. Wang and S. Li

The reported side effects of LEV were allergic The recommended initial dosage is 200–
reactions and mental confusion [167, 291]. In the 400 mg/day. The alternative subsequent dosage
report by Uges et al. [291], transient allergic reac- is 300–1600 mg/day orally (divided 2–4 times
tions were observed in one patient, and confusion per day) [199]. Topiramate was enterally admin-
of consciousness was observed in five patients istered as an add-on drug in studies by Hottinger
after SE had been stopped for 24 h. The disori- et al. [321] and Asadi-Pooya et al. [315]. In the
entation may have presented secondary to the study by Hottinger et al. [321], patients were
seizures and had nothing to do with LEV. In the divided based on the topiramate dosage (Group
study by Navarro et al. [264], the polytherapy of 1, 800 mg/day; Group 2, 400–799 mg/day;
CZP and LEV had no apparent side reactions. Group 3, <400 mg/day). In Group 1, topiramate
was definitely successful in terminating SE in no
6.8.5.4 Topiramate patients and was possibly successful in three of
As a broad-spectrum AED, topiramate works six (50%) patients. In Group 2, topiramate was
by blocking voltage-sensitive sodium chan- definitely successful in terminating SE in two of
nels, thereby enhancing the activity of GABA 23 (9%) patients and possibly successful in 14 of
at GABA-A receptors and inhibiting excitatory 23 (61%) patients. In Group 3, topiramate was
transmission. The polytherapy of phenytoin definitely successful in terminating SE in one of
or carbamazepine with topiramate could make nine (11%) patients and possibly successful in
topiramate metabolize more rapidly [315]. five of nine (56%) patients.
Absorption is rapid after the enteral or oral Hottinger et al. [321] and Asadi-Pooya et al.
administration of topiramate. A small number [315] observed no clinically significant adverse
of reports have described the use of topiramate events directly related to topiramate treatment.
as an adjunctive drug for adults or children with Slight hyperammonemia and hyperchloremic
SE and RSE. The feasibility, safety profile, and acidosis were found in patients treated with topi-
efficacy of topiramate (enterally or orally) as ramate combined with VPA.
an add-­on drug were demonstrated [316–318].
Topiramate is used as an adjunctive drug if SE is 6.8.5.5 Lacosamide
resistant to the standard first- to fourth-line thera- Lacosamide is a relatively novel AED that acts
pies [318–320]. on slow sodium channels. It has the following
The polytherapy of topiramate is mainly used functions: stabilizing hyperexcitable neuronal
in adult RSE. In a retrospective study [321], topi- membranes, inhibiting repetitive firing, neuro-
ramate was administered enterally in 35 adults protecting, and acting synergistically with other
(19–84 years, mean: 60.5 years) with RSE. All AEDs [322, 323]. The existing formulations of
of the patients were resistant to first- and second-­ lacosamide are oral and intravenous. A small
line AEDs. Topiramate was used together with number of reports [324–326] have described the
other anticonvulsants (LZP or LEV). Within use of lacosamide as an adjunctive drug for the
72 h of the administration of topiramate, 71% treatment of SE and RSE. Lacosamide efficacy
of patients experienced RSE termination, and was thought to be dependent on synergism with
9% experienced RSE termination within 24 h. other AEDs because of its unique mechanism
Mortality (31%) was attributed to the primary [325]. Comparatively speaking, lacosamide com-
disease causing the RSE, rather than to RSE or bined with other AEDs for the treatment of SE
topiramate administration. In another prospective is well tolerated and efficacious. Lacosamide is
open-label nonrandomized clinical trial [315], used as an adjunctive drug if SE is resistant to
20 RSE adults who were treated with enteral the standard first- or second-line drugs or used
topiramate were studied. As an adjunctive drug, together with benzodiazepines [322, 325].
topiramate was successful in terminating SE in Polytherapy of lacosamide is mainly used in
5 (25%) patients, was possibly successful in 11 adults’ SE whether it is convulsive or noncon-
(55%), and was unsuccessful in 4 (20%). vulsive [322, 327]. Moreno Morales et al. [325]
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 233

designed a prospective observational study to obese patient of 110 kg weight received a total
observe the role of lacosamide in the treatment daily dosage of 600 mg. In a study by Moreno
of CSE and NCSE. Once the patient was con- Morales [325], SE patients received IV lacos-
firmed to meet the inclusion criterion, lacosamide amide 400 mg/day (over 30 min) for 8 days.
was given intravenously whether as the first-line No clinically significant adverse effects were
drug or as a concomitant drug with other AEDs directly observed in the reports relative to the
at SE onset. Of 53 patients (55.2 ± 16.78 years), adjunctive lacosamide treatment [324, 325].
69.8% were male, and 43.4% (n = 23) had Minor adverse events of lacosamide were noted
CSE. Polytherapy of lacosamide and other AEDs in some trials, such as skin allergies, angioedema,
(LEV, MDZ, VPA, pentobarbital, phenytoin) hypotension, and pruritus [323].
was received by 79.2% of patients. Among the
polytherapy variations, 34% received lacosamide 6.8.5.6 Phenytoin, Fosphenytoin,
with one concomitant AED, 22.6% with two, and Barbiturates
and 22.6% with three. The most common poly- Phenytoin, fosphenytoin, and barbiturates
therapy agents in this study were lacosamide + (including phenobarbital, thiopentone, and pento-
MDZ (n = 9), lacosamide + MDZ + VPA (n = 8), barbital) are traditional second-line AEDs [328].
and lacosamide +LEV +MDZ + VPA (n = 12), The antiepileptic properties of these drugs for
including MDZ (54.7%), VPA (52.8%), and an SE have been recognized and used for decades.
hour of LEV (30.2%). EEGs were recorded to Physicians have long-term clinical experiences
judge the termination of SE. In summary, sei- with these drugs for both children and adults.
zures were controlled in 90% of NCSE patients The drugs are inexpensive and have widespread
and 91.3% of CSE patients in both the clinical availability, even in some resource-­scarce areas.
and EEG assessments. Although the efficiency The synergistic effects of these drugs with benzo-
of polytherapy was not assessed independently, diazepines have been demonstrated by Bankstahl
the overall efficiency of lacosamide monotherapy et al. via animal studies [329, 330]. In a clini-
and polytherapy was satisfactory. cal RCT [240] including 570 GCSE patients,
In a retrospective study [322], 111 adult the polytherapy of diazepam and phenytoin was
patients suffering from RSE were studied, and compared with other monotherapies. Any of
53% of them received intravenous lacosamide. the following four treatments was given to the
Lacosamide, as an adjunctive drug, was used patients initially: diazepam + phenytoin, phenyt-
together with other AEDs like LZP and LEV oin, phenobarbital, or LZP. All of the drugs were
if the standard AED was useless. SE control used intravenously. The doses of diazepam, phe-
was observed more commonly in patients who nytoin, phenobarbital, and LZP were 0.15 mg/
received lacosamide (p = 0.252). Twenty-three of kg, 18 mg/kg, 15 mg/kg, and 0.1 mg/kg, respec-
the 45 RSE patients were administered with lacos- tively. The statistical data analysis proved that
amide as the last AED, and 21 (91%) of the 23 the treatment effects of diazepam + phenytoin,
experienced successful termination of RSE. The LZP, and phenobarbital did not differ, but they all
persistent periods of SE in patients treated with performed better than phenytoin treatment alone.
or without lacosamide were 87.2 ± 159.4 h and However, Chen et al. [279] noted that the study
134.3 ± 188.7 h, respectively. did not include the polytherapy of LZP and phe-
In a study by Sutter et al. [322], the agent of nytoin in the comparison. Because LZP is much
RSE treatment was IV lacosamide with concomi- more effective than diazepam in seizure termina-
tant AEDs, such as LZP and LEV. The normal tion, more clinical research is needed at present
dosage of lacosamide was 200 mg twice a day. to compare the effects of polytherapy and mono-
The dosage of lacosamide was reduced if patients therapy in different phases of SE.
had renal failure: 150 mg twice daily if the creati- Outin et al. [272] speculated that the attack
nine clearance was 30–50 mL and 100 mg twice time of GCSE preceding the initial therapy should
daily if the creatinine clearance was <30 mL. One provide the guideline for drug chosen. First, if the
234 X. Wang and S. Li

SE duration is 5–30 min, CZP alone is used; if the with Landau-Kleffner syndrome (LKS) (n = 8)
arrest of SE had failed, polytherapy of CZP with and epilepsy with continuous spikes and waves
either fosphenytoin or phenobarbital is given during slow-wave sleep (CSWS) (n = 2); these
5 min later. Second, if the SE duration is 30 min, children were treated with corticosteroids com-
monotherapy is almost always unsuccessful, and bined with anticonvulsants. All of the patients’
the polytherapy of CZP with either fosphenytoin EEGs were characterized by ESES. The dose of
or phenobarbital should be performed imme- prednisone was 1 mg/kg/day for 6 months contin-
diately. Without a doubt, the ­feasibility, safety uously. The follow-up period was 1–10 years. All
­profile, and efficacy of this r­egimen for treating of the patients experienced great i­mprovement in
SE should be explored further. ­language, cognition, and action after the treat-
ment, except one. All of the patients’ EEGs
6.8.5.7 Immunomodulating Therapy almost returned to normal in 3–6 months after the
Immunomodulating therapy consists of a cor- corticosteroid treatment. The patients’ progno-
ticosteroid, plasma exchange, and intravenous ses were good comparatively, and transient side
immunoglobulin (IVIG) [331]. In the last few effects were observed in four children. The study
years, doctors have gradually found that autoim- proved the effectiveness and safety of the poly-
mune encephalitis, new-onset refractory status therapy of corticosteroids and AEDs for CSWS
epilepticus (NORSE) syndrome, and some epi- and LKS children with ESES.
lepsy syndromes in children were special causes In a case report [334] of a 26-year-old patient
of SE [332, 333]. SE induced by these causes is with NORSE syndrome, polytherapy of anticon-
always refractory to the first- and/or second-line vulsants and corticosteroid was used. The patient
anticonvulsants [331, 334]. Hence, the polyther- had the following features: no previous history of
apy of anticonvulsants and immunomodulating epilepsy, no pathogenic factors of epilepsy, with
therapy can halt SE as well as improve outcomes. a history of hyperthyroidism, with positive anti-­
Immunomodulating therapy is used with anticon- TPO antibody, and with nonspecific symptoms
vulsants concurrently [331, 334]. (headache and vomit). In the course of the dis-
The indications for immunomodulating ther- ease, different seizures appeared and gradually
apy include autoimmune encephalitis, such as developed into GCSE, where upon the patient
anti-GABAR encephalitis; epilepsy syndromes was admitted to the ICU for treatment with gen-
in children, such as ESES; and NORSE syndrome eral anesthesia. The patient received both anes-
[331, 334–336]. A retrospective clinical research thesia (propofol, thiopental, and phenobarbital)
study [334] investigated five NORSE syndrome and AEDs (phenytoin, VPA, LEV), but failed to
patients (22–34 years, male/female = 3:2) who stop their SEs. Etiologies considered to be immu-
were previously healthy people with no history of nological factors and infections were ruled out.
epilepsy. Premonitory symptoms were observed On the 12th day following admission, cortico-
in these patients before seizure attack. Adequate steroid treatment was used. The administration
AEDs and anesthetic were all useless for these approaches of immunomodulating therapy were
five patients. Polytherapy of anticonvulsants as follows: (1) on the first 3 days, methylpred-
and immunomodulating therapy (corticosteroid nisolone was given 1 g/d intravenously; (2) next,
or IVIG) was used in three patients in the early prednisone was given 60 mg/d orally; (3) finally,
stage. Complete arrest of RSE was achieved in on the 18th day after admission, intravenous
all the three patients. According to the follow-up, immunoglobulin was given intravenously for 5
serious neuropsychological defects were absent days with an accumulated dose of 150 g. After
in them. To our delight, two of them resumed full- 2 months of inhospital treatment, the patient
time work. One patient, the one who did not use recovered and returned home. The polytherapy
immunomodulating therapy, ultimately died of of oral immunosuppressors and AEDs contin-
complications. One patient lost communication ued outside the hospital to prevent epilepsy.
during the follow-up. Sinclair et al. [335] stud- Dubey et al. [337] retrospectively analyzed three
ied ten children (2–11 years, male/female = 7:3) patients (33–55 years, male/female = 2:1) with
6 Drugs Commonly Used to Treat Refractory Status Epilepticus in Clinical Practice 235

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 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory
Status Epilepticus 7
Guoming Luan and Xuefeng Wang

Abstract
Although various drugs, such as benzodiazepines, anesthetics, and intra-
venous antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), are used to control refractory status
epilepticus (RSE), many cases of RSE are not effectively controlled. In
such cases, efforts to control RSE may take the form of nonpharmacologi-
cal measures, including therapeutic hypothermia, electroconvulsive ther-
apy, neuromodulatory treatment, and the implementation of a ketogenic
diet. These measures are not widely used in RSE, but studies have shown
that they can play a role in controlling RSE. In this chapter, we summarize
the efficacy, safety, and application of these treatments.

7.1 Therapeutic Hypothermia

for Refractory Status
Epilepticus

7.1.1 Historical Evolution

The beneficial effect of hypothermia has been

indicated since ancient times. The Greek phy-
sician Hippocrates found that infants lived lon-
ger in the winter than in the summer when they
were left exposed to the environment [1]. Later,
G. Luan
a few researchers described the beneficial effects
Beijing Key Laboratory of Epilepsy, Department of
Neurology, Center of Epilepsy, Beijing Institute for of hypothermia on the human body and on ani-
Brain Disorders, Sanbo Brain Hospital Capital mals during hypoxic states [2]. Until the 1950s,
Medical University, 100093 Beijing, China Westin et al. [3] conducted a small uncontrolled
X. Wang (*) study that found that immersing the participants’
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, bodies in the cold water could be helpful for the
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated
recovery of the respiratory effort of infants who
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University,
1 YouYi Road, Chongqing 400016, China did not breathe for the first 5 min after birth. The
e-mail: [email protected] primary understanding of hypothermia therapy

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 247

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_7
248 G. Luan and X. Wang

stems from studies on hypoxic-ischemic brain controlled trial HYBERNATUS was conducted
injury that indicated that hypothermia was asso- to evaluate the effect of induced hypothermia on
ciated with alleviated cell death and improved neurologic outcomes in patients with convulsive
clinical outcomes [2]. This sequence of studies status epilepticus (CSE) [9].
suggested that hypothermia can affect the electri-
cal activity of the cerebral cortex [4, 5].
The effect of hypothermia in treating status 7.1.2 Clinical Application
epilepticus (SE) originates from the implica- and Efficacy in RSE
tion that focal cooling of the cerebral cortex can
lead to a good outcome for patients who experi- To date, there have been a handful of case
ence a seizure. In 1963, Ommaya and colleagues reports that provide an experience of the appli-
were firstly reported to use direct focal cooling cation of hypothermia for SE [8, 10–12]. In
of the cerebral cortex at 20–25 °C for the effec- 1984, Orlowski et al. [7] recorded the initial
tive cessation of SE [4]. In 1970, Sourek et al. use of hypothermia for SE. Three patients with
[6] reported a series of 25 cases of refractory epi- RSE were placed into moderate hypothermia
lepsy who received a combination treatment of (30–31 °C) by surface cooling for 48–120 h and
extravascular brain hypothermia (deep, general, then rewarmed to a normothermic state at a rate
and local) plus single dose of anticonvulsants of 1 °C every 3–4 h. In combination with a thio-
(pentothal or diazepam). In most patients, the pental barbiturate-­induced coma, RSE in all three
local temperature of the brain was below 24 °C, patients was controlled. Recently, there has been
and the rectal temperature was 27–30 °C dur- a recent resurgence of interest in the use of hypo-
ing surgery. The combination of hypothermia thermia as a treatment for RSE, which provides a
and anticonvulsants led to favorable outcomes. growing experience of the use of hypothermia in
In 15 patients followed for at least 1 year after general. The application parameters of 12 cases
surgery, two patients had a 50% reduction of from 4 reports are summarized in Table 7.1.
the frequency and the intensity of their seizures, Endovascular cooling systems and surface
five patients observed a reduction in activity to a cooling are the most common methods for
single seizure, four patients had no seizures, and induced therapeutic hypothermia. Endovascular
four patients had unaltered seizures. Not only had cooling systems have a balloon surrounding the
this therapy showed a good effect on the seizures, catheter that is placed through the femoral vein
but it also showed an improvement in the behav- into the inferior vena cava. When the core tem-
ior and the emotional stability in three patients. perature reaches 36.5 °C after rewarming, the
One patient died 6 weeks after surgery, and two catheter needs to be removed as soon as possible
patients had slight neurological deficits at 3 and to prevent venous thrombosis. The modern sur-
6 months postoperatively. face cooling system can modulate the patient’s
Hypothermia, which is used as a treat- temperature with relative precision by circulating
ment measure for SE, originated in 1984, when chilled water in pads that are directly adhered to
Orlowski et al. [7] first reported three pediat- the patient’s skin [11].
ric patients with SE that were unresponsive The application parameters of therapeutic
to conventional AEDs and who were success- hypothermia for SE are not well established,
fully treated with a combination treatment of but several case reports provided some refer-
hypothermia (30–31 °C) and barbiturate coma. ences. The target temperature varied and, in most
In 2008, Corry et al. [8] reported four patients cases, was 31–35 °C [2–4, 8]. For pediatric cases,
with refractory tonic-clonic SE, who were con- Guilliams et al. [11] used a mild hypothermia
trolled with hypothermia at 31–35 °C for 20–61 h of 32–35 °C to treat RSE. No reports on target
using endovascular cooling, which demonstrated temperatures of less than 30 °C have been found
the effect of therapeutic hypothermia for super to be useful for RSE. To achieve target tempera-
RSE. More recently, the multicenter randomized ture, the rate of cooling varied among cases but
 7
Table 7.1 Cases about hypothermia for RSE
Seizures Seizures
controlled controlled
Medication with after Adverse effects during
Study Age/sex/etiology trails Temperature management hypothermia rewarming Outcome hypothermia
Corry 62-year-old/M/ PHT, LEV, Endovascular cooling system. Yes Yes Survived Acidosis, electrolyte
et al. [8] cryptogenic PRF, LZP, PB, Targeted 34 °C over 4 h, abnormalities (↑K+),
MDZ maintained for 20 h; rewarming DVT
over 29 h
66-year-old/M/ OXZ, LEV, Endovascular cooling system. Yes Yes Died Acidosis, prolonged QT,
limbic encephalitis PHT, VPA, Targeted 32 °C over 10 h, elevated INR, DVT,
LZP, PB, maintained for 61 h; rewarming infections
TPM over 50 h
54-year-old/M/ PHT, LEV, Endovascular cooling system. Yes No Died Acidosis, elevated INR
hepatic LZP, MDZ Targeted 35 °C over 1.5 h,
encephalopathy maintained for 41 h; rewarming
over 1.5 h
75-year-old/M/ PHT, LEV, Endovascular cooling system. Yes No Survived Acidosis, elevated INR;
Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus

limbic encephalitis LZP, MDZ Targeted 31 °C over 6.5 h, ↓Ca/Mg/PO4, DVT, PE,
maintained for 25.5 h; rewarming Tachy-Brady syndrome
over 45.5 h
Elting 3 days postpartum to PB, VPA, Cooling blanket. Targeted Yes No Hemispherectomy N/A
et al. [10] 5 months old/M/ VGB, LEV, 35.3–36 °C, maintained for 4 days
hemimegalencephaly CLZ, PHT,
KTM, MDZ
Lin et al. 10-year-old/M/viral LZP, DZP, External cooling mattress. Targeted Yes Unclear Survived ↓K+
[12] encephalitis PTH, PB, 33 °C (bladder), maintained for
VPA, MDZ 5 days; gradual rewarming (1 °C /
day to 36 °C) over 3 days
4.5-year-old/ F/viral ZP, DZP, External cooling mattress. Targeted Yes Unclear Survived None
encephalitis PTH, PB, 33 °C (bladder), maintained for
VPA, MDZ 3 days; gradual rewarming (1 °C /
day to 36 °C) over 4 days
(continued)
249
Table 7.1 (continued)
250

Seizures Seizures
controlled controlled
Medication with after Adverse effects during
Study Age/sex/etiology trails Temperature management hypothermia rewarming Outcome hypothermia
Guilliams 10-year-old/F/ LZP, FPHT, Surface cooling. Targeted 34 °C Yes Yes Survived ↓K+
et al. [11] unknown LEV, PB, (bladder) for 24 h; gradual
LZP, VPA, rewarming by 0.5 °C/day to
MDZ 36.5 °C
5-month-old/F/ LZP, PB, Cooling blanket. Targeted 32 °C Yes Yes Died Abdominal
hydrocephalus and FPHT, MZD (bladder) over 1 h, for 72 h; hypertension,
perinatal injury (0.3 mg/kg/h), gradual rewarming by 1 °C every pneumatosis intestinalis,
LEV 6h hypokalemia, elevated
INR (2.48)
11-month-old/M/ LZP, FPHT, Surface cooling (Arctic Sun). Yes No Died Unclear
POLG-1 mutation PB, LVE, Targeted 34 °C (bladder) over 4 h,
MDZ maintained for 4 days; rewarming
by 0.5 °C every 12 h to 36 °C
10-year-old/M/ LEV, LTG, Surface cooling (Arctic Sun). Yes Yes Survived Lactic acidosis,
epilepsy DZP, CLZ, Targeted 33 °C (bladder) over 3 h, ↑Na + (155 mEq/L),
LZP, FPHT, maintained for 5 days; rewarming ↓K+(2.0 mEq/L);
PB, MDZ by 0.5 °C every 12 h hematuria; hypertension
15-year-old/M/ ZNS, FPHT, Cooling blanket. Targeted Partly Yes Survived N/A
anti-NMDAR OXC, PB, 33–35 °C (esophageal) over 13 h, controlled
encephalitis PRF, KTM, maintained for 5 days; rewarming
VPA, TPM, 2 °C/8 h to 36 °C
LEV, MDZ
PB phenobarbital, VPA valproic acid, VGB vigabatrin, LEV levetiracetam, CLZ clonazepam, MDZ midazolam, PHT phenytoin, KTM ketamine, LZP lorazepam, FPHT fosphe-
nytoin, OXC oxcarbazepine, ZNS zonisamide, PRF propofol, INR international normalized ratio, DVT deep venous thrombosis, PE pulmonary embolism
G. Luan and X. Wang
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 251

ranged from 1 h for achieving 32 °C to 24 h for et al. [12], a pediatric patient developed transient
­achieving 34 °C [8, 10–12]. After hypothermia ­hypokalemia during hypothermia treatment. In
was induced, the seizures ceased in most cases. In the study by Guilliams et al. [11], the adverse
some cases, burst suppression was induced within events during therapeutic hypothermia included
several hours after hypothermia was induced. All hypokalemia and hypernatremia, coagula-
cases reported a good control of seizures during tion disorders, colonic necrosis, lactic acidosis,
the hypothermic state. The target temperature hematuria, and infection. These side effects sug-
was usually maintained for 1–5 days, and then gest that the following situations may be contra-
the patients were rewarmed. The rate of rewarm- indications for induced therapeutic hypothermia:
ing was often 0.5–1.0 °C/day. After rewarming, immunosuppression, active infection, hemody-
some cases remained in seizure remission with namic instability, pregnancy, and coagulopathy
continuous AED treatment, but some cases had (INR > 2 or platelets < 75,000).
a recurrence of SE. The long-term outcome var-
ied mainly by the etiology of the RSE [8, 10–12].
During the therapeutic hypothermia treatment, 7.1.4 Potential Mechanisms
concomitant sedation was induced. Midazolam,
thiopental, propofol, and ketamine were often Animal studies have also shown the effect
used. However, some researchers suggested that of hypothermia on epileptic activity. Micro-­
barbiturates should be avoided and that mid- thermoelectric devices are useful tools to estab-
azolam and propofol were favorable [13]. lish the antiseizure or antiepileptic effect of
hypothermia in vivo. This effect is achieved by
implanting micro-thermoelectric devices into the
7.1.3 Safety cerebral cortex of an animal model to manipulate
the focal temperature [16]. Using thermoelectri-
Even mild hypothermia (30–35 °C) is not without cally driven cooling devices and bipolar elec-
its risks, and these adverse effects include acid-­ trodes, the study of focal epileptic seizures that
base and electrolyte disturbances, coagulation were established by penicillin G or cobalt powder
disorders, disseminated intravascular coagula- in animal models also found that hypothermia
tion, cardiac arrhythmia, thrombosis, infection, reduced the seizure frequency and the neuro-
bowel ischemia, and paralytic ileus [8, 10–12]. logical changes [17]. However, the mechanisms
Most complications have a low incidence in other have been far from explained, but one potential
situations. In 41 clinical trials of mild hypother- mechanism pertains to neurotransmitter release
mia on postanoxic encephalopathy, only 29 (1%) and gated ion channels.
adverse events related to a cooling device were A study showed that presynaptic membrane
reported. Adverse effects of hypothermia may be excitatory neurotransmitter release was inhib-
related to the cooling device or to the hypother- ited under low-temperature conditions [18].
mia itself [14]. Hypothermia can reduce cerebral metabolism,
The limited cases that used hypothermia which regulates the release of the neurotransmit-
for the treatment of RSE showed that adverse ters and delays the onset of anoxic depolariza-
effects were not very common (Table 7.1). In tion [19, 20]. It was suggested that hypothermia
the study conducted by Corry et al. [8], when can lead to a loss of function of the voltage-gated
the body temperature was lower than 30 °C, side sodium channels and can affect neuronal depolar-
effects occurred, including ventricular fibrilla- ization, which may be helpful for the suspension
tion, venous thromboses, and coagulation disor- of epileptiform discharges [21, 22]. Motamedi
ders. In the study by Cereda et al. [15], a patient et al. [23] found that low temperatures termi-
with RSE received an appendectomy during nated epileptiform discharges, blocked action
the hypothermia treatment due to acute intesti- potentials, and interfered with neuronal firing
nal ischemia and necrosis. In the study by Lin rhythms. In addition, it was also suggested that
252 G. Luan and X. Wang

low ­temperatures affected the expression change in the treatment of SE. Although psychiatric
of excitatory glutamate receptors (GluRs), ­practice guidelines have mentioned the use of
which further regulated the excitatory synap- ECT for refractory epilepsy and SE, the use of
tic membrane current. Yu et al. [24] observed ECT for epilepsy and SE is still rare in clinical
the decreased level of GluR1 and the increased practice [28].
level of GluR2 in the hippocampus of animal
models with SE under hypothermic conditions.
This study also observed the decreased neuronal 7.2.2 Clinical Application
excitability and seizure activity, which indicated and Efficacy in RSE
that low-temperature-­ inhibited seizures may
be related to the regulation of expression of the To date, ECT has been increasingly used in RSE
GluR. but is still in its infancy in that there are only a
handful of cases that have been reported [29,
30]. The clinical use of ECT for epilepsy is still
7.1.5 Conclusion lacking in the consensus of guidelines and in the
expertise, and these case reports provide some
For nearly half a century, hypothermia therapy referent experience.
has been gradually applied to RSE. Commonly In all reported cases, ECT was considered
used methods of inducing hypothermia include when a variety of AEDs were ineffective for
endovascular cooling systems and surface cool- SE. Meanwhile, ECT is mainly used for some
ing. Hypothermia treatments have a positive psychiatric disorders. Therefore, when these dis-
effect on RSE. Therapeutic hypothermia could eases are present in a patient, there is a stronger
cause electrolyte imbalances, acid-base balance indication for the use of ECT [31, 32]. Regenold
disorders, cardiovascular disorders, infections, et al. [31] reported a case of a 71-year-old man
and other adverse reactions, but their incidence with major depression and RSE which was
is low. unresponsive to various AEDs (phenytoin, phe-
nobarbital, diazepam, lorazepam, and carbam-
azepine). The patient received eight sessions of
7.2 Electroconvulsive Therapy ECT over 16 days, which led to a cessation of
for Refractory Status SE. Subsequently, the patient’s partial complex
Epilepticus seizures and tonic-clonic seizures were well
controlled by AEDs, and the depression did not
7.2.1 Historical Evolution relapse during the 6 months of follow-up.
ECT was usually administered using standard
In the 1930s, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) bifrontotemporal electrode placement. The stim-
was initially used to treat epilepsy [25, 26]. The ulus parameters varied among practitioners and
first reported application of ECT for the treat- patients (Table 7.2). Usually, the duration of ECT
ment of SE was conducted by Viparelli and col- treatment was no more than 1 week. The stimulus
leagues in 1992 [27]. The 19-year-old patient in sessions ranged from three sessions per day to two
that study had complex partial seizures that were sessions per week [33–36]. In one study, Koong
not responsive to phenytoin and diazepam. Two et al. [36] used a relatively long-term treatment
sessions of ECT were provided over 3 days. The for 6 weeks that consisted of two sessions per
first session significantly reduced the frequency week. This regimen led to a cessation of SE, and
of the seizures, and the second session success- ECT was maintained weekly. The current was
fully led to the cessation of the seizures. From reported in four patients of either 800 or 900 mA
then on, a couple of cases were reported, but no [34, 35, 37, 38]. Stimulus is also largely varied.
well-designed trial has been conducted to con- The lowest reported dose was 64 mC, which
firm the effectiveness and safety of using ECT could also result in a motor ­seizure of 48 s [33].
 7
Table 7.2 Cases about ECT for RSE
Age (years)/sex/ Adverse effects
Study etiology Medication trails Placement Sessions Parameters Response Outcome during ECT
Carrasco 25/M/head PHT, CBZ, PB, N/A 6 (3 per week) N/A N/A Completely N/A
Gonzalez injury DZP recovered
et al. [39] within 1 month
Griesemer 15/M/ PB, PHT, ACT, N/A 4 sessions over Charge: 64–127 mC Shortened Recurrence of Lethargic
et al. [33] microgyria CLZ, VPA, 9 days seizure SE
GBP, LTG, duration
FBM, 3 sessions over Charge: 201–302 mC Cessation of Recurrence of N/A
3 days SE SE
6 sessions over Charge: 101–403 mC Reduction of Recurrence of N/A
2 days seizures SE
3 sessions over Charge: 201–403 mC Cessation of N/A N/A
1 day SE
10/F/ PB, PTH, N/A 3 sessions over Charge: 180–576 mC Reduction of Recurrence of N/A
microcephaly CBZ, VPA, 2–5 days; 3 seizures SE
and FBM, GBP treatments for
Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus

osteoporosis every other week

Regenold 71/M/primary PHT, PB, DZP, Bilateral 8 sessions over N/A Cessation of Continues to None
et al. [31] epilepsy LZP, CBZ 16 days SE partial complex
seizures and
tonic-clonic
seizures
Lisanby et al. 36/M/bifrontal VGB, PB, Right 5 sessions over Current: 0.8ACharge: Cessation of SE resolved N/A
[34] cortical NTZ, PHT, frontotemporal 5 days 576–3379 mCPulse SE
dysplasia MDZ, PTB and left parietal frequency: 90–120 HzPulse
width: 1–1.4 ms
Cline et al. 39/M/herpes FPHT, VPA, Bifrontotemporal 9 (3/day for Current: 800 mA Not Seizure N/A
[35] viral PTB, LEV, consecutive Charge: 576 mC seizure-free frequency
encephalitis PHT, OXC, 3 days) Pulse frequency: 90 Hz but improve reduced
TPM, LZP, Pulse width: 1.0 s mentally and
FBM physically
(continued)
253
Table 7.2 (continued)
254

Age (years)/sex/ Adverse effects

Study etiology Medication trails Placement Sessions Parameters Response Outcome during ECT
Viparelli 19/F/primary CLZ, DZP, N/A 2 sessions 48 h Current: sinusoidalVoltage: Cessation of Seizure-free on N/A
et al. [27] epilepsy PHT apart 110 VDuration: 0.6 s SE CBZ
Wusthoff 29/F/ PTB, PHT, N/A 10 sessions N/A No response Continues to N/A
et al. [40] Rasmussen’s LEV, PB, seizure
encephalitis MDZ, VPA,
PTM, PGB,
FBM, DSF
Kamel et al. 32/F/viral VPA, PHT, PB, Bifrontotemporal 4 sessions over Current: 900 mA Cessation of Seizure Retrograde
[37] encephalitis LEV, PTM, 5 days Charge: 504 mC SE resolved amnesia
PB, KTM Pulse frequency: 70 Hz
Pulse width: 0.5 ms
41/F/viral PHT, LEV, Bifrontotemporal 4 sessions over Current: 900 mA No response Died N/A
encephalitis VPA, PB, 5 days Charge: 504 mC
KTM Pulse frequency: 70 Hz
Pulse width: 0.5 ms
26/F/infectious PHT, VPA, PB, Bifrontotemporal 4 sessions over Current: 900 mA Cessation of Continues to Retrograde
cerebritis LEV, TPM, 5 days Charge: 504 mC SE have seizures amnesia
PB, ISF, KTM Pulse frequency: 70 Hz
Pulse width: 0.5 ms
Koong et al. 54/F/epilepsy N/A N/A 2 sessions per N/A Cessation of Recurrence of Weight
[36] with psychosis week for SE SE and ECT increased
6 weeks maintained
weekly
Shin et al. 7/F/primary VPA, TPM, Bilateral 2 sessions over Current: 0.8APulse Cessation of Died N/A
[38] epilepsy LEV, CLZ, 2 days, repeated frequency: 60–120 HzPulse SE
MDZ, KTM, 1 week later width: 0.37–2 ms
PTB
ACT acetazolamide, CLZ clonazepam, FBM felbamate, ISF isoflurane, NTZ nitrazepam, PTB pentobarbital, DSF desflurane, PB phenobarbital, VPA valproic acid, VGB vigaba-
trin, LEV levetiracetam, MDZ midazolam, PHT phenytoin, KTM ketamine, LZP lorazepam, FPHT fosphenytoin, OXC oxcarbazepine, ZNS zonisamide, PRF propofol, GBP
gabapentin
G. Luan and X. Wang
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 255

The highest reported dose was 3379 mC [34]. and nausea were reported in most patients and
The pulse frequency ranged from 40 to 120 Hz were usually classified as minor. Other less
[34, 35, 37, 38]. The pulse width was 1.0–1.4 s common adverse events included prolonged
[41–43], but lower pulse widths of 0.5 s were also seizures, prolonged apnea, mania, and postictal
used [37, 38]. delirium [41].
Using these regimens, most patients achieved
a cessation of SE during or after completion of the
ECT treatment. Some patients reported shortened 7.2.4 Potential Mechanisms
seizure durations or reduced seizure frequencies.
In addition, some patients were unresponsive to The mechanism of ECT for SE is far from under-
ECT treatment (Table 7.2). stood. Sackeim et al. [44] conducted a RCT on 52
depressed patients who received unilateral right
and bilateral ECT treatments and observed that
7.2.3 Safety a 12-fold range of the minimum electrical inten-
sity was necessary to produce a seizure and that
The biggest concern regarding the use of ECT bilateral ECT had a higher initial seizure thresh-
was an impairment in cognitive function. Due old compared with unilateral ECT. GABAergic
to the lack of studies on treating RSE with ECT, transmission plays a major inhibitory role in the
safety was evaluated in studies that used ECT central nervous system and in the γ-aminobutyric
for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. The acid (GABA) dysfunction related to SE [45]. The
adverse cognitive effects usually included acute increased seizure threshold may be involved in
disorientation and anterograde amnesia, but the activating inhibitory mechanisms by enhancing
severity of cognitive impairment was usually low GABAergic transmissions [30, 46]. This hypoth-
[41]. Brodaty et al. [42] investigated neuropsy- esis was supported by the evidence from both
chological function in 81 elderly patients with animal and human studies. Clark [47] examined
major depressive disorder pre-ECT, immediately the levels of GABAA receptors after one and five
post-ECT and 1–3 years later. This study found electroshock-induced seizures. They found that a
that ECT did not lead to significant side effects single seizure led to a rapid and transient increase
or neuropsychological impairment in elderly in alpha4 mRNA in the dentate gyrus. A single
patients. The safety of ECT using unilateral and shock led to an increase in alpha4 proteins in
bilateral approaches was assessed in 39 elderly the dentate gyrus, and repeated electroshocks
patients with major depressive disorder. No (48-h intervals) led to an enhanced response
serious adverse events were reported, and both of the alpha4 subunit to the seizure. Esel et al.
groups showed an improvement in neuropsycho- [48] compared the GABA system between 25
logical scores [43]. Sackeim et al. [44] assessed depressed patients who received a course of ECT
the depression severity and cognitive function and 23 healthy subjects. They found that one ses-
before, during, immediately after, and 2 months sion of ECT produced a massive increase in the
after ECT in 80 depressed patients in a double-­ GABA levels. In addition, the effect of ECT may
blind study. Bilateral ECT resulted in greater involve galanin, which is an important neuropep-
impairment than did unilateral ECT during short-­ tide in the inhibition of classical neurotransmitter
term and long-term follow-up. release [49]. Christiansen et al. [50] examined the
Some adverse events involving other sys- effects of repeated electroconvulsive stimulation
tems were also common but were not severe. on the galanin system and found that repetitive
Cardiovascular complications, such as heart electric shocks regulate the expression of both
failure, cardiac arrhythmias, severe valvular the GalR2 and GalR1 receptor subtypes and the
heart disease, and other diseases, were common receptor binding of galanin in the piriform cor-
with the use of ECT [37]. These adverse events tex, in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, and in the
may be more severe [41]. Headaches, myalgias, amygdala.
256 G. Luan and X. Wang

7.2.5 Conclusion pretreatment ­evaluation, type of diet selection,

subjects of follow-up and supervision, side effect
ECT is the alternative treatment option when monitoring, withdrawal indications, and so on
medications fail to treat RSE. It has also been [54]. In 2012, the National Institute for Health
used in recent years for RSE. In a variety of eti- and Clinical Excellence in the United Kingdom
ologies for RSE, ECT can lead to a termination developed guidelines for KD treatment in epi-
of RSE or a reduction of the frequency of sei- lepsy, setting the level of clinical evidence and
zures. Cognitive impairment is the most common recommendation grading [55]. In 2015, as for
adverse effect in ECT. the regions with limited resources, the diet treat-
ment group of the International League Against
Epilepsy (ILAE) developed KD treatment guide-
7.3  etogenic Diet Treatment
K lines that were particularly cost-­ effective and
for Refractory Status readily available, thereby promoting the world-
Epilepticus wide application of the KD [56].

7.3.1 History Evolution

7.3.2  he Types of KD and Derived
T
Hippocrates treated a patient with epilepsy by Diets
fasting and drink deprivation to control seizures,
suggesting that fasting may be an important 7.3.2.1 Classic KD
method for the treatment of epilepsy [51]. In The classic KD is the most widely used and is
1921, Wilder [52] found that the high-fat, low-­ the easiest to accept. It is made up of long-chain
carbohydrate diet effectively controls the sei- fatty acids, moderate protein, and low carbohy-
zures, putting forward the notion of a ketogenic drates; the ratio of fat and protein to carbohydrate
diet. Fatty acids produce beta-hydroxybutyrate (g) is 4:1. Eighty to ninety percent of calories are
(BHB), acetoacetic acid and acetone, and then supplied by butter, vegetable oil, and other foods
ketosis; the body energy metabolism from glu- rich in fat, with the remaining calories provided
cose converts to ketone bodies. Seizures are by foods low in carbohydrates and with essential
controlled without calories limit, which is bet- proteins, such as vegetables and fruits. After the
ter than fasting and drink deprivation. This diet first 1–2 days of fasting, the diet gradually transi-
characteristically promotes the clinical applica- tions to a 4:1 ratio (fat: protein and carbohydrate),
tion of the ketogenic diet (KD). In 1938, with inducing the liver to produce ketone bodies.
the advent of phenytoin and the subsequent When ketosis occurs, blood glucose and urine
emergence of new AEDs, KD use is gradually ketone monitoring is required. Nutrition doctors
reduced. In the mid-­1990s, a TV show reported need to adjust the dietary structure throughout
that a 2-year-old boy suffering from intractable the diet’s administration.
epilepsy received KD treatment, whereupon the
seizures were controlled after a few months. KD 7.3.2.2 Medium-Chain Triglycerides
treatment thereby gained wider attention. During (MCTs)
2000–2007, the KD treatment of child patients MCTs are palatable and compliable, with 30%
with epilepsy in the UK increased to 50% [53]. of the calories derived from medium-chain fatty
In December 2006, 26 epileptic experts and acids (sunflower acid, caprylic acid, etc.) and
nutrition experts from 9 countries developed 30% from long-chain fatty acids. One calorie
an expert consensus on KD treatment, which of medium-chain fatty acids can produce more
is funded by Charlie Foundation and approved ketone bodies than long-chain fatty acids, result-
by the pediatric neurology practice committee. ing in the patient taking in more protein and car-
It describes in detail to whom it will apply the bohydrates when the total calories are limited.
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 257

7.3.2.3 Modified Atkins Diet (MAD) a­ bnormalities. Since then, his ­neuropsychological
The ratio of fat and protein to carbohydrates (g) ­performance, but mainly his motor development,
is 1:1 in MAD. Unlike in the classical KD, only has significantly improved. After 1 year on the
the amount of carbohydrate is limited, without diet, the patient has isolated myoclonias. The
fasting, hospitalization, or restriction of protein, number of AEDs has been reduced to one (val-
calories, or fluid intake. Therefore, the patient is proic acid). The diet was switched to the classic
free to choose his food. oral diet at 3 years of age. Another patient was
a 17-month-old boy. On the first day of life, he
7.3.2.4 L ow Glycemic Index Treatment started with recurrent RSE requiring mechanical
(LGIT) ventilation. At 1 year of age, the patient devel-
Only carbohydrates with glycemic indexes <50 oped progressive encephalopathy and myoclonic
can be ingested. Sixty percent of calories are epilepsy. The boy was admitted to the intensive
from fat, and the amount of carbohydrates (40– care unit (ICU) because of refractory myoclonias,
60 g/day) is much higher than in the classic KD. and intravenous levatiracetam, valproic acid,
benzodiazepines, and corticosteroids were tried
without response over 3 weeks before starting
7.3.3  linical Application of KD
C the KD. The KD was begun at a 4:1 ratio. After
in RSE 24 h of fasting, the child was given the KD via a
nasogastric tube. 1 week after KD initiation, the
SE is a common neurological emergency. AEDs patient slowly improved, achieving a 50% seizure
are effective for most SE, but some patients are reduction. After a 6-month follow-up, in spite of
not sensitive to AEDs, and their seizures are the progressive encephalopathy, his quality of life
weakly controlled, leading to RSE. Recent reports improved, and the AEDs were reduced to leveti-
suggest that the KD is also applied for treating racetam and topiramate. The patient continues to
adults and children with RSE, for ages ranging receive the same formula orally [60].
from 5 months to 49 years [57, 58]. Currently, In early 2014, Caraballo et al. assessed the
approximately 50 children and ten adults with efficacy and tolerability of the KD in patients
RSE under KD treatment have been reported with RSE who were followed for a minimum
[59]. These case reports indicate that the KD is of 6 months. Two patients were seizure-free,
effective and safe for RSE patients, but there is and five patients had a 50–75% seizure fre-
insufficient evidence to recommend the KD as an quency reduction after the onset of ketonuria in
established treatment option. 2–5 days. Three patients had a < 50% seizure
reduction and discontinued the diet because all
7.3.3.1 KD Treatment for RSE Children had suffered severe side effects. Seven insisted
Caraballo et al. described two patients suffering on the diet for 6 months to 3 years, with sei-
from refractory myoclonic SE and treated with zures recurring in 4 months: two had weekly
the KD. One patient was a 23-month-old boy seizures, two had monthly seizures, two had
who was admitted to the hospital because of myo- occasional seizures, and one had one seizure.
clonic SE. The patient was refractory to different All of them established good tolerability of
AEDs, such as midazolam, levetiracetam, etho- the KD, and their quality of life did not further
suximide, clobazam, topiramate, and corticoste- worsen. The KD should be considered earlier
roids. At 2 years and 6 months of age, the KD was in the treatment of focal SE, which is second-
started at a 4:1 ratio. After a 24 h fast, the patient ary to inflammation [61]. Lin et al. described a
was administered the KD via a nasogastric tube. boy with super RSE who was administered an
During the first week on the KD, the patient slowly intravenous KD. Moderate ketosis appeared 24 h
improved, achieving a 75–90% seizure reduc- after admission, and thiamylal was successfully
tion, with fewer ­ electroencephalogram (EEG) weaned 70 h after admission [62].
258 G. Luan and X. Wang

7.3.3.2 KD Treatment for RSE Adults t­ opiramate, phenobarbital, pentobarbital, valproic
Thakur et al. [63] performed a retrospective case acid, and midazolam) poor control of SE, fasting
review of KD-treated adult patients with super was introduced to initiate the KD via gastric tube.
RSE at four medical centers. Ten adult patients Within 6 days of KD initiation, the patient was
were enrolled. Four patients were male, and weaned from AEDs without a return of seizures.
seven had encephalitis. The median age was He still suffered occasional self-limited break-
33 years. The median duration of SE before the through seizures for 1 year. Moreover, other clin-
KD was 21.5 days, and the median number of ical experts also have confirmed the effectiveness
AEDs used before the KD was seven. Ninety of the KD in RSE treatment [65–72].
percent of patients achieved ketosis, becoming
SE-free in a median of 3 days. Three patients 7.3.3.3 S  ome Factors of the KD in RSE
experienced transient acidosis and hypertri- Treatment
glyceridemia as side effects of the KD. Ninety Routes of administration can be divided into
percent of patients achieved resolution of SE. A enteral and parenteral administration. Enteral
major limitation of the current study was its administration is the most common, i.e., via a
retrospective nature. Many patients received gastric tube; parenteral administration is less
adjunctive treatment with multiple AEDs, surgi- used, i.e., via an intravenous route. Whatever the
cal intervention, steroids, plasmapheresis, and method of administration, the proportion of fat
immunoglobulin while on the KD. The possibil- and nonfat must be strictly maintained at 4:1, and
ity that other interventions resulted in seizure glucose must be discontinued.
relief cannot be excluded. An ongoing prospec- After starting a KD, ketosis can usually be
tive multicenter trial using a standardized KD accomplished within 2–3 days; the seizures will
protocol will provide further data on the safety see improvement after 5–8 days.
and efficacy of the KD in critically patients with If symptoms of SE patients are controlled,
RSE and/or super RSE. long-term adoption of the KD is applicable as an
Wusthoff et al. [64] describes two KD-treated adjuvant therapy. If serious complications occur
adult patients with prolonged nonconvul- or the KD produces no effect, the diet can be
sive status epilepticus (NCSE). A 29-year-old terminated.
woman was diagnosed with Parry Romberg and The KD is effective in the treatment of SE or
Rasmussen’s syndromes at 12 years of age after RSE with various seizures types, such as viral
progressive left hemifacial atrophy. The first encephalitis, autoimmune encephalitis, FIRES,
seizure appeared at age 14, and complex partial and Dravet syndrome.
seizures appeared at age 21. Secondary gener-
alization and recurrent SE occurred at age 24 7.3.3.4 P recautions for Applying
after increased seizure frequency. After multiple the KD in RSE Treatment
AEDs (carbamazepine, lamotrigine, gabapentin, Before starting the KD, several steps are needed:
levetiracetam, topiramate, zonisamide, prega- (1) an assessment should be made as to whether
balin, and clobazam) with poor seizure control, any diseases are causing abnormal fatty acid
the KD was introduced via gastrostomy tube. metabolism, (2) a dietitian should design a 4:1
Four days after initiation, seizure frequency was ketogenic allocation, (3) fasting should be initi-
reduced to once every 3–4 days; seizures were ated for 1–2 days, and intravenous infusion of
controlled completely after 11 days. Another carbohydrates should stop.
previously healthy 34-year-old man suffered To initiate the KD, several factors should
from generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) be monitored: (1) blood glucose every 4 h, (2)
progressing to SE as a result of viral encepha- ketone or serum β-hydroxybutyric acid daily, (3)
litis or postinfectious encephalitis. Because of electrolytes daily, (4) triglycerides, (5) pH, and
the AEDs’ (lorazepam, levetiracetam, phenytoin, (6) blood routine and blood biochemistry.
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 259

7.3.3.5 C ontraindications of the KD cholesterol decreased significantly, although

in RSE Treatment apoA-I increased. Coppola et al. [79] found that
The KD should not be implemented in certain epilepsy patients treated with the KD developed
contexts: metabolic disorder (continued hyper- higher arterial stiffness parameters, including
natremia, hyponatremia, hypoglycemia, acido- AIx and beta-index. However, MCT may had
sis, hypocalcemia), hemodynamic instability or less of an effect on lipids than did the classic
cardiopulmonary dysfunction, coagulopathy, KD. Lambrechts et al. [80] found that 7% of epi-
hepatic failure, pancreatitis, severe hyperlipid- lepsy patients with MTC had a relevant increase
emia, enteral nutrition intolerance (including in total and LDL cholesterol values and triglycer-
obstruction), pregnancy, receiving any propofol ide values during the KD.
injection within 24 h, fatty acid oxidation disor-
der, or pyruvate carboxylase deficiency. 7.3.4.3 Protein-Losing Enteropathy
Protein-losing enteropathy is a very rare side
effect of the KD. Moriyama et al. [81] reported
7.3.4 Adverse Reactions to the KD that a 9-year-old girl developed fever for 5 days,
which then evolved into severe RSE. After mul-
7.3.4.1 Acidosis tiple AEDs with poor control, the KD was intro-
Initially, the anticonvulsant property of the KD duced and her seizures stopped. However, she
was hypothesized to be the reduction in cerebral developed hypoproteinemia, and her abdominal
pH. However, a change in cerebral pH has not dynamic scintigraphy and colonoscopy findings
been observed in rats receiving a KD, nor has indicated protein-losing enteropathy with non-
blood pH changed in humans treated with KD specific mucosal inflammation. Because of the
[73]. Conversely, metabolic acidosis is a common worsening nutritional status, the KD was discon-
side effect of KD therapy. Oral sodium bicarbon- tinued. Her nutrition gradually improved, but her
ate is common to correct metabolic acidosis. seizures increased.

7.3.4.2 Dyslipidemia 7.3.4.4 Propofol Infusion Syndrome

Hyperlipidemia is the most common side effect Long-term (>48 h) infusion of propofol may
in KD, with an incidence of up to 33–38% result in rare but fatal propofol infusion syn-
[74–76]. Zamani et al. [77] studied 33 children drome with metabolic acidosis, rhabdomyolysis,
with refractory epilepsy after 6 months of KD lipemia, and myocardial failure. Baumeister et al.
treatment to detect adverse reactions to the KD [82] reported that a 10-year-old boy with cata-
on the serum lipid profile. Median triglycer- strophic epilepsy developed fatal propofol infu-
ide increased significantly (from 84 to 180 mg/ sion syndrome after the KD was initiated. The
dL), as well as median total cholesterol (from KD aggravated the impaired fatty acid oxidation
180 to 285 mg/dL), median serum low-density induced by propofol.
lipoprotein (LDL) (from 91 to 175 mg/dL), and
median serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) 7.3.4.5 Others
(from 51 to 58 mg/dL). Kwiterovich et al. [78] Gastrointestinal reactions (i.e., abdominal pain,
conducted a 6-month prospective cohort study nausea, vomiting, constipation) are a common side
of 141 KD-treated children with refractory sei- effect [71, 74]. There have been reports that the
zures. At 6 months, atherogenic apoB-containing KD for RSE treatment was discontinued because
lipoproteins increased significantly, and antiath- of gastroesophageal reflux [67]. Weight loss
erogenic HDL cholesterol decreased; the KD occurs in 19–60% of intractable epilepsy patients
significantly increased mean total, LDL, VLDL, with KD [59, 74, 75, 83, 84], with an incidence as
and non-­ HDL cholesterol, as well as triglyc- high as 60% in adolescents [85]. Forty-five per-
erides and total apoB. In addition, mean HDL cent of women are prone to ­menstrual disorders
260 G. Luan and X. Wang

while on the KD [86]. Childhood and ­adolescence found that acetone appeared to have a broad
are critical periods for growth and development, spectrum of anticonvulsant effects by using four
with large nutritional demands; the side effect seizure rat models (maximal electroshock model,
of the KD on growth rate and weight loss is an pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) model, amygdala kin-
important reason for the KD to be discontinued. dling model, AY-9944 model) [90]. Gasior et al.
Sampath et al. [86] conducted a cohort study for found that acetone (1–32 mmol/kg, i.p.) showed
the KD treatment of children with refractory epi- a dose-dependent increase in the PTZ threshold
lepsy (n = 195): the incidence of kidney stones and protects against 4-AP-induced seizures [91].
increased to 6.7% without regard to age or car- Rho et al. also found that acetoacetate, acetone,
bonic anhydrase inhibitors (such as zonisamide stereoisomers, and L-(+) of BHB were anticon-
and topiramate). Oral potassium citrate improves vulsant in Frings audiogenic seizure-susceptible
kidney stones, and delays occurred. mice [92]. However, Nylen et al. found that the
KD was unable to elevate amygdaloid after dis-
charge thresholds in fully kindled rats [93].
7.3.5 Potential Mechanisms
7.3.5.2 T he Increased GABAergic
In general, after a few hours on the KD, ketosis Hypothesis
appears and continues for 2 weeks to achieve It is popularly hypothesized that the KD influ-
the best effect for controlling seizures. This timeences the brain inhibitory neurotransmitter
delay may be related to metabolic adaptation, γ-aminobutyric acid, the main therapeutic target
mitochondrial proliferation, and other transport-­ for epilepsy. In general, the KD is most effective
related adjustments. However, once the low-­ against seizure models induced by GABAergic
carbohydrate diet is discontinued and ketosis is antagonists such as PTZ, bicuculline, picrotoxin,
interrupted, the efficacy of seizure control will and γ-butyrolactone. Conversely, it shows little if
disappear in a few days [87]. any efficacy in seizure models activated by iono-
No matter what type of KD, such as the long-­ tropic glutamate receptors (such as kainic acid),
chain fatty acid-based classic KD, the medium-­ voltage-dependent sodium channels (such as
chain fatty acid-based MCT, or the high-fat, maximal electroshock), or glycine receptor inhi-
high-protein, low-glucose MAD, significant bition (such as strychnine) [94].
inhibition of seizures via increasing ketone and/ Dahlin et al. examined the effect of the KD on
or restricting glucose and calories can occur. Thisthe excitatory and inhibitory amino acids of CSF
conclusion is verified in acute or chronic epilepsyin 26 KD-treated children with refractory epi-
animal experiments as well as in clinical trials lepsy. GABA levels were increased in responders
[87]. Compared with adults, children and young (>50% seizure reduction) compared with in nonre-
animals respond better to the KD. Melo et al. [88] sponders. The GABA levels of very good respond-
also found that single-acid transporter MCT-1 ers (>90% seizure reduction) were dramatically
expression is higher in younger patients, as well as
higher either at baseline or during the diet [95].
ketone bodies (BHB and acetoacetate) transported Wang et al. also found increased GABA levels of
from the blood-brain barrier and GABA in the 2 KD-treated patients through 2D MRI scans [96].
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). However, others have In animal studies, calorie restriction also increases
noted that the KD is not age dependent: its effect brain glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) 65
is similar on adults and children with epilepsy. and GAD67 expression in the superior collicu-
lus, cerebellar cortex, and temporal cortex [97].
7.3.5.1 Ketones’ Direct Antiepileptic Ketotic mice showed an enhanced concentration
Effects of glutamine and GABA in the forebrain after the
In the 1930s, Keith showed that acetone or ethyl-­ administration of acetate and nitrogen donor [98].
acetoacetate protected rabbits from thujone-­ Astrocyte metabolism is found to be more active
induced seizures [89]. In 2002, Likhodii et al. in the ketotic brain, with increased ­conversion of
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 261

e­ xcitatory ­neurotransmitter ­glutamate to ­glutamine, as the activation of transcription factor NRSF,

which further converts to GABA [99]. which recruits the NADH-binding co-repressor
CtBP around the BDNF promoter to suppress a
7.3.5.3 R educed Neuronal Excitability transcription permissive chromatin environment
Via KATP Channels [103]. Importantly, because 2-DG administered
In general, the mitochondrial metabolism of orally is fairly well tolerated, this compound may
ketone bodies inhibits glycolysis, followed by represent a novel and feasible treatment strategy
an increase in mitochondrial ATP and a decrease for epilepsy.
in glycolytic ATP. Meanwhile, inhibition of gly-
colytic enzymes may activate a compartmen- 7.3.5.5 Role of Fatty Acids
tation of ATP at the plasma membrane. The Chang et al. [104] confirmed that some spe-
submembrane consumption of glycolytic ATP cific medium-chain fatty acids serve to more
by pumps—that is, for maintaining intracellu- effectively address seizure control and enhance
lar ionic concentrations—could activate nearby neuroprotection with less sedation and cell toxic-
ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels, pro- ity, compared to the antiepileptic drug valproic
ducing a hyperpolarizing current that reduces acid. In 2016, Chang et al. [105] also found
neuron excitability [100]. that decanoic acid, a medium-chain fatty acid,
Physiological levels of ketone bodies exhibits antiseizure activity in rat hippocampal
(β-hydroxybutyrate or acetoacetate) reduce the slice models of epileptiform activity but that
spontaneous firing in “seizure gate” substantia other medium-­chain fatty acids, such as ketones
nigra pars reticulata of rats and mice. However, (beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetone), do not. It
the anticonvulsant effect of ketone bodies is elim- has a strong direct inhibition on the α-amino-3-­
inated by sensitive KATP channel blockers or by hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid
gene knockout. It has been proposed that ketone (AMPA) receptor and excitatory neurotrans-
bodies or glycolytic restriction enhances a natu- mission in hippocampal neurons, which likely
ral activity-limiting action served by neuronal occurs via binding to the M3 helix of the AMPA-­
KATP channels [101]. selective glutamate receptor 2 (GluA2) trans-
membrane domain, which ultimately contributes
7.3.5.4 Glycolytic Inhibition to the anticonvulsant effects of MCT.
Glycolytic inhibition is anticonvulsant [102, Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as
103]. The decreased glucose levels produced by arachidonic acid (AA, C20:4ω6), docosahexae-
animals or human on the KD are consistent with noic acid (DHA, C22:6ω3), arachidonic acid
a reduction of the glycolysis process. Stafstrom (AA, C20:4ω6), or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA,
et al. found that glycolytic inhibitor 2-deoxy-­d- C20:5ω3) have become popular foci of KD
glucose (2-DG) reduced interictal epileptiform research. Specific PUFAs (i.e., AA and DHA)
bursts evoked by 4-AP and bicuculline in CA3 of were found to be increased in both the sera and
the hippocampus, as well as by audiogenic stimu- brains of KD-treated patients and animals [87].
lation in Frings mice. A potential mechanism may Dietary supplementation with 5 g of n-3 PUFAs
involve an increase of after-discharge thresholds per day significantly reduced seizure frequency
in perforant path kindling and a twofold slowing and intensity in epileptic patients [106]. EPA and
in kindled seizure progression. However, 2-DG DHA significantly raised the electrical-evoked
had no protection on maximal electroshock or threshold of action potentials and reduced the
Metrazol seizures [102]. Garriga-Canut et al. frequency of action potentials in CA1 neurons of
also showed that 2-DG potently blocks the pro- hippocampal slices. EPA also restored PTZ- or
gression of kindled seizures and decreases the glutamate-induced neuronal excitability [107].
expression of seizure-induced brain-derived It is likely that the Shaker KV channel in open
neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its recep- and closed states interacts with a PUFA-enriched
tor, TrkB. This reduced expression is proposed lipid bilayer [108].
262 G. Luan and X. Wang

7.3.6 Conclusion cause severe bradycardia); two continuous leads

along the splitter inducer guide the electrode
Due to its rapid onset, high efficiency, and mild wires from the chest incision through the sub-
side effects, the KD is a promising therapy for cutaneous tunnel to the neck incision, and the
the treatment of intractable epilepsy and SE in electrode is entwined around the left vagus nerve
children and adults. Importantly, it does not and directly wrapped around the left vagus nerve,
increase the seizure types of patients or exacer- after which the short lead converges below and
bate seizures. For neurological clinicians, a large the long lead converges upward to make connect
number of randomized controlled multicenter the wire and the stimulator. First, bradycardia
clinical trials are needed for adult patients, espe- and asystole tests caused by vagus nerve stimula-
cially regarding RSE treatment. At present, the tion are conducted in the operation room; then,
mechanisms of the KD are still being explored the implanted stimulator performs the function 2
because looking for key targets for the inhibi- weeks after surgery. The device program settings
tion of seizures will provide a theoretical basis are installed on a command bar outside of the
for improving the application of the KD among body; the command bar is connected to a magnet,
epilepsy patients—especially, adult patients with and the magnet can directly activate the stimula-
RSE. Dietitians also need to establish more con- tor to transmit the set stimulation pulse. Patients
sistent diet components for patients with different can even use the command bar to induce the
dietary habits. For patients, there exist websites magnet to initiate stimulus pulses during seizures
and software for self-managing the daily diet for or auras to stop seizures or to reduce their sever-
long-term treatment using the KD. ity. The entire device is usually programmed for
30 s in the powered-on state and 5 min in the
powered-­off state. The pulse width is usually set
7.4 Neuromodulatory Treatment at 500 Hz, with the amplitude set from 0.25 to
in Refractory Status 3.5 mA. Most commonly, the most appropriate
Epilepticus current is 1–2 mA. Parameters can be adjusted
according to the degree of effect, and the speed of
RSE cannot always be controlled by AEDs. equipment cycle is directly related to the battery
When pharmacotherapy fails, neuromodulatory life of the pulse stimulator [112].
treatment becomes a possible option. At pres-
ent, neuromodulatory technology that is applied 7.4.1.2 Clinical Application
to SE therapy includes vagus nerve stimulation and Efficacy in Epilepsy
(VNS), cortical responsive stimulation (CRS), VNS is considered an effective treatment for
and deep brain stimulation (DBS). intractable epilepsy. It is mainly suitable for
patients with drug-resistant epilepsy who are not
appropriate for focal excision, especially those
7.4.1 VNS with complex partial or secondary generalized
epilepsy. For example, VNS has been shown to be
VNS was approved for the treatment of general- effective in partial and secondary epilepsy therapy
ized or focal epilepsy in Europe in 1994 [109]. in children. It can also be used in other epilepsy
In 1997, it was also approved for the treatment syndromes, such as symptomatic and idiopathic
of refractory focal epilepsy (age > 12) by the US generalized epilepsy [113], and Lennox-Gastaut
FDA [110]. Thus far, more than 75,000 patients syndrome, and it is better for young patients with
with drug-resistant epilepsy worldwide have primary generalized epilepsy and focal epilepsy
received this surgery [111]. [114]. A retrospective study also confirmed that
the prognoses of younger patients or patients with
7.4.1.1 Surgical Procedures unilateral interictal discharges and cortical dys-
The device is implanted below the patient’s left plasia who had VNS surgery were superior [115].
clavicle (the left vagus nerve is usually used Vonck et al. [116] used VNS to treat 118
because stimulating the right vagus nerve may patients with intractable epilepsy in 2004.
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 263

Seizures were significantly reduced by 55 and 7%; addition, these patients needed to continue AEDs
patients became seizure-free over the 6-month to maintain the curative effect after seizure ter-
postoperative follow-up period. De Herdt et al. mination. Thus far, at least 28 patients with RSE
[117] found a significant reduction of seizures in worldwide (7 months–82 years old) have been
51% of 138 patients with refractory epilepsy and treated with VNS [123, 124] with good effects;
seizure cessation of 9% patients in the 44 months such findings support the conclusion that VNS
leading to follow-up. Kuba et al. [118] found treatment of SE in adults and children has a
seizure reduction in 55.9% patients with drug- known effect, especially in the treatment of RSE
resistant epilepsy approximately 6.6 years after with GTCS. The effect of this intervention as an
VNS surgery. Although VNS is currently used as emergency treatment is positive (epilepsy reac-
an adjunctive treatment for intractable epilepsy, it tion rate, 76%) [122], but for focal RSE, evidence
has been widely recognized for its efficacy. is still lacking. Zeiler et al. [122] used VNS to
treat 4 patients with partial RSE, and the average
7.4.1.3 Clinical Application time of seizure termination was 37.5 days later.
and Efficacy in RSE There were still three patients who experienced
Patwardhan et al. [119] used VNS to treat a seizure recurrence during follow-up.
30-year-old man with RSE. The patient received
left vagus nerve stimulator implantation after 7.4.1.4 Potential Mechanisms
nearly 9 days of pentobarbital anesthesia failed. and Existing Problems
As indicated by EEG monitoring, he became The afferent connection of the vagus nerve is
seizure-­free for 19 consecutive days after surgery the main nucleus of the solitary tract; fibers start
and was awakened from his coma. He only took from this nucleus to the nuclei of the brain stem.
levetiracetam and phenobarbital as antiepilep- These nuclei regulate the excitability of the cere-
tic drugs upon discharge from the hospital and bral cortex by releasing various neurotransmitters.
became seizure-free. This was the first case in Therefore, vagus nerve stimulation indirectly con-
which it was reported that VNS completely con- trols the excitability of the brain, thereby control-
trolled RSE [119]. In addition, VNS can com- ling epilepsy. So far, the improved VNS technique
pletely terminate SE caused by other types of can also perceive tachycardia and heart rate vari-
epilepsy, such as autosomal dominant nocturnal ability by detecting changes in heart rate, and the
frontal lobe epilepsy [120]. O’Neill et al. [121] latter can also be perceived by the VNS monitoring
reported a 23-year-old male patient with primary device when seizures or SE occurs. VNS implan-
generalized tonic-clonic epilepsy who received tation has no influence on MRI scans [125]. VNS
VNS after 3 weeks in SE when drug treatment treatment still leaves some questions, such as the
had failed. On the second day, the patient’s reason for lagged onset times, the reason why it
EEG showed that generalized epilepsy waves cannot completely prevent the ­recurrence of RSE
had decreased significantly, and 5 days after despite effectively terminating it after acute treat-
the placement of the VNS stimulator, the low-­ ment, and the reason why patients need to take
voltage theta electrical activity measured by the AEDs for extended periods of time after seizure
EEG had replaced general epileptic discharge. termination to prevent recurrence. Because VNS
Nine days later, the patient regained conscious- treatment for RSE is still in the clinical trial stage,
ness. Although he still had myoclonic seizures the data provided are insufficient to persuade and
at night, seizure frequency was reduced by 75% guide clinicians to incorporate vagus nerve surgery
compared with the situation before VNS stimula- into absolute indications for RSE.
tion. Zeiler et al. [122] began systematically sur-
veying VNS treatment for RSE cases, and they
found that seizure was reduced in 19 patients and 7.4.2 CRS
with complete freedom from seizure for some
of 24 RSE cases with generalized tonic-clonic The first instrument that used electrical stimu-
epilepsy; however, the onset times of termina- lation to trace the function of the human brain
tion differed, ranging from 3 days to 14 days. In was produced in 1884; brain stimulation used
264 G. Luan and X. Wang

in ­clinical therapy began in the last century, first and ­display ­epileptic activity over 24 h. When
used by Heath and Delgado in the field of psy- a ­seizure occurs, transient electrical stimula-
chiatry [126]. Among the psychopaths treated, tion will be delivered in a timely manner to the
many patients also suffered from epilepsy, so detected site to terminate the seizure. High fre-
when clinicians used the nerve stimulation sys- quencies (100–200 Hz) and shorter durations
tem that was placed directly on the brain cortex to (100 ms) are usually used. Although frequent
treat mental illness, they found that direct stimu- stimulation is delivered to the epileptic site, the
lation of epileptic lesions could terminate the sei- overall current intensity remains low [130].
zure activity. Subsequent reports also suggested CRS is a personalized surgical treatment
that electrical stimulation in animals and humans requiring that the subdural electrode stripes or
could interrupt laboratory and clinical seizures. deep brain electrodes are implanted near epilep-
This cortical nerve stimulation system tic foci to detect seizures accurately and then turn
includes a pulse generator, epilepsy detection on the stimulation mode. This means that epi-
software, and an intracranial electrode which is leptic foci must be identified prior to electrode
used to record epileptic lesions and stimulate the implantation. Then, the system analyzes the epi-
brain [127, 128]. The closed-loop focal cortical leptic signal according to the real-time EEG pro-
stimulator was approved for adjuvant treatment vided by the implanted electrode, automatically
of drug-resistant epilepsy in 2013 by the US FDA responding and sending the stimulus to the site to
[128]. terminate the development and spread of epilepti-
Initially, CRS was mainly used in 18-year-old form activity. The stimulating device is placed in
patients with focal epilepsy and fewer than two the groove of the skull; the device is controlled by
epileptic foci. However, with advancements in a type of electrode bar in the same way as VNS,
technology, CRS can simultaneously stimulate and the electrode bar is linked to the computer,
two separate epileptic foci, even if these two which sets up its programming. At the same time,
lesions are located in different regions (includ- due to the limited storage capacity of the device,
ing functional areas and areas that surgery can- patients must always connect the electrode bar to
not reach). Because CRS has wide stimulation the computer to download the electricity needed
parameters, the pulse width ranges from 40 to by the cortical electrodes. Clinicians can also
1000 ms, the frequency ranges from 1 to 333 Hz, access the patient’s cortical EEG records via a
and the current ranges from 0.5 to 12 mA; clini- secure webpage and test or adjust the stimulus
cians can choose more stimulation sites and more routine regularly based on each patient’s specific
individualized treatments of epileptic patients condition.
with different characteristics [129].
7.4.2.2 C  linical Application and Efficacy
7.4.2.1 Surgical Procedures in Refractory Epilepsy
At present, the technology works by implanting The responsive neurostimulator system (RNS) is a
the instrument in the brain’s cortical surface or closed-loop response brain stimulation treatment
deeper in patients, near the epileptic foci. The for epilepsy in CRS. This treatment is currently
instrument consists of two electrodes with four considered promising for intractable temporal
contacts that are separately implanted subdu- lobe epilepsy. A large sample study of RNS treat-
rally or in the cortex by deep electrodes. When ment of refractory partial epilepsy confirmed that
the deep electrodes are implanted and anchored RNS significantly reduces seizure frequency in
around the epileptic foci, each electrode has patients with refractory partial epilepsy and one
four contacts connected to the lesion and uses or more lesions [128]. This study had achieved
two electrodes each time to record and stimu- level I clinical evidence. However, more evidence
late the lesion. The device also has an epilepsy is still needed to achieve level I clinical evidence
detection function by which it can directly detect about RNS for the treatment of RSE.
seizures in patients. Continuous EEG can record
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 265

Among recent clinical trials, Bergey et al. be the mechanism of action [135]. Studies have
[131] reported on the outcome of RNS treatment shown that single-pulse stimulation of the cere-
for 230 patients with refractory partial epilepsy bral cortex can cause prolonged cell discharge
with one or two lesions. The study found that inhibition [136]. Repetitive stimulation in the
1 year after RNS, the average seizure percentage correct conjectural frequency range can inhibit
declined by 44%, which was 48–66% at the time cortical electrical activity.
of long-term follow-up. The seizures of 61% of
patients with temporal epileptic foci decreased
by 50% after 5 years, and 15% of patients with 7.4.3 DBS
frontal epileptic foci experienced decreases in
seizures of 50% after 5 years. A recent inves- The history of deep brain stimulation can be
tigation of 795 cases with intractable epilepsy traced back to 1940, when a study found that
secondary to craniocerebral trauma during 1995– stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus, thalamus,
2014 found that the seizure rate declined by 4.5– striatum, globus pallidus, and cerebellum could
79.8% after CRS stimulation, but seizure severity influence seizures [136]. In 1985, deep brain
improved to a different degree [132]. stimulation of the anterior thalamic nucleus was
first used in the treatment of comorbid epilepsy
7.4.2.3 Clinical Application and psychiatric disorders [126, 137, 138]. DBS
and Efficacy in RSE treatment of epilepsy was subsequently extended
Animal experiments have found that CRS may to Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and multifocal epi-
be beneficial for RSE. In kainic acid-induced SE lepsy, as demonstrated by the progress of a series
models, SE can be terminated in a timely man- of animal experiments on DBS treatment of epi-
ner for rats placed in RNS stimulation [133]. At lepsy [139–141]. Such animal experiments have
present, CRS has not yet been widely applied found that DBS can inhibit SE in animal models
to humans with RSE, but there are still some by selectively kindling the target of the anterior
reports showing that CRS in the treatment of thalamic nucleus [130].
drug-­resistant SE field has a positive effect. For
example, Antonio Valentin et al. [134] reported 7.4.3.1 Surgical Indications
on two patients with partial SE who received DBS is also suitable for intractable epilepsy that
chronic cortical stimulation conducted by subdu- cannot be treated by lesion excision (i.e., unclear
rally placed electrodes (continuous stimulation lesion, diffuse lesion distribution, lesions located
frequency 60–130 Hz, current 2–3 mA), result- in functional areas or in the deep cortex). DBS
ing in seizures being reduced by 90% during may be an effective alternative treatment to
the 22-month postoperative period. The study VNS. As new “unconventional” brain stereotac-
reported that this was a rare case of focal RSE, tic targets are identified and used, the flexibility
with frequent seizures usually affecting distal and expected results of DBS may be better than
limb functions that ultimately caused long-­lasting VNS [117].
limb function damage. The above results suggest
that CRS therapy may have a distinct advantage 7.4.3.2 Surgical Procedures
in patients with intractable epilepsy originating Positioning by MRI is needed before the DBS
from functional cortical areas. operation. Usually, four deep intracranial elec-
trodes are implanted into the bilateral anterior
7.4.2.4 Potential Mechanisms thalamus under MRI location guidance (in the
The mechanism of CRS has not yet been fully subthalamic nucleus or the posterior hypothala-
elucidated. Because cortical electrical stimu- mus [pHyp] and caudal zona incerta [CZi] [136,
lation leads to reversible changes of epileptic 138]). Implanted electrodes link to an implant-
lesions, thus inhibiting the triggering and spread- able pulse generator (IPG); this IPG is placed
ing of epileptic activity in lesions, this seems to below the clavicle (and possibly implanted
266 G. Luan and X. Wang

s­ ubcutaneously). The electrical stimulation In another case, after a clinician implanted a DBS
­program for setting up the IPG is similar to that electrode in the bilateral thalamic centromedial
for VNS: the stimulus frequency used in IPG nucleus and applied stimulation, one patient
is characterized by high-frequency stimulation with RSE secondary to encephalitis experienced
(130–200 Hz), a pulse width of 90–450 Hz, and a the timely termination of GTCS and periodic
voltage of 5–10 V. The set stimulus time is 1 min epileptiform waves after 5 weeks. After the
of stimulation followed by 1 min of intermittent patient had no SE for at least 2 months, thalamic
stimulation and 5 min in a powered-off state. centromedial nuclear DBS treatment was con-
The stimulator is powered by the battery (a non-­ firmed to be an effective method for RSE [145].
rechargeable battery with four typical settings Franzini A et al. also performed DBS operations
that needs to be replaced every 6 years versus for four epileptics (including two patients with
a rechargeable battery that needs to be replaced SE secondary to refractory partial epilepsy),
every 9–20 years) [142]. with surgical sites in the pHyp and the CZI;
after deep brain stimulation, seizure frequency
7.4.3.3 Clinical Application and Efficacy decreased by 70% in the patients with refractory
in Refractory Epilepsy focal epilepsy, whereas another patient with SE
Deep brain stimulation, especially high-­secondary to partial epilepsy achieved obvious
frequency stimulation (HFS), is another promis- relief [138].
ing treatment modality for intractable epilepsy.
In a randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter 7.4.3.5 Potential Mechanisms
trial of 110 patients with refractory partial epi- The mechanism of DBS treatment of epilepsy
lepsy or secondarily generalized epilepsy, Fisher may be related to the following factors: (1) The
[142] and his colleagues found that after admin- seizure threshold may be improved by affect-
istering DBS on the anterior thalamic nucleus, ing the epilepsy network. Considering the close
the seizure frequency of patients was reduced to connections between the ATN and the limbic
40.5% of the average preoperative baseline level structure, the ATN seems to be the ideal stimu-
and to 58% 3 years after surgery. lus target in DBS. In animal models, stimulation
Salanova et al. [143] followed up with patients of the ATN is actually a pre-convulsion stimu-
aged 18–65 years with partial epilepsy or sec- lation [146]. This stimulation in epilepsy animal
ondary generalized refractory epilepsy who had models can extend the interval before seizures
been treated with DBS. Their seizure frequencies develop into SE [130]. Therefore, it may play a
decreased by 43% 1 year following surgery and particular role in the treatment of SE and RSE. In
by nearly 68% 5 years after DBS. The total sei- addition, in a hippocampal stimulation model,
zure rate reduced to 50% 1 year after DBS in the researchers found that high-frequency stimula-
44% of patients who had temporal epileptic foci tion was more effective in suppressing seizures
and to 76% 5 years later across all patients; the than low-­frequency stimulation [147, 148]. (2)
total seizure rate reduced to 50% 1 year after DBS Stimulating brain structures cause interactions
in the 53% of patients who had frontal epileptic with the reticular-­ thalamic-cortical pathway
foci and to 59% 5 years later across all patients. (while considering how the reticular-thalamic-
cortical system contains the diencephalon and
7.4.3.4 Clinical Application mesencephalon, two structures that regularize
and Efficacy in RSE the excitability of the cortex to varying degrees);
DBS has a promising future in the treatment of therefore, DBS may play a role against SE
RSE, and there are many successful cases in through the stimulation of “interfering” brain
the clinical treatment of RSE. Angelo Franzini cortical neuronal activity and synchronized dis-
et al. [138] successfully controlled SE caused charge [149].
by Rasmussen encephalitis by DBS stimulation.
7 Nondrug Treatment for Refractory Status Epilepticus 267

7.4.4 Adverse Reactions severe adverse reactions, the mortality of CRS is

and Complications 4.3%, and the incidence of sudden unexpected
of the Neuromodulatory death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is approximately
Treatment of Refractory 2.7% [156].
Epilepsy DBS surgery may cause intracranial hemor-
rhage, infection of the leads, superficial infection,
7.4.4.1 Infection or lead breakage. Different target stimulation
Infection is the common adverse complication of sites cause different complications: for example,
all surgeries: the postoperative infection rates are subthalamic nucleus (STN) stimulation may lead
approximately 3.3% for VNS, 9.4% for CRS, and to behavior changes, verbal memory [157, 158]
0–15% for DBS [118, 150]. The infection inci- and executive dysfunction [159], depression
dence is related to the surgical wound area and [160], or abnormal feelings in the chest or other
surgical depth. parts of the body. Some patients may develop SE,
which may be mainly related to implantation pro-
7.4.4.2 N  erve Injuries and Other cedures and hardware—for example, the stimula-
Complications tion site may experience paresthesia or infection,
VNS surgery may cause carotid artery or laryn- which may also be related to a high stimulating
geal nerve injury during the operation, unbear- voltage [144]. The mortality of DBS in severe
able chronic hoarseness, chronic vocal cord adverse reactions is 6.4%, and the incidence of
paralysis, simple hoarseness (especially upon SUDEP is approximately 3.6% [142, 161].
stimulation), cough, different degrees of vagus
nerve injury, throat discomfort, voice change, or
transient vocal cord paralysis [151]. Studies of 7.4.5  ther Emerging Therapies
O
patients undergoing VNS surgery have found that for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy
in short-term post-VNS, there are positive effects and SE
on the reconstruction of cognitive and memory
impairments induced by epilepsy; however, there In addition to the traditional surgeries and neu-
are no data showing support for long-term mem- romodulatory surgeries listed above, emerging
ory recovery and reconstruction [152]. Moreover, surgical treatments for drug-resistant epilepsy
patients still risk death (even sudden death) for a and SE currently include heart-reactive vagus
variety of reasons after surgery, thereby explain- nerve stimulation, trigeminal nerve stimulation,
ing the VNS mortality rate of 3.9% [153, 154]. magnetic resonance-guided stereotactic laser
­
CRS surgery may cause intracranial hemor- ablation, and modified electroconvulsive therapy,
rhage, skin erosion, depression, suicidal ten- among others. However, relevant evidence of the
dencies, and increased risk of seizures. Nerve efficacy for these techniques is still lacking.
stimulator implantation needs to accurately deter-
mine the localization of the seizure-onset zone. It
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 Treatment Strategies
for Refractory Status Epilepticus 8
Xuefeng Wang

Abstract
Treatment strategies for refractory status epilepticus (RSE) consist of two
phases, including the termination of RSE onset and addressing the second-
ary damage induced by status epilepticus (SE). In this chapter, we provide
a detailed introduction regarding how therapies to treat RSE are chosen,
how these treatments are administered, the precautions that should be
taken, and the potential problems that can arise during their use. We also
summarize the characteristics of the pathophysiological processes under-
lying SE, discuss how they affect the functions of different organs, and
describe the corresponding countermeasures to these effects. The hope is
that once the onset of RSE has been terminated, any secondary damage can
simultaneously be reduced as much as possible. These efforts are aimed at
achieving a state of stable vital signs in the patient, ensuring the presence of
good perfusion and functioning in important organs, and, most importantly,
decreasing the death rate and increasing the cure rate in patients with RSE.

8.1  ermination of the Onset

T 8.1.1 Treatment Objective
of Refractory Status
Epilepticus The clinical manifestations and electroencepha-
lographic waveforms observed in patients with
The termination of the onset of RSE remains the RSE are not fixed, and convulsive status epilep-
primary focus of treatments for RSE. ticus (CSE) can transform into nonconvulsive
status epilepticus (NCSE) during treatment.
Therefore, treatment for RSE should simultane-
ously terminate both clinical seizures and the
epileptic discharges observed on electroencepha-
X. Wang logram (EEG). Consequently, when using drugs
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, to treat RSE, synchronous EEG monitoring is
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated
needed if a patient’s medical condition allows.
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University,
1 YouYi Road, Chongqing 400016, China It may assist in determining the effects of drug
e-mail: [email protected] treatment.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 275

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_8
276 X. Wang

8.1.2 Treatment Options sudden withdrawal can trigger a rebound

­phenomenon. The intravenous injection can
The most prominent feature observed in RSE be repeated once if recurrence occurs during
patients is drug resistance against the first-line the maintenance period.
antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) that are commonly The appropriate dosage of midazolam
used to treat SE. The occurrence of this resistance when administered intravenously in pediatric
is often associated with a variety of neurotrans- patients with RSE remains under exploration.
mitter dysfunctions, especially GABA recep- Wilkes et al. [1] conducted a systematic review
tor deficiency. Therefore, the use of a variety of 16 studies that involved 645 cases (521 of
of anesthetics, including midazolam, propofol, which were treated with midazolam) of chil-
thiopental, and ketamine, is advocated to treat dren with RSE. The authors found that effi-
RSE. If this proves ineffective, mild hypother- ciency reached 76% when patients were treated
mia therapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), a using the following regiment: intravenous
ketogenic diet (KD), and other non-drug thera- injection was applied at an initial dosage of
pies should be used. While this proposition is 0.15–0.5 mg/kg at first, then a sustained intra-
intended to provide a reference for a treatment venous infusion was administered at a speed
option for RSE for clinical practitioners, we do of 1–2 μg/kg/min, and its maximum speed
not deny that other reasonable options exist. can reach 5–24 μg/kg/min. Another study that
involved 27 pediatric patients with RSE (age:
5.1 ± 3.5 years old) showed that after an intra-
8.1.3 Drug Selection venous injection was administered at an initial
dose of 0.2 mg/kg and followed by a sustained
8.1.3.1 Midazolam infusion at a speed of 1–5 μg/kg/min, seizures
1. Indications: There is no evidence that the were controlled in 26 (96%) of the patients.
effect of midazolam is superior to that of diaz- Furthermore, none of these patients developed
epam or clonazepam. Its effects on respiratory hypotension, bradycardia, respiratory depres-
depression and blood pressure are signifi- sion, or other adverse events [2].
cantly stronger than those of diazepam, and 4. Attention: Midazolam has a significant inhibi-
the conditions under which it can be used are tory effect on respiration and a prominent
limited. Hence, the main indication for mid- antihypertensive effect. It is therefore best
azolam is RSE when treatment using diaze- to administer it under close supervision in a
pam or other benzodiazepines has failed. neurological intensive care unit. If necessary,
2. Administration routes: Recommended intra- mechanical ventilation can be used to main-
venous medication. tain respiratory function.
3. Dosage: For adult SE patients, the intrave- 5. The clinical practice of using midazolam to
nous administration of the midazolam can treat RSE is discussed in Chap. 6.
be performed using the following methods.
Midazolam should be given via intravenous 8.1.3.2 Propofol
injection at a dosage of 0.1–0.2 mg/kg and at 1. Indications: The preferred drugs to treat RSE
a slow rate (<4 mg/min). If administration is are midazolam and propofol. Both are widely
ineffective, it can be repeated once; if it still accepted. Propofol may increase the occur-
remains ineffective after a repeat, administra- rence of SE, and it is therefore recommended
tion of midazolam must be stopped, and other only after treatment with midazolam has
recommended drugs should be provided. If failed.
the administration is effective, midazolam 2. Administration routes: Recommended intra-
should be administered using an intravenous venous medication.
pump at a speed of 0.1–0.2 mg/kg/h for 12 h. 3. Dosage: For adult SE patients, propofol can
It should then be gradually reduced because be administered via slow intravenous ­injection
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus 277

at a dosage of 1–2 mg/kg. If ­administration is (6/9), suggesting that ketamine is commonly

ineffective, the injection can be repeated once; used to treat RSE at an advanced stage and
if it still remains ineffective after a repeat, should be applied only when SE has not been
administration must be stopped, and other controlled by five to six other types of drugs.
recommended drugs should be provided. If Borris et al. [5] supported this conclusion with
administration is effective, propofol should be data from animal experiments. They found
administered via intravenous pump at a speed that when ketamine was administered 15 min
of 1–2 mg/kg/h for 10–12 h and then gradu- after SE occurred, it remained uncontrolled in
ally reduced. The injection can be repeated all animals (0/4). However, if ketamine was
once if recurrence occurs during the mainte- administered at 1 h after superrefractory status
nance period. epilepticus (SRSE) occurred, its control rate
Most clinical professionals do not recom- for SE was 100% (4/4).
mend using propofol to treat pediatric patients 2. Administration routes: Recommended intra-
because it inhibits physiological functions venous medication.
in children and causes damage to immature 3. Dosage: For adult SE patients, the ketamine
brains. can be administered slowly via intravenous
4. Attention: (a) Similar to midazolam, it is bet- injection at a dosage of 1–2 mg/kg followed
ter to use propofol under close supervision in by administration via an intravenous pump at a
a neurological intensive care unit. If neces- speed of 0.5–2 mg/kg/h for 10–12 h to maintain
sary, mechanical ventilation can be provided the treatment after termination of the seizure.
to maintain normal respiratory function. (b) Synowiec et al. [6] reported that in RSE
Small doses of propofol have been reported to patients, an intravenous injection of ket-
cause SE. Therefore, intravenous applications amine at a dose of 1–2 mg/kg that was fol-
should not be lower than the recommended lowed by a continuous intravenous drip at a
dose except under exceptional circumstances. speed of 0.45–2.1 mg/kg/h required an aver-
(c) The long-term use of propofol at high age duration of 9.8 days (4–28 days) to treat
doses is of concern because propofol may the disease. Eventually, the seizures were
cause rhabdomyolysis. If necessary, a periodic controlled in all of the patients (11/11), and
inspection of creatinine phosphokinase levels no side effects were reported. Basha et al. [7]
may be helpful to diagnose rhabdomyolysis. administered a continuous intravenous drip
5. The clinical practice of using propofol to treat of ketamine to treat RSE at an initial rate of
RSE is discussed in Chap. 6. 1 mg/kg/h that was gradually increased to an
average rate of 3.5 mg/kg/h (1–5 mg/kg/h)
8.1.3.3 Ketamine for 2–14 days to maintain the treatment. The
1. Indications: Ketamine is mainly suitable for RSE remission rate was 57% (4/7). One case
treating RSE that cannot be controlled by experienced RSE relapse after ketamine was
midazolam and propofol and as a combina- discontinued, and the case was resolved by
tion therapy in patients in whom multiple surgery. And two patients died because one
drugs treatments have failed. Gaspard et al. family ended treatment and one had cardiac
[3] evaluated the statistical data regarding arrest. Therefore, treatment with ketamine
the ability of ketamine to successfully con- can be administered via two methods. One
trol RSE and reported that the median of method is to first administer an intravenous
drugs that were unsuccessfully used to treat injection and then to administer the drug via a
RSE was six before ketamine was selected. continuous intravenous drip. Another method
Rosati et al. [4] reported similar results (the is to administer the drug via continuous intra-
median of drugs was five). The effectiveness venous drip only.
of adding ketamine after multiple drugs treat- 4. Attention: (a) The application of the anesthetic
ments have failed is reported to reach 66.7% drug ketamine requires the guidance of an
278 X. Wang

anesthesiologist. It has a significant inhibitory Drug combination that affects a variety of

effect on respiration. It is therefore best used neurotransmitters may provide more obvious
in a neurological intensive care unit under advantages. In particular, a drug combina-
close supervision. Mechanical ventilation tion therapy that includes a selection of new
may be required to maintain normal respira- AEDs as an additive was more beneficial in
tory function. (b) Because of its significant improving patient prognoses [9]. Sustained
effect on respiratory depression, the USFDA seizures can cause substantial brain damage,
recommends beginning with a small dose of including cerebral edema and the loss of neu-
ketamine and increasing the amount slowly. rons. Thus, the early use of multi-mechanism
(c) Ketamine may have excitatory effects in AEDs for SE will help to achieve the early
the central nervous system (CNS). Although termination of seizures and thereby improve
such cases are rare, the FDA does not recom- patient prognoses [11].
mend ketamine for patients who have severe 2. Clinical application: Currently, combined
hypertension, a drug allergy to ketamine, applications of AEDs to treat SE mainly
coronary heart disease, cardiac dysfunction, include ketamine, levetiracetam, phenytoin,
glaucoma, arteriosclerosis, pulmonary hyper- midazolam, stiripentol, barbiturates, and
tension, pulmonary heart disease, pregnancy, immunomodulatory drugs. Of these, leveti-
severe intracranial hypertension, a history racetam, ketamine, and propofol are the most
of mental health issues, hyperthyroidism, successful:
tachyarrhythmia, or adrenal pheochromocy-
toma. A head CT scan must be performed to (a) Levetiracetam: Levetiracetam is a broad-­
rule out intracranial lesions, which can induce spectrum AED that performs its antiepilep-
intracranial hypertension, before ketamine is tic effects by regulating calcium channels,
administered. (d) Ketamine should be admin- glutamate receptors, and GABA transport
istered cautiously in patients with SE that was [12–15]. Mazarati et al. [12] found that
caused by alcohol poisoning. (e) Ketamine when treating SE, levetiracetam and diaz-
causes increased skeletal muscle tension, and epam had a strong synergistic effect in
the diagnosis must therefore be differentiated animal experiments. Uges et al. [13] used
from tonic-clonic seizures [8]. standard treatment regimens (e.g., benzo-
diazepines and phenytoin) in nine patients
8.1.3.4 Combination Therapy who were also simultaneously treated with
1. Potential advantages: SE is a multifactor and 2500 mg of levetiracetam via intravenous
heterogeneous disease with many different injection (for more than 5 min) as an add-
causes and a complex underlying mechanism. on therapy. With the exception of one patient
Hence, a combined approach in which vari- who died 9 days later as a result of multiple
ous AEDs that act via different mechanisms organ failure (unrelated to levetiracetam), the
are applied may be more practical for treating remaining patients achieved complete con-
SE than the use of drugs that act via a single trol of their seizures within 24 h, and there
mechanism. Researchers have also shown were no significant side effects during this
that SE is a continuous disease process, and period. ­Gallentine et al. [14] retrospectively
its pathogenesis may not be identical among analyzed 11 cases of pediatric patients with
seizures with different lengths [9]. Wasterlain RSE who were treated with the levetirace-
et al. [10] found that in recurrent and pro- tam as an add-on therapy. The patients were
longed seizures, GABAA receptor activity treated with levetiracetam combined with
decreased on postsynaptic membranes, while other drugs (e.g., midazolam, pentobarbi-
the number and activity of NMDA receptors tal, valproate, phenobarbital, phenytoin, or
increased, and these effects led to an increased diazepam). In all, 45% (5/11) of the patients
incidence of benzodiazepine-resistant SE. experienced obvious beneficial effects.
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus 279

(b) Ketamine: Ketamine is a noncompetitive combinations consisting of two drugs, half of

NMDA receptor antagonist that blocks the dose of each of the two drugs is adminis-
NMDA transmission and exerts a neuro- tered; (b) the full amount of the major drug
protective effect. Ketamine also stabilizes and half the dosage of the another drug are
hemodynamics, which reduces the chance administered; or (c) the full dose of both drugs
of a patient developing hypotension [8]. is administered. Please refer to Chap. 6 for a
In recurrent and prolonged seizures, there description of combination treatments for SE.
is a decrease in the number and activity of
GABAA receptors on postsynaptic mem- 8.1.3.5 Phenobarbital
branes and an increase in the number and 1. Indication: Phenobarbital is mainly suitable
activity of NMDA receptors, and these for treating SE after treatment with diazepam
effects lead to the emergence of drug-­ and clonazepam has failed, and it is particu-
resistant SE [10]. Wasterlain et al. [16] used larly effective in pediatric patients.
animal experiments to demonstrate that a 2. Administration routes: Administered
combination consisting of ketamine and intravenously.
benzodiazepines corrected both weakened 3. Dosage: When treating adult SE patients, a
GABA inhibition and enhanced glutamic slow intravenous injection of phenobarbital
acid excitation during the progression of is first administered at a dosage of 10 mg/
SE. As a treatment for RSE, this synergistic kg and at a speed of less than 100 mg/min.
effect provides more advantages when SE is When effective, the phenobarbital should then
in an advanced stage. Synowiec et al. [6] ret- be administered at a dose of 100–200 mg
rospectively analyzed 11 patients with RSE via intramuscular injection twice per day for
who were treated with ketamine as an add- 1–2 days to maintain the treatment effec-
on therapy. The patients were intravenously tiveness. If phenobarbital is not effective, its
administered ketamine in combination with administration should be stopped, and other
other drugs (e.g., lorazepam or phenytoin) recommended drugs should be administered.
after other AEDs were found to be ineffec-
tive. The duration of treatment with ketamine 8.1.3.6 Valproic Acid
was 4–28 days. In all patients (11/11), RSE 1. Indication: Valproic acid is mainly suitable
was fully controlled, and no significant side for treating SE after treatment with benzo-
effects were reported. diazepines has failed. Valproic acid is par-
ticularly suitable for treating NCSE patients
3. Indications: When administrate a variety of because the drug has no obvious effects on
drugs to treat RSE, the SE still cannot be consciousness.
­terminated [8]. 2. Administration routes: Administered
4. Administration routes: Recommended intra- intravenously.
venous medication. 3. Dosage: When treating adult SE patients, an
5. Methods of administration: (a) Simultaneous initial intravenous injection of 800–1600 mg
application: One drug is administered first, of valproic acid should be administered.
followed by the administration of another Then, 800–1600 mg of valproic acid should
drug, regardless of how effective the first drug be given via intravenous drip for a consecu-
was. (b) Administer in order: once the cur- tive 2–3 days to maintain the treatment. If
rent drug treatment has failed, the drug dose treatment is effective, valproic acid can be
should be unchanged while another drug is administered orally after seizures stop and
added [8]. the patient regains consciousness. If treatment
6. Dosage: Studies have reported that there is not effective, valproic acid administration
are three different methods for dosing drug should be stopped, and other recommended
combination treatments, as follows: (a) for
­ drugs should be provided.
280 X. Wang

4. Attention: (a) When using valproic acid to treat occurs through the venous system. Regardless
SE, the first dose should be doubled because of the administration route, the proportion
a long-term intravenous drip of valproic acid of fat to nonfat components must be admin-
at a small dose will not achieve the desired istered in strict 4:1 ratio, and glucose intake
effect. (b) Caution should be exercised regard- should be controlled. Generally, dietary intake
ing the specific contraindications of valproic and the infusion of glucose are forbidden for
acid, which include seizures caused by mito- 24 h before beginning KD therapy because its
chondrial encephalomyopathy. Generally, val- treatment effect on SE disappears once glu-
proic acid is not recommended for treating SE cose is infused.
caused by a genetic disease, seizures caused 2. Onset time: Generally, administration of KD
by hepatic encephalopathy, or other diseases therapy results in ketosis in 2–3 days and con-
that are otherwise contraindicated for treat- trols seizures after 5–8 days.
ment with valproic acid. 3. Course of treatment: If the condition of the
SE patient improves, a KD can be used as a
long-­term adjuvant treatment. If it is not effec-
8.1.4 Non-drug Therapies for RSE tive or if severe complications appear, the KD
should be terminated.
8.1.4.1 KD 4. The type of SE that can be treated by KD:
The KD is a method for treating RSE that was A sufficient systematic analysis is lacking
developed in recent years. Caraballo et al. [17] because there are few reports in which a KD
summarized the results related to ten cases of was used to treat SE. According to previous
pediatric RSE that occurred from 2010 to 2014 data, a KD has been effective in improving
and found that when a KD was used as an adju- RSE cases that arose from a variety of causes,
vant therapy, all of the patients reached a state such as viral encephalitis, autoimmune
of ketonuria within an average of 3 days, and encephalitis, FIRES, and Dravet syndrome
after an average of 5 days, the following therapy-­ [19–21].
induced effect occurred: seizures stopped in two 5. For matters that require attention when using
patients, and the frequency of seizures decreased a KD to treat RSE, please refer to Chap. 7 of
by 50–75% in five patients. Moreover, the KD this book.
had been lasted for at least 6 months in these 6. Contraindications: Contraindications include
seven patients. However, in three of the patients, metabolic disorders (such as persistent hypo-
the frequency of seizures decreased by less than natremia, hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia,
50%, and in these patients, the KD therapy was hypernatremia, and acidosis), hemodynamic
stopped because of severe complications. Thakur instability or cardiorespiratory dysfunction,
et al. [18] evaluated ten adult RSE patients (seven blood coagulation disorders, pancreatitis,
with encephalitis and the remainder with cerebral liver failure, severe hyperlipidemia, enteral
cysticercosis, cortical dysplasia, or hypoxic-­ nutrition intolerance (including intestinal
ischemic encephalopathy) who received classic obstruction), pregnancy, and the injection of
KD therapy for a median time of 17.5 days. In any propofol within 24 h, previously known
nine of these patients (90%), the seizures were fatty acid oxidation disorder or pyruvate car-
controlled after several days (the median time is boxylase deficiency [19–21].
3 days) of KD therapy.
8.1.4.2 Mild Hypothermia Therapy
1. Administration routes and dosage: A KD Fifty years ago, research showed that mild
can be administered in either an enteral or a hypothermia reduces electric activity in the
parenteral way. Enteral administration is the cerebral cortex and that frozen brine termi-
most common and occurs through a stom- nated ­seizures in temporal lobe tumor patients.
ach tube, whereas parenteral administration In 1984, Orlowski et al. [22] used physical
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus 281

c­ooling to control the complications of high 3. Onset time: Generally, within 3–48 h of
fever in RSE patients and found that their sei- ­reaching the target temperature, the therapy
zures were controlled when the temperature was begins to work, and a state of suppression
dropped. Thus, mild hypothermia had an adju- appears on EEG.
vant effect on RSE. In 2008, Corry et al. [24] 4. Attention: (a) EEG monitoring is necessary
reported the first study showing that mild hypo- during the period in which mild hypothermia
thermia therapy is a physical method that can is induced and during treatment and rewarm-
be used to treat RSE. The authors treated four ing. After rewarming, if the seizures do not
patients with an endovascular cooling system to recur, the AEDs that were used to treat SE
induce mild hypothermia while simultaneously should be withdrawn. However, if necessary,
administering antiepileptic therapy. Although they should be administered orally. (b) If the
the temperature of one patient should have been patient experiences a chill while mild hypo-
reduced more than it was, the seizures of the thermia is induced, the mild hypothermia
other patients were controlled. After the seizures treatment should be stopped, and the patient
were controlled and 24 h of burst-suppression in should be rewarmed. (c) The drugs used to
EEG, the administration of AEDs (e.g., mid- treat SE (e.g., phenobarbital or midazolam)
azolam) was stopped, and there was no recur- should be continually administered during
rence during the next 41 h. After the patients mild hypothermia treatment [22–25]. (d) A
were rewarmed, two of the patients improved temperature lower than 30 °C can result in
and were discharged from the hospital with oral side effects, including ventricular fibrillation,
antiepileptic therapy. In 2013, Guilliams et al. blood coagulation dysfunction, and venous
[25] administered mild hypothermia therapy to thrombosis. Additionally, when mild hypo-
five patients whose seizures were not controlled thermia therapy is used to treat RSE, hypo-
by the injection of drugs including phenobarbi- kalemia and acute intestinal ischemia and
tal and midazolam or whose seizures recurred necrosis can occur because of the low tem-
after the drug was stopped. The authors found perature [22–25]. In 2013, Guilliams et al.
that mild hypothermia therapy provided a clear [25] assessed five pediatric RSE patients who
beneficial effect in epilepsy patients, and these had undergone mild hypothermia treatment.
results promoted the application of mild hypo- During mild hypothermia and rewarming,
thermia therapy as a treatment for RSE. electrolyte disturbances (hypokalemia, hyper-
natremia) occurred in some of the patients.
1. Indications: Mild hypothermia therapy is Although these side effects can disappear after
mainly suitable for RSE that is not controlled treatment has been terminated, it is still nec-
by the drugs recommended above or in cases essary to monitor blood gas, blood coagula-
that recur after the cessation of the drugs rec- tion function, and electrolytes and to perform
ommended above. routine blood tests once every 6 h during mild
2. Methods of application: When using suffi- hypothermia and rewarming. Additionally, if
cient AEDs to treat SE, an endovascular cool- an endovascular cooling system is used, an
ing system or hyperthermia therapy apparatus ultrasound of the lower limb veins must be
(e.g., an ice blanket and ice cap) should also performed once per week [26].
be applied simultaneously to induce mild
hypothermia or hypothermia, respectively. 8.1.4.3 ECT
The target temperature is 31–35 °C. After sei- Reports describing the use of ECT in patients
zures have been controlled or after 24–48 h with epilepsy date back to the 1930s. In 2005, the
of burst-suppression in EEG, the tempera- UK guidelines on ECT first introduced this type
ture should be increased to 36.5 °C, and the of therapy as the industry norms for treating RSE
speed of rewarming should not be faster than [27]. Similarly, in 2012, Ferlisi et al. [28] noted
0.5–1 °C/day [22–25]. that ECT is an alternative method for ­treating
282 X. Wang

SE. These two events triggered an increase in the p­ otential complications, including fractures
clinical use of ECT. and damage to teeth, tendons, and muscles,
that can arise during ECT.
1. Indication: When SRSE cannot be controlled (c) Use the seizure threshold as the basis for deter-
by the treatments described above. mining the electrical dosage for ECT. While
2. Parameters of ECT: The two ways to deter- treating SRSE, the electrical dosage should
mine the appropriate electric dosage for match the patient’s seizure threshold and
ECT are the fixed dose method and the dose be continuously regulated during the entire
titration method. The American Psychiatric period. Adjustments to the electrical dos-
Association recommends the dose titration age or its timing and frequency can be made
method. The dose titration method means based on the reactions of the patient and the
using the minimum electrical dosage that can occurrence of possible complications.
induce a seizure as the initial dosage. This (d) If the patient has other diseases, such as heart
approach is advantageous because it imple- failure, severe valvular disease, or arrhyth-
ments the use of an individualized dosage, mia, the risks associated with the therapy are
which means that the dosage matches the indi- increased, and the treatment may induce car-
vidual seizure threshold. Hence, the ECT will diovascular complications. Thus, throughout
have a smaller effect on cognitive function the therapy, patient characteristics, includ-
while ensuring the therapeutic goal. In 2011, ing the duration of seizures, EEG, airway
Shin et al. [30] successfully treated a pediat- patency, vital signs, and side effects, must be
ric RSE patient using ECT with the following closely monitored [23].
parameters: ECT sessions, 12; pulse width, (e) It is also necessary to perform EEG monitor-
0–2 s; pulse frequency, 37–120 HZ; and stim- ing after ECT because the therapy can induce
ulus duration, 3–43 s. For different parameters seizures and NCSE.
that have been used in the clinical application (f) The clinical application of ECT is limited,
of this treatment, please refer to the methods and there is therefore no consensus regarding
introduced by Yang et al. [23]. its protocol [23, 27–30].
3. Method: (1) The electrodes are placed bilater-
ally, and (2) three consecutive single stimuli 8.1.4.4 T  reatments That Are Under
are used to form a group of consecutive stim- Exploration
uli. (3) The choice of anesthetics may influ- 1. Neuromodulation therapy: Neuromodulation
ence the effect of ECT [28]. A combination therapy is a new method that was developed
of propofol and ECT is preferred because pro- in recent years to treat RSE. Neuromodulation
pofol reduces the hemodynamic response and technologies that are under exploration for
cognitive impairment caused by ECT while treating RSE include vagus nerve stimula-
allowing a quick recovery. Hence, in England, tion, cortical responsive stimulation, and deep
propofol is the most commonly used anes- brain stimulation. More details regarding this
thetic in ECT [29]. treatment are provided in Chap. 7.
4. Attention: ECT is relatively safe, and its pri- 2. Levetiracetam:
mary complication is cognitive impairment.
Thus, in ECT, the following precautions (a) Indications: Levetiracetam is mainly suitable
should be taken: for treating SE after treatment with diazepam
and clonazepam has failed. It is also suit-
(a) Evaluate the condition of the patient and able for use in combined therapies aimed at
obtain informed consent. treating seizures that cannot be controlled by
(b) Ensure that the anesthesia is administered many other drugs. Levetiracetam may have
by professionals, because anesthesia can a treatment effect on pediatric electrical SE
reduce tension in the patients and prevent the during sleep.
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus 283

(b) Administration routes: Recommended 8.2.1  he Effect of RSE on Different

T
­intravenous medication. Organs
(c) Dosage: When treating adult SE patients,
the administration should be an intravenous 8.2.1.1 T  he Effect of RSE on Cardiac
injection of levetiracetam at an initial dose Function and Cardiac Electrical
of 1000–1500 mg and a speed of 2–5 mg/ Activity
(kg·min). This dosage can be increased if During SE, skeletal muscle contraction can lead
the seizures continue or if there is continu- to excessive energy consumption and respira-
ous epileptiform discharge on EEG. If the tory failure, causing hypoxia and anaerobic
treatment is effective, levetiracetam can be metabolism, which can result in lactic acido-
administered via continuous infusion at a sis. Simultaneously, skeletal muscle contraction
speed of 0.05–2 mg/(kg·h) at a recommended increases the peripheral resistance and cardiac
daily dose of 1500–3000 mg. If levetirace- load, which weakens cardiac ejection function,
tam is ineffective, its administration should causing circulatory failure and further deepen-
be stopped, and other recommended drugs ing hypoxia in the body. In SE, elevated plasma
should be administered. catecholamine levels release a large number of
  The use of levetiracetam as a combina- catecholamines, leading to abnormal myocardial
tion therapy is recommended in patients with excitability and producing pathological myo-
SRSE. Levetiracetam is usually combined cardial repolarization [31, 32]. In addition, SE
with benzodiazepines. When administering attacks cause the acute and intense activation of
a combination therapy that includes leveti- the sympathetic nervous system, further result-
racetam and benzodiazepines, levetiracetam ing in myocardial damage, abnormal cardiac
should be administered via a slow intrave- electrical activity, and increased susceptibility of
nous injection at a dose of 2500 mg over a ventricular arrhythmias, leading to arrhythmia,
period of more than 5 min. There are two myocardial hemorrhage, subendocardial hemor-
methods for administering combination rhage, acute myocardial ischemia and hypoxia,
therapies including levetiracetam and ben- T wave variation, and bradycardia. These abnor-
zodiazepines. Levetiracetam can be added malities are common in SE and can cause cardiac
when treatment with benzodiazepines fails, arrest when serious. Arrhythmia and acute heart
or levetiracetam and benzodiazepines can failure are important causes of death in patients
be simultaneously administered (for more with epilepsy [33–42].
details, please see Chap. 6).
8.2.1.2 T he Effect of RSE on Blood
Pressure
8.2 Secondary Damage Cerebral blood flow (CBF) is maintained by the
in Patients with Refractory elevation of its own blood pressure, and blood
Status Epilepticus pressure is increased by regulating the concentra-
and Countermeasures tion of catecholamine in the body. To protect the
brain in the early stages of SE, CBF increases,
Among the treatment strategies of RSE, in addi- and a large number of catecholamines are
tion to the termination of RSE, addressing the released, resulting in a sharp increase in blood
secondary damage is also quite important. SE pressure. In the late stages of SE, with the deple-
can influence the function of the entire body, tion of catecholamines and the desensitization
especially the brain, which may be a direct of peripheral blood vessels on catecholamine,
cause of death in patients with epilepsy. A bet- this compensation can only be maintained for
ter understanding of the secondary damage 0.5–2 h. Consequently, CBF will decrease, and
may help to improve the prognosis of patients blood pressure likewise decreases. Hocker et al.
with RSE. [43] found that, in SE, blood pressure and heart
284 X. Wang

rate can reach the peak in 1 min but may take the lungs to increase, leading to the leakage of
1 h to gradually return to baseline levels. With a large amount of protein-rich liquid, which is
the progression of SE, blood pressure drops to involved in the formation of NPE [50, 51].
baseline levels. Then, cerebral hypoperfusion
may appear [44]. 8.2.1.4 T  he Effect of RSE on Renal
Function
8.2.1.3 T  he Effect of RSE on Respiratory When SE occurs, myoclonus leads to excessive
Function muscle contraction, shortage of muscle energy
In the tonic phase of CSE, sustained contraction and oxygen supply, and cell membrane defects,
of the diaphragm can cause airway obstruction which cause a large influx of calcium, while this
and respiratory disorders, leading to pulmonary influx of calcium strengthens the muscle contrac-
dysfunction and triggering a pulmonary vascular tion. In addition, SE may also activate a number
perfusion shunt. This can result in end-tidal car- of intracellular enzymes (such as phospholipase
bon dioxide pressure and alveolar carbon dioxide and protease), leading to cell lysis, muscle fiber
(CO2) pressure changes, causing asphyxia and necrosis, rhabdomyolysis, disseminated intravas-
hypoxia [45, 46]. cular coagulation, and the production of a large
Epilepsy seizures that last for a long period amount of muscle cell contents, such as myo-
of time will cause extensive inhibition of the globin, creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydro-
patient’s EEG activity and acute CNS injury. genase enzymes, and some other toxic ions and
The widespread inhibition of the brain affects the small molecules. In muscles, the hemoperfusion
respiratory center of the brainstem, resulting in and the energy supply reorganization result in
low central ventilation or apnea. Simultaneously, the release of cell contents into the extracellular
central respiratory depression can lead to sus- fluid and the blood circulation. When the myo-
tained apnea, which can aggravate the rapid prog- globin concentration is greater than 15 mg/L,
ress of respiratory failure. Respiratory failure, on the body forms tube-type deposition, which may
the one hand, can aggravate seizures, forming cause renal tubular obstruction and acute tubular
a vicious circle; on the other hand, the brain- necrosis, eventually producing acute renal fail-
stem may be inhibited for a long time, which ure. Simultaneously, a large amount of fluid flow
may eventually lead to respiratory arrest. Some into the tissue space after muscle injury induced
scholars believe that, after seizures, the synergy by seizures, resulting in the shortage of effective
of the broad inhibition of brain and the dysfunc- circulating blood volume and eventually leading
tion of the heart and lung is an important factor to acute renal failure. In the late stage of SE, cate-
in sudden death of an unknown cause in epilepsy cholamine is depleted, blood pressure decreases,
patients [47–49]. renal blood perfusion is insufficient, the glomeru-
After experiencing tonic-clonic seizures, 2% lar filtration rate decreases significantly, and the
of patients have neurogenic pulmonary edema damage of renal function occurs [52].
(NPE), with a mortality rate reaching 60–100%.
Intracranial pressure (ICP) increases suddenly 8.2.1.5 T  he Effect of RSE on Liver
in the onset of seizures, leading to arteriovenous Function
vascular spasms, which then causes pulmonary Some anticonvulsants used to treat epilepsy have
vascular contraction and an increase in systemic liver toxicity. Sustained seizures can lead to liver
peripheral vascular resistance, resulting in left hypoxia and ischemia, and anticonvulsant drugs
ventricular failure and NPE. With the increas- such as phenobarbital, phenytoin, and diazepam
ing numbers of seizures, pulmonary capillary can cause the change of free radical metabolism,
pressure gradually increases. The synergy of the leading to liver cell membrane injury. Extensive
elevated pressure and the neurohumor causes the hypoxia, ischemia, and the change of free radical
permeability of circulating endothelial cells in metabolism promote liver failure together.
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus 285

8.2.1.6 Cerebral Edema Induced by RSE conduction abnormalities, acute ­myocardial

Cerebral edema is a quite common secondary ischemia, T wave variation, and other
damage of CNS. Current studies showed that both abnormal ECG activities. Early correction
drugs (such as folic acid, kainic acid, lithium-­ of arrhythmias can reduce the risk of heart
pilocarpine, etc.), which are used to induce the SE attack. A survey found that heart rate vari-
animal model, and various types of SE (such as ability was significantly lower in patients
general, partial, convulsive, and nonconvulsive) with RSE. A decrease in heart rate variability
can cause cerebral edema. Lee et al. [53] found may increase the mortality of patients with
that the cerebral edema may due to blood-brain epilepsy and is associated with an increased
barrier (BBB) damage. However, in an animal risk of fatal arrhythmia and sudden cardiac
experiment, Seitelberger et al. [54] showed that death. Thus, Mukherjee et al. [58] propose
in kainate-kindled rats, massive swelling of brain that high-risk patients may be given a cardiac
neurons and dysfunction of astrocyte microcircu- pacemaker and defibrillator combined equip-
lation can induce cerebral edema. Relevant stud- ment in advance [59–61].
ies suggest that cerebral edema usually occurs (b) Maintenance of blood pressure: To main-
30 h to 20 days after SE [55, 56] and the degree tain blood pressure, establish a fluid infu-
of cerebral edema is different among different sion channel and monitor the blood pressure
patients. In most cases, the patient’s cerebral closely. In the early stages of SE, to ensure
edema is mild to moderate and transient; how- cerebral perfusion, there is massive catechol-
ever, a small number of patients can form malig- amine release, causing reflex hypertension,
nant cerebral edema, leading to hernia and death. transient vasoconstriction, and organ hypo-
perfusion, which aggravates visceral isch-
emia, myocardial perfusion insufficiency,
8.2.2 Countermeasures and arrhythmia. Because of its short dura-
tion, medication is generally not necessary
8.2.2.1 Maintenance of Vital Signs for low blood pressure in the early stages of
in Patients with RSE SE. However, when blood pressure is dra-
In RSE, direct and indirect central and/or periph- matically increased, such as systolic blood
eral nerve injury can cause systemic hypoxia, pressure (SBP) > 180 mmHg, diastolic blood
aspiration pneumonia, lactic acidosis, CO2 pressure > 100 mmHg, or mean arterial
anesthesia, hyperkalemia, fever, leukocytosis, pressure (MAP) > 90 mmHg, and lasts for
hypoglycemia, shock, arrhythmia, pulmonary 30–60 min, short-acting beta-blocker drugs
edema, acute tubular necrosis, and high-output or sodium nitroprusside can be used to reduce
heart failure, which has become an important blood pressure. But, the inhibitory effects of
cause of sudden death in patients with epilepsy beta-blockers in the myocardium must be
[57]. Therefore, the maintenance of vital signs in monitored. Blood pressure in patients with
patients with epilepsy is particularly important. SE increases sharply and is maintained at
higher levels for approximately 0.5–2 h.
1. General treatment: A vein channel must be With the depletion of catecholamines and
established quickly, and electrocardiography the desensitization of peripheral blood ves-
(ECG), blood pressure, oxygen saturation, sels to catecholamines, CBF decreases, and
and EEG must be monitored. blood pressure is gradually reduced, result-
2. Cardiovascular system function support: ing in heart failure. This leads to insufficient
effective blood volume, followed by more
(a) ECG monitoring: Conduct the ECG and severe hypotension. When blood pressure
myocardial enzyme spectrum examination drops below the baseline level, cerebral
as soon as possible to rule out arrhythmia, hypoperfusion may occur. At this stage, the
286 X. Wang

patient should be given fluid infusion and control excessive contraction of the skeletal
hypertension drugs to ensure that the SBP is muscle, promote kidney blood circulation,
≥100 mmHg or the MAP is >70 mmHg. strengthen the osmotic diuresis, correct aci-
dosis, and supplement the effective circulating
3. Respiratory function support: blood volume [40]. The key to the treatment
  First, maintain airway patency and prevent of late-stage acute renal failure is to block the
aspiration. Emergency respiratory support process of acute renal failure, including inad-
treatment can prevent further cerebral isch- equate capacity, kidney tubule tubular forma-
emia and hypoxia. tion, acidic urine, and oxygen-free radicals. In
  Second, epilepsy patients may receive accordance with the diagnosis and treatment of
tracheal intubation based on the following acute renal failure, we should provide positive
criteria: (a) cannot maintain or protect the continuous blood filtration, correct electro-
airway, such as airway obstruction, etc., (b) lyte disorders, alkalize urine, give nutritional
ventilation or oxygenation dysfunction, and therapy, and care for follow-up on dynamic
(c) expected clinical deterioration, such as changes. The timely detection and treatment of
seizure activity for more than 10 min, etc. these complications can improve the success-
[62, 63]. Establishment of an artificial airway ful rate of rescue and prognosis of SE [66].
and pulmonary management at the right time
can significantly reduce the incidence of these 5. Monitoring and support of liver function:
respiratory complications and the mortality of   Liver function must be closely monitored,
the patients. The establishment of an artificial and drugs with liver toxicity should be used
airway includes standard endotracheal intuba- cautiously. In particular, be aware of the liver
tion, rapid endotracheal intubation, and alter- toxicity of anticonvulsant drugs for the treat-
native airway devices and techniques [62–64]. ment of SE. Patients with liver injury should
  The last not the least, ensure that the body eliminate causes of liver damage, reduce
is being oxygenated and CO2 is discharged, blood ammonia, correct plasma amino acid
and NPE is actively corrected: reducing imbalances, promote normal neurotransmit-
ICP based on treating the primary disease ter functions, eliminate toxic substances in the
is central to reducing NPE. Simultaneously, body, promote the recovery of liver function
ventilator-­assisted breathing, the use of posi- and liver regeneration, and provide nutritional
tive end-­expiratory pressure, the application support treatment. If liver failure occurs, it can
of glucocorticoids, the optimization of body be treated with plasma exchange or an artifi-
oxygenation, reducing the before- and the cial liver.
afterload, and increasing the myocardial con-
tractile force in heart failure patients are nec- 8.2.2.2 Treatment of Cerebral Edema
essary measures [65]. 1. Commonly used dehydrating agent
Dehydration is the most important method
4. Monitoring and support of renal function: used to treat intracranial hypertension; it can
  Close monitoring is necessary to observe protect many patients from the occurrence of
the change in renal function, urine routine, herniation and reduce patient mortality.
blood gas, blood and urine myoglobin, CK,
creatinine, and urea nitrogen, and the ratio of (a) Mannitol: Mannitol is the most widely used
these factors will be the routine examination. clinical first-line drug to reduce ICP. The
Dynamic changes must be noted and particu- dosage of mannitol for the treatment of cere-
larly be cautious about rhabdomyolysis and bral edema is decided by weight: 0.25–1 g/
central diabetes insipidus. In the early stages kg, formulated as a 20% concentration. It
of SE, we must pay attention to the protec- is provided via intravenous injection and
tion of renal function; we must also reduce or ­usually takes effect immediately after med-
8 Treatment Strategies for Refractory Status Epilepticus 287

ication; mannitol takes 1–2 h to reach a to mannitol in hyperosmolar therapy [70–76].

peak, which is maintained for 4–6 h. When Because of the different osmotic reflection
the patient is weakened, the dose should coefficients across the BBB, an intact BBB
be reduced to 0.5 g/kg, repeated once per is less permeable to saline than to manni-
4–6 h if necessary. Mannitol has two primary tol; therefore, HS may be more effective in
effects: diuresis and dehydration. To dehy- decreasing cerebral edema than mannitol. In
drate, its infusion rate cannot be less than addition, HS provides patients with the ben-
250 mL/30 min. Kumar et al. [67] believe that efit of increased intravascular volume while
there is no difference between small doses reducing ICP without exacerbating hypo-
(0.25–0.5 g/kg) of mannitol and high-­dose tension. HS has been increasingly used as a
(0.5–1.5 g/kg) mannitol treatment; however, safe and effective osmotherapeutic agent for
small doses can reduce side effects, so small the treatment of cerebral edema. However,
dose treatment is preferred. Notably, plasma clinical experience with its use is limited
osmolality must be monitored because when compared to that with mannitol. The timing
the plasma osmolality is high, side effects of of the onset of therapy, the optimal dosage,
mannitol can appear. the concentration of HS, the safest and most
(b) Hypertonic saline (HS): HS is an important effective mode of administration, and the
osmotic agent. The literature reports that HS duration remain unknown. Further studies
concentrations of 29.2% and 3% are used to of carefully controlled experimental animal
treat cerebral edema caused by SE. Worthley models and large-­scale randomized clinical
et al. [68] analyzed five patients with severe trials are needed to obtain high-quality data to
hyponatremia and SE who received 50 mL elucidate the above problems.
of 29.2% HS (250 mmol) via a central
venous catheter, and the time of injection 2. Other treatments
was more than 10 min, followed by the con- In addition to the traditional dehydrating
tinuous intravenous infusion of 80–150 mL agents, corticosteroids, barbiturates, hyper-
of 29.2% HS (400–750 mmol) via a central ventilation, low temperatures, decompressive
venous catheter over a period of 8–12 h, with craniectomy, and other methods can reduce
serum sodium increasing at 2–3 mmol/l/h ICP. Wang et al. [77] used kainic acid to
until the serum sodium level reached 130– establish an epilepsy and SE mouse model
135 mmol/l. Serum sodium, potassium, blood and found that immediately using low tem-
urea, and blood sugar levels must be checked peratures to treat a patient in an epileptic state
30 min before and after the treatment and can protect brain tissue, reduce the recurrence
2–4 h after the treatment to assess osmotic of epilepsy, and improve cognition. The low-­
pressure. Sharf et al. [69] studied 56 infants temperature antiepileptic effect can primarily
with first-episode SE who were younger reduce cerebral edema caused by SE.
than 1 year of age. Fifteen of the infants had
low-sodium seizures and were treated with
1.5 mL/kg (0.6–6.1 mL/kg) of 3% salt; their
serum sodium increased at an average rate of References
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 Complications and Other
Conditions in Refractory Status 9
Epilepticus That Require Attention

Shengnian Zhou and Xinshi Wang

Abstract
Refractory status epilepticus (RSE) is one of the most common diseases
seen in neurological intensive care and is associated with a high mortality
rate. Complications in epilepsy, including fever, acidosis, blood pressure
disorders, and brain edema, are often directly implicated in the death of
affected patients. They are therefore key factors that contribute to the fail-
ure of antiepileptic treatments. In this chapter, we focus on rare complica-
tions in RSE. These include hyponatremia and rhabdomyolysis as well as
other conditions that require attention, such as malnutrition, in patients
with status epilepticus (SE), status epilepticus caused by alcohol with-
drawal syndrome (AWS), and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy
(SUDEP). We explore the underlying pathogenesis and treatments for
these conditions and describe the measures used to control their relevant
complications with the aim of reducing mortality and greatly improving
the survival rate and quality of life of affected patients.

9.1  yponatremia in Patients

H
with Status Epilepticus

9.1.1 Introduction

Hyponatremia in patients with SE attracts less

S. Zhou (*) attention in the clinic. A severe and acute drop in
Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong sodium levels has been reported as a metabolic
University and Brain Science Research Institute,
Shandong University, 107 Wenhuaxi Road, Jinan, cause of status epilepticus. With numerous physi-
Shandong 250012, China ologic changes occurring in the background of
e-mail: [email protected] SE, hyponatremia induced by cerebral salt-­
X. Wang, Ph.D. wasting syndrome (CSWS) within the first 24 h
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated of SE onset is also common in SE patients.
Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Carbamazepine (CBZ) or oxcarbazepine (OXC)
Nanbaixiang Street, Ouhai District, Wenzhou City,
Zhejiang Province 325015, China for the treatment of epilepsy also increases the

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 291

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_9
292 S. Zhou and X. Wang

possibility of hyponatremia in SE patients. Farrar et al. [5] reported that the incidences of
Oxcarbazepine is the most common antiepileptic hyponatremic SE in infants and young children
drugs (AEDs) used to induce the syndrome of were 56% and 27%, respectively, which repre-
inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) and sented the first clinical trial data supporting
hyponatremia. The differentiation between hyponatremic SE. Since then, there have been
CSWS- and SIADH-induced hyponatremia is reported cases of mental illness in elderly
important because each condition is treated patients with secondary hyponatremic SE due to
differently. polydipsia, and these cases were primarily cate-
gorized as complex partial SE [6–8]. Although
hyponatremia is one of the most common meta-
9.1.2 Definition bolic disorders after SE, it was not until 2005
that clinical trial data were available, revealing
Sodium is one of the most important cations in that the risk of hyponatremia was 34.5% within
the human body. The normal concentration of 24 h after RSE [9].
serum sodium is 135–145 mmol/L. Hyponatremia
is defined as sodium levels less than 135 mmol/L
[1]. Acute hyponatremia (<48 h) is more serious 9.1.4 Etiology Classification
and recognizable than chronic hyponatremia of Hyponatremia
(>48 h) [2]. The main clinical symptoms of
hyponatremia are nervous and muscle system In patients with central nervous system disorders,
disturbances. Falling sodium levels lead to a the three main etiologies of hyponatremia are
decrease in extracellular osmolality and cell osmotic diuresis, SIADH, and CSWS. The dif-
swelling. If the latter occurs in a cavity with a ferentiation between CSWS and SIADH is
fixed volume, such as the brain, the resultant important because each condition is treated
increase in intracranial pressure causes a series differently.
of central nervous system symptoms, such as SIADH is due to inappropriately elevated
headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, restless- antidiuretic hormone levels caused by an
ness, disorientation, and seizures. Severe acute expanded effective arterial blood volume. CSWS
hyponatremia may lead to cerebral herniation, is caused by the renal loss of sodium, resulting in
followed by convulsions, coma, permanent brain a decrease in the effective arterial blood volume
damage, apnea, or even death. Falling sodium and thus providing a baroreceptor stimulus for
levels cause reductions in extracellular sodium vasopressin release. Distinguishing CSWS from
concentrations and subsequent decreases in SIADH relies primarily on the presence of hypo-
action potential amplitude. If these changes volemia and a negative salt balance.
occur in skeletal muscle cells, patients may suf- SIADH is characterized by a low serum
fer from fatigue. If these changes occur in gas- sodium level, a high urinary sodium level, inap-
trointestinal smooth muscle cells, patients may propriately concentrated urine compared to
develop nausea and vomiting [3]. serum osmolality, and the absence of peripheral
edema or dehydration with no adrenal, thyroid, or
renal dysfunction.
9.1.3 Historical Evolution CSWS clinically manifests as polyuria, exces-
and Epidemiology sive urinary sodium loss resulting in extracellular
fluid loss, dehydration, and hyponatremia. CSWS
In 1986, Tilelli et al. [4] identified cases of girls is defined by the following criteria: hyponatremia
suffering from hypoglycemia with SE. These (serum sodium <130 mmol/L), increased urinary
patients who reported drinking large quantities of sodium (>120 mmol/L), increased urine osmolar-
water were diagnosed with water poisoning ity (>300 mOsm/kgH2O), increased urine volume
hyponatremia and secondary SE. In the 1995, (>3 mL/kg/h), and negative fluid balance during
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 293

the last 24 h. The most important element of punishment. A 5-year-old girl was forced to drink
treatment is to replace the volume and sodium a significant amount of water as a punishment
loss. measure by her mother. She has severe failure to
thrive; her weight, height, and bone age were
similar to that of 2.5-year-old girl. She was
9.1.5 Hyponatremia-Induced SE unconscious and only responsive to deep pain;
she had hypertonic extensor posturing. Her serum
Hyponatremia is a well-known etiology and/or sodium level had dropped to 107 mmol/L, indi-
aggravating factor for generalized tonic-clonic cating severe hyponatremic SE and acute water
seizures. Notably, the severity of hyponatremic intoxication. After 3% saline was administrated,
SE depends primarily on both the severity and the her sodium levels returned to normal. She
acuity of the decline in sodium levels rather than regained consciousness and the seizure activity
the degree of the drop. Zelano et al. [10] artifi- stopped [4].
cially established acute hyponatremia in C57/
BL6 mice via intraperitoneal injection of 9.1.5.2 Hyponatremic SE in Polydipsia
1-­deamino-8-d-arginine vasopressin and water Generalized nonconvulsive SE has also been
loading, resulting in a serum sodium level of attributed to hyponatremia in elderly patients,
125–130 mmol/L. EEG (electroencephalogram) particularly in those with a polydipsia back-
showed an enhanced frequency of epileptiform ground. Polydipsia and polyuria are prevalent in
spikes in the hyponatremic mice, and electro- psychiatric patients. Some polydipsic patients
graphic seizures were found in 5/9 hyponatremic develop water intoxication and brain swelling.
mice. Kainic acid injection in hyponatremic mice Primavera et al. [6] reported that a 53-year-old
significantly increased the duration of electro- woman had three episodes of absence SE as a
graphic seizure activity, which was also observed result of polydipsia-hyponatremia. She suffered
after diazepam treatment. confusion with slowing of mentation and autom-
atism after episodes of compulsive water drink-
9.1.5.1 Hyponatremic SE in Infants ing and abuse of diuretics. Her serum sodium
In infants with SE, hyponatremia is an important levels dropped to 90–98 mmol/L. During her hos-
etiological factor. In early 1995, Farrar et al. [5] pitalization, repeated EEGs showed continuous
reviewed 59 infants (<2 years old) and reported or paroxysmal generalized 3 Hz sharp waves
that the incidence of hyponatremic seizures in intermixed with irregular spikes, indicating
infants without other causes of seizures was 56%. recurrent absence SE. Electrolyte infusion and
Hyponatremic seizures are usually shown as gen- water restriction increased her serum sodium lev-
eralized seizures. Seizure duration was approxi- els to 136–138 mmol/L, and her EEG and symp-
mately 30 min in patients with hyponatremic toms improved. Another 57-year-old man who
seizures and 17 min in normonatremic patients. had the habit of drinking large amounts of water
The incidence of SE was 73% in hyponatremic suffered two absence status episodes and recov-
patients and 36% in normonatremic patients. ered after sodium infusion treatment. His EEG
Sharf et al. [11] also found that in 56 infants showed continuous spiking and slow wave com-
(<1 year old) with first-time seizures, 15 (27%) plexes bilaterally over the frontal area in both
had hyponatremic seizures. Risk factors for episodes, and some spikes appeared in the left
hyponatremic seizure include age less than frontal area after recovery from absence status.
6 months, recent febrile illness, status epilepti- Polydipsia-hyponatremia is believed to be
cus, hypothermia, hyperglycemia, the absence of involved in epileptogenicity in the left frontal
evidence of trauma, and formula with solute- lobe, when followed by generalized focal activity
poor fluid. and absence status [8].
Hyponatremic SE is also induced by the inten- Barolomei et al. [7] described a patient with
tional ingestion of water by a child as a form of complex partial SE who recovered fully when
294 S. Zhou and X. Wang

unexplained hyponatremia was corrected. A 25 mmol/L) after 13 days of administration.

68-year-old man experienced two syncopal Another 10-year-old boy with refractory epilepsy
attacks before admission. He was admitted for and severe mental retardation developed resistant
recent-onset fatigue with muscle cramps and hyponatremia (sodium, 120 mmol/L). He had a
weakness. Two days later, he suffered confused high urine output of 6 mL/kg/h, high urine
and unresponsive to simple instructions. sodium levels of 150 mmol/L, and a high urine
Laboratory tests demonstrated hyponatremia at a specific gravity of 1025. When other possible
concentration of 117 mmol/L. His EEG showed causes of hyponatremia were excluded,
continuous and irregular spikes and slow waves SE-induced CSWS was considered. A 3% hyper-
in the left hemisphere. Complex partial SE pro- tonic saline solution was administered intrave-
voked by hyponatremia was considered after nously, and appropriate volume replacement was
excluding other seizure causes. Saline was initiated. CSWS was resolved on the eighth day
administered to correct the hyponatremic SE. His of follow-up with normal serum sodium, urine
EEG gradually returned to normal, accompanied output, and sodium levels.
by increasing sodium levels. On the fourth day, Holtkamp et al. [9] found that hyponatremia
his serum sodium levels rose to 138 mmol/L. The within the first 24 h of SE onset occurred signifi-
patient fully regained consciousness, and his cantly more often in refractory SE patients
EEG was completely normal. (10/29, 34.5%) than in non-refractory SE patients
(6/44, 13.6%). These patients did not receive
CBZ, OXC, or other drugs possibly inducing
9.1.6 SE-Induced Hyponatremia hyponatremia. The authors indicated that hypo-
natremia occurring early in SE progression may
Considering the numerous physiologic changes promote the development of refractoriness.
in blood pressure, electrolytes, glucose, hypoph-
ysis function, etc., the appearance of hyponatre-
mia is not surprising during status epilepticus. 9.1.7 AED-Induced Hyponatremia
The potential mechanism may involve seizures Induces Increasing Seizures
evoking ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) and BNP
(brain natriuretic peptide) secretions, which 9.1.7.1 Carbamazepine
increase urinary sodium excretion and aldoste- CBZ is one of the most common AEDs that
rone, resulting in CSWS [12]. causes hyponatremia in patients with epilepsy at
Tolunay et al. [13] reported two children with a rate of 1.8–40% depending primarily on the
SE who developed CSWS. One patient was a studied epileptic patient population. An increase
12-year-old boy with epilepsy and cognitive and in seizure frequency, which is one clinical mani-
motor retardation; he was admitted and received festation of CBZ-induced symptomatic hypona-
intravenous midazolam because of SE. He had tremia, may develop into SE in epileptic patients
serum sodium levels of 122 mmol/L, urine [15, 16].
sodium levels of 100 mmol/L, a urine output of Kuz et al. [15] reported a 44-year-old woman
7 mL/kg/h, a blood osmolarity of 270 mOsmol/ who developed acute hyponatremia and experi-
kg, and a urine specific gravity of 1030; based on enced subsequent generalized tonic-clonic sei-
these values, he was diagnosed with CSWS zures after mistakenly taking 600 mg of CBZ,
caused by SE after excluding other possible which is twice of her usual evening dosage. On
causes of hyponatremia. Intravenous fluid and admission, her CBZ concentration was 8.6 mg/
3% hypertonic saline solution were administered, mL, and her serum sodium level was
but he showed little improvement; thus, fludro- 122 mmol/L. An infusion of 0.9% saline was
cortisone (0.1 mg/12 h) was added. His labora- administrated, and her serum sodium levels
tory tests showed recovery (sodium, 138 mmol/L; increased to 136 mmol/L within 24 h. Holtschmidt
urine output, 2 mL/kg/h; urine sodium, et al. also reported a 54-year-old woman t­aking
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 295

CBZ (600 mg, then 200 mg) for 6 weeks who autopsy showed a serum sodium level of
suddenly suffered from a generalized seizure. 124 mmol/L, a urine osmolality of 911 mOsmol/
Laboratory tests showed that she had a serum kg, a urine sodium level of 63 mmol/L, and an
sodium level of 125 mmol/L. EEG revealed a left OXC concentration of 112 μmol/L.
temporal focus with slow waves. The patient
quickly recovered to a sodium level of
137 mmol/L after 63 days of treatment. 9.1.8 Treatment
Unfortunately, her EEG was no longer normal
after hyponatremia recovery. 9.1.8.1 Treatment of Hyponatremic SE
Hyponatremic seizures are more difficult to treat.
9.1.7.2 Oxcarbazepine A 3% bolus of saline is effective and safe for
Clinical trials have shown that OXC causes hypo- treating hyponatremic seizures among infants;
natremia at a rate of 23–73.3% [16]. Importantly, early use decreases morbidity from antiseizure
OXC treatment for refractory SE increases the therapy. Three of seven hyponatremic infants
risk of hyponatremia. Kellinghaus et al. [17] given a 3% bolus of saline required intubation
identified 13 patients (median age 79 years) who [11]. Worthley et al. [20] gave five patients with
were treated with OXC for refractory SE. Relevant severe hyponatremic epileptiform seizures 50 mL
hyponatremia was observed in three of the of 29.2% saline (250 mmol) by central venous
patients, in whom the minimum sodium serum catheter. Ten minutes later, their seizures were
levels were 112, 121, and 125 mmol/L. completely controlled, and the mean serum
As early as 1987, Johannessen et al. [18] sodium level increased by 7.4 mmol/L. Further
reported that a 4-year-old OXC-treated (46 mg/ saline was then administered over 10 h, increas-
kg) patient with epilepsy experienced increases ing the serum sodium level by 2–14 mmol/L/h
in seizure frequency due to hyponatremia until it reached 133 mmol/L.
(sodium values not described). In 2014, Kim
et al. [14] observed that 6.8% (n = 69) of patients 9.1.8.2 T  reatment of CBZ-/OXC-
in a larger sample of 1009 OXC-treated patients Induced Hyponatremia
with epilepsy developed symptomatic hyponatre- Checking baseline serum sodium levels and regu-
mia, including increasing seizures (n = 26). larly performing sodium tests during the first
3 months after initiating CBZ/OXC treatment is
9.1.7.3 Possible Mechanisms recommended. Treatment is focused on the
Underlying CBZ-/OXC-Induced removal of risk factors, fluid restriction, dosage
Hyponatremia reduction, or drug discontinuation [21]. Risk fac-
The mechanisms underlying CBZ-/OXC-induced tors that increase the rate of CBZ-/OXC-induced
hyponatremia have not been fully elucidated. hyponatremia include old age, high dosages, low-­
SIADH is believed to be an important factor in baseline serum sodium concentrations, the con-
the development of CBZ-/OXC-induced hypona- comitant use of medications associated with
tremia [19]. Kloster et al. [19] reported two hyponatremia, and female gender [21].
CBZ-/OXC-treated epileptic patients who expe-
rienced sudden death. A 45-year-old man with
epilepsy was treated with 1800 mg/d of OXC 9.1.9 Conclusion
5 days before his death. An autopsy revealed that
his sodium level was 117 mmol/L, his blood SE and hyponatremia comorbidity is not uncom-
osmolality was 240 mOsmol/kg, his urine sodium mon in clinical settings, indicating that the causal
was normal, and his urine osmolality had relationship is the prerequisite regarding the
increased (406 mOsmol/kg). Another 30-year-­ development of treatment programs. First, a sys-
old epileptic man was treated with OXC tematic laboratory check is necessary, including
(1500 mg/d) for 2 years before his death. An serum sodium, urinary sodium, plasma
296 S. Zhou and X. Wang

o­ smolality, urinary excretion, and urine specific emphasizing the role of myoglobin in causing
gravity analyses. Second, these parameters acute renal failure after seizures. Since then, sta-
should be combined with the patient’s age, his- tus epilepticus and anti-status epilepticus drug-­
tory of water consumption, and intake of drugs induced rhabdomyolyses have received extensive
known to cause hyponatremia, especially OXC, attention.
CBZ, and so on.
Clinicians should recommend the appropriate
treatment based on individual causes. In some 9.2.3 Epidemiology
cases, symptoms can disappear in the short term
after appropriate treatment is administered, but Clinical data and statistics are relatively rare
serious cases can lead to death or irreversible because the diagnostic criteria for rhabdomyoly-
neurological disease. sis syndrome are not universally unified. Some
patients with mild rhabdomyolysis may not be
diagnosed. Therefore, prospective studies related
9.2  habdomyolysis Induced by
R to the incidence of rhabdomyolysis syndrome are
Refractory Status Epilepticus rare and unreliable [27]. Approximately 26,000
individuals are suspected to have rhabdomyolysis
9.2.1 Introduction every year in the United States [28, 29].
Chamberlain et al. [30] found that four out of
RSE is one of the most serious neurological ill- 1500 pediatric patients who came for consulta-
nesses; currently, it is primarily treated using tions were diagnosed with rhabdomyolysis syn-
drugs. Anti-status epilepticus drugs and seizures drome. A retrospective study on pediatrics
can both cause rhabdomyolysis. This paper sum- reported a rhabdomyolysis syndrome recurrence
marizes the related factors of rhabdomyolysis rate of 5% over 6 years [31]. A study of 475
that are caused by commonly used antiepileptic patients who were diagnosed with rhabdomyoly-
drugs and status epilepticus itself to understand sis suggested that 11% of patients with rhabdo-
and learn the laws of its occurrence and the myolysis will relapse [32]. Mackay et al. [33]
effects of the prevention and treatment of status reported a similar recurrence rate. Currently,
epilepticus. although many cases of rhabdomyolysis caused
by status epilepticus and antiepileptic status
drugs have been reported, the incidence of rhab-
9.2.2  efinition and Historical
D domyolysis associated with status epilepticus
Evolution remains unknown because of the small number of
patients and the lack of systematic analyses and
Necrosis of various causes in the skeletal muscle prospective investigations.
leads directly to the release of muscle cell con-
tents into the blood, including myoglobin, cre-
atine kinase (CK), and lactate dehydrogenase; 9.2.4 Etiology Classification
this phenomenon is known as rhabdomyolysis of Rhabdomyolysis
[22]. In 1965, Diamond et al. [23] first reported
on the relationship between status epilepticus and 9.2.4.1 R habdomyolysis Caused by
rhabdomyolysis. In 1979, MacDonald et al. [24] Status Epilepticus
reported the relationship between rhabdomyoly- Seizures that lead to rhabdomyolysis are com-
sis and renal dysfunction. In 1987, Rasmussen mon in status epilepticus [34, 35]. Status epilep-
et al. [25] reported a case of rhabdomyolysis after ticus can cause excessive muscle fiber stretch,
grand mal epilepsy. In 1988, Murray et al. [26] leading to striated muscle damage.
systematically summarized the characteristics of Simultaneously, the body produces a large
rhabdomyolysis caused by status epilepticus, amount of heat, degrading enzyme activity
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 297

increases, and skeletal muscle integrity is Rhabdomyolysis syndromes caused by anti-­

destroyed, which affects Na+-K+ ATPase and status epilepticus drugs have recently become an
Na+-Ca2+ exchange. This causes extracellular issue [39].
sodium, calcium influx, cell content leakage
(enzymes, potassium ions, phosphate ions, lac- Phenytoin
tate, myoglobin, etc.), and increased intracellular Phenytoin has been used for antiepileptic treat-
free calcium; moreover, calcium-dependent pro- ment since 1938. The main side effects include
tease and phospholipase are activated, leading to hypersensitivity, gingival hyperplasia, nystag-
muscle cell damage and consequent mus, and hematopoietic dysfunction [40]. The
rhabdomyolysis. first case of rhabdomyolysis caused by phenytoin
In 2015, Yamazaki et al. [36] reported a patient was reported in 1986 [41]. This case involved a
with status epilepticus-induced rhabdomyolysis. 22-year-old male patient who was taking 300 mg
Within 3 h of recurrent seizures, the 24-year-old of phenytoin every day. Three months after phe-
male epilepsy patient experienced a loss of con- nytoin administration, myalgia, fever, and rash
sciousness, glazed eyes, twitching limbs, tongue appeared. His creatine kinase level was
biting, and no incontinence. Each episode lasted 85,000 IU/L at admission and then increased to
5–10 min for a total of five episodes with intermit- 242,000 IU/L, and his urine color appeared
tent disturbance of consciousness. The patient was brown. He was diagnosed with phenytoin-­
diagnosed with status epilepticus and immediately induced rhabdomyolysis. Phenytoin was discon-
received 2 mg of midazolam via intravenous injec- tinued after complications occurred. The patient
tion; the patient no longer had convulsions, and received 30 mg of methylprednisolone bolus and
consciousness was gradually restored. After dis- intravenous pulse therapy with 30 mg of methyl-
charge, the patient had aggravated lower back pain prednisolone for 3 days, which was then changed
and oliguria, was diagnosed with “acute kidney to 100 mg of oral prednisone every day; hormone
injury,” and was hospitalized. His CK increased to therapy was gradually stopped beginning on the
4807 IU/L after admission, and his urine volume seventh day after admission. The patient’s condi-
increased gradually after hemodialysis and fluid tion improved gradually. Santos-Calle et al. [42]
therapy. In 2008, Kreft et al. [37] reported on two reported a 46-year-old patient with the sudden
children with fatal rhabdomyolysis syndrome fol- onset of generalized tonic-clonic seizures at
lowing refractory status epilepticus. The two chil- home. An intravenous infusion of 250 mg of phe-
dren were admitted to the hospital after seizures; nytoin was administered after emergency endo-
they received tracheal intubation and midazolam tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation,
administration, according to the guidelines for and the serum drug concentration was within the
antiepileptic drug management by the Danish valid range. The CK value reached 54,000 IU/L
Paediatric Society. One day after the termination 5 days later (presumably because of the phenyt-
of their seizures, both children had a sharp increase oin). After the withdrawal of phenytoin, the CK
in CK values, manifested as limb pain and weak- value decreased to 14,229 IU/L and gradually
ness, which later developed into rhabdomyolysis, returned to normal, followed by the disappear-
followed by the emergence of acute renal failure. ance of symptoms. The laboratory examination
Despite active hemodialysis, the patients finally and clinical symptoms supported the diagnosis of
developed disseminated intravascular coagulation phenytoin-induced rhabdomyolysis syndrome. In
(DIC) and died. Guven, Navarrete, Navarro, and 2016, Hyunjin Kim et al. [43] reported a case of
Sato have also reported similar cases. status epilepticus with phenytoin treatment that
caused rhabdomyolysis. A 37-year-old man
9.2.4.2 Related Antiepileptic Drugs ­visited the emergency center after three events of
The main drugs that can induce rhabdomyolysis generalized tonic-clonic seizures without recov-
syndromes include statins, other lipid-lowering ery of consciousness between the seizures. Upon
drugs, and psychotropic substances [38]. admittance to the emergency center, his blood
298 S. Zhou and X. Wang

pressure was 125/55 mmHg, his heart rate was administered propofol at 7.5–10 mg/kg/h for
112/min, and his body temperature was 66–115 h. Zaccheo et al. [46] found that propofol
37.2 °C. The patient was intubated, and loraze- infusion-related syndrome will occur when high
pam 4 mg was injected twice. Next, 20 mg/kg doses of propofol (more than 4 mg/kg/h) are
phenytoin was given, while 24-h EEE was simul- administered for long periods (greater than 48 h)
taneously monitored. The patient regained con- of time. Diaz et al. [47] revealed the incidence,
sciousness, and no additional clinical seizures risk factors, and biomarkers of propofol infusion-­
were observed after phenytoin treatment. In ini- related syndrome in a 1-year retrospective inves-
tial laboratory tests, his creatine kinase was ele- tigation. The incidence of PRIS was 4.1%, and
vated to 727 IU/L, but his estimated glomerular the mortality rate was 33%. Propofol infusion
filtration rate (eGFR), blood urea nitrogen syndrome appears over time, and triglyceride lev-
(BUN), and creatinine (CRE) levels were within els are correlated positively with these measures.
normal ranges (eGFR, 70 mL/min/1.73 m2; BUN, In 1998, Hanna et al. [48] found that the adminis-
13 mg/dL; creatinine, 1.31 mg/dL). Because the tration of propofol for refractory status epilepti-
levels of CK and creatinine increased to cus could induce progressive hypoxia, metabolic
1823 IU/L and 2.93 mg/dL, respectively, on the acidosis, and rhabdomyolysis in adolescents and
second day of hospitalization, massive hydration children. One of the patients was a 17-year-old
with bicarbonate therapy was initiated to treat male who was first administered 80 mg of propo-
acute kidney injury. Serum CK decreased to fol at a rate of 167 μg/kg/min in the first hour,
824 IU/L transiently after starting hydration, but which was then increased to 147 mg/kg/min and
it increased again on the sixth day of hospitaliza- again increased to 292 mg/kg/min. The patient
tion, and his serum CK levels peaked at 3825 IU/L presented with severe low oxygen, dark brown
on the seventh day of hospitalization. Because urine, and CK levels of 83,000 IU/L after 44 h.
phenytoin might be the cause of rhabdomyolysis, Propofol was disabled when a total dose of
phenytoin was substituted with levetiracetam on 19,275 mg (482 mg/kg) had been administered.
the seventh day of hospitalization. Subsequently, The patient died 84 h later, and an autopsy
serum CK levels promptly decreased and normal- showed rhabdomyolysis syndrome. In another
ized by day 13. In the present case, the second case, a 7-year-old male was first administered
increase in CK levels on the seventh day after the propofol at 33.3 mg/kg/min, which was then
last seizure could not be explained by the seizure increased to 449 mg/kg/min. The patient pre-
itself. CK levels were normalized after phenytoin sented with brown urine, and his CK levels were
discontinuation; thus, we diagnosed the cause of 49,992 IU/L after 38 h of propofol administra-
the second rise in CK levels as rhabdomyolysis tion. Then, 63 h later, propofol was discontinued
by phenytoin. and after a total dose of 35,330 mg (1275 mg/kg)
had been administered. The autopsy revealed the
Propofol presence of rhabdomyolysis syndrome. Some
Propofol was approved by the Food and Drug experts believe that the propofol dosage should
Administration (FDA) in 1989, and it is currently be limited to 67 μg/kg/min in children with a
used to treat a growing number of patients with severe illness [49]. Zarovnaya et al. [50] reported
status epilepticus [44]. During use, propofol an adult patient with epilepsy who presented with
infusion-­related syndrome (PRIS) may appear. PRIS after propofol treatment. In 2015, Zhou
The symptoms include hyperkalemia, heart fail- et al. [39] described the most recent case of
ure, metabolic acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, and propofol-­induced rhabdomyolysis syndrome. In
related signs and symptoms that cannot be this case, a 54-year-old female patient was
explained by other causes but occur in response ­scheduled for a hysterectomy, but shortly after
to long-term use or high doses of propofol. In the induction of anesthesia with propofol, the
1992, Parke et al. [45] reported on a pediatric patient began exhibiting rhabdomyolysis. The
patient who presented with PRIS after being patient experienced extensive skeletal and car-
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 299

diac dissolution; although active treatment was In 1997, Pinkston et al. [56] reported that one
provided, she eventually died. When propofol patient appeared drowsy and complained of a
infusion-­
related syndrome occurs, propofol headache after a 500 mg dose of valproic acid.
should be immediately discontinued, and cardio- Within 24 h, the patient had no urine output, and
pulmonary support, the application of hemodial- the laboratory CK value was 1242 IU/L. The
ysis, and plasmapheresis should be initiated authors believed that the rhabdomyolysis was
immediately [51]. related to valproate toxicity. Kottlors et al. [57]
reported a case of one patient with Carnitine pal-
Levetiracetam mitoyltransferase type II (CPTII) defect who pre-
Levetiracetam (an acetyl pyrrolidine compound) sented with rhabdomyolysis after treatment with
is a novel, comparatively recent, clinical antiepi- valproic acid. Deficiencies in patients with CPTII
leptic drug. In December 1999, the FDA of the can include intermittent myoglobinuria and even
United States formally approved levetiracetam as rhabdomyolysis. The patient’s use of valproate
an adjunctive therapy in adults (over 16 years of resulted in the appearance of rhabdomyolysis and
age) with partial seizures. This indication was acute renal failure. We believe that patients with
expanded to children over 4 years old in June CPTII deficiencies (which are typically the result
2005 [52]. Akiyama et al. [53] reported a 29-year-­ of a serine to leucine mutation at position 113)
old female patient with a previous history of epi- should use valproate with caution. Wieser et al.
lepsy. The patient was stably treated with oral [58] also support this view and suggest that when
valproic acid (1000 mg/d) and Clobazam using valproic acid therapy in high-risk rhabdo-
(20 mg/d). After an epilepsy relapse, the patient myolysis patients, carnitine treatment should be
was treated with levetiracetam (1000 mg/d) and included. In addition to adults, newborns can
valproic acid (800 mg/d) on the third day post-­ present with rhabdomyolysis caused by valproic
admission. On the fourth day post-admission, the acid. Valproic acid is also used to treat bipolar
patient presented with back muscle pain and disorder or prevent migraines and may result in
lower extremity weakness, and the symptoms rhabdomyolysis. Thus, CK levels should be
gradually worsened. A laboratory examination closely monitored to facilitate early rhabdomy-
revealed that the CK values were greater than olysis treatment.
2410 IU/L. Levetiracetam was discontinued
immediately, and the use of sodium valproate
(800 mg/d) was continued. Muscle pain and 9.2.5 Clinical Manifestations
weakness immediately improved after levetirace-
tam discontinuation, and serum CK quickly Rhabdomyolysis has many types of clinical man-
returned to normal levels. Based on these clinical ifestations, from a single asymptomatic elevation
and laboratory data, the rhabdomyolysis in this in serum CK to severe electrolyte imbalance, car-
patient was attributed to levetiracetam. diac arrhythmia, acute renal failure, DIC, and
other symptoms [59]. Symptoms are related to
Valproate the extent and area of muscle damage.
Valproate was first applied clinically in 1963.
Because of its high blood-brain barrier permea- 9.2.5.1 Main Symptoms
bility and low toxicity, this drug is often pre- 1. Acute or subacute myalgia
scribed to children. The side effects mostly 2. Urinary pigmentation
include a gut reaction, pancreatitis, liver damage, 3. Muscle weakness
headache, nystagmus, ataxia, and dizziness [54].
Roodhooft et al. [55] first reported a case of However, the probability of presenting with a
valproic acid overdose in a child in 1990. The simultaneous triad in one person is less than 10%
child presented with progressive unconscious- [60]. In addition, many nonspecific symptoms
ness, no urine, rhabdomyolysis, and renal failure. are associated with rhabdomyolysis, including
300 S. Zhou and X. Wang

muscle pain, swelling, nausea, vomiting, weak- Electrolyte Imbalance

ness, fever, and delirium. Other complications include hypercalcemia
(late), hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyper-
9.2.5.2 Complications kalemia, etc. Hyperkalemia (serum potassium
levels >5.0 mmol/L) can lead to fatal arrhyth-
Acute Renal Failure mias. Nearly all (98%) of potassium in the body
Acute renal failure is the most serious complica- is stored in cells, and skeletal muscle cells
tion of rhabdomyolysis and has an incidence rate accounted for 60–70% of human cells. Therefore,
of 14–46%. Tubular necrosis can occur as a even if there is 100 g of skeletal muscle necrosis
result of the accumulation of myosin. Pediatric in the short term, serum potassium levels can also
patients with rhabdomyolysis have a higher rate increase by 1 mmol/L. Organic acid-induced
of acute renal failure, ranging from 42 to 50%. metabolic acidosis will further aggravate hyper-
When the serum CK level reaches 5000– kalemia. Hypocalcemia often occurs in the early
15,000 IU/L, the occurrence rate of acute renal stages of rhabdomyolysis and may aggravate the
failure is 35%. When the serum CK is cardiotoxic effects of hyperkalemia. Patients
>15,000 IU/L, the rate is 70% [61]. The main with serum potassium levels less than 6.0 mmol/L
mechanisms of acute renal failure are (1) renal are often asymptomatic, whereas serum potas-
vasoconstriction and renal ischemia, (2) myo- sium levels greater than 6.0 mmol/L require
globin tube formation, and (3) myoglobin urgent treatment. High blood potassium electro-
­cytotoxicity [62]. cardiogram may have the following changes:
high, sharp acute T wave and shortening of the
Compartment Syndrome Q-T interval. Some of the more serious cases can
Compartment syndrome is not uncommon display a flat P wave, widened QRS, ventricular
when there is rhabdomyolysis. Most skeletal arrhythmias, etc. Broken skeletal muscle cells
muscle tissue is enclosed in an inelastic space can also release inorganic phosphorus and lead to
composed of bones, fascia, and other structures. hyperphosphatemia, causing the formation of
Compartment syndrome is usually more likely calcium phosphate deposition in the damaged
to occur in the limb muscle gap, such as the muscle cells and other tissues, which further
upper limb biceps muscle gap and triceps gap, increases hypocalcemia. However, the calcium in
forearm dorsal wrist and extensor digitorum the cytoplasm of myocytes can be released into
gap, hip muscle gap, front and rear thigh gap, the plasma in the process of RM, which may
etc [27]. Cells are damaged when rhabdomyol- cause high blood calcium later [64–66].
ysis occurs, followed by an influx of calcium
and sodium and a large amount of extracellular
fluid into the cells, leading to local edema and 9.2.6 Diagnostic Criteria
an increase in intramuscular pressure. The
increase in internal muscle pressure not only 9.2.6.1 Clinical Manifestations
hinders the blood supply for local muscle tis- The possibility that anti-status epilepticus drugs
sue, but it also hinders venous blood reflux, can cause rhabdomyolysis is the most important
which further increases tissue edema. In addi- consideration for the early diagnosis of rhabdo-
tion, local ischemia can increase the permea- myolysis syndrome. Only 10% of patients pres-
bility of the capillaries, further aggravate ent with all symptoms of the triad. Thus,
edema, and form a vicious circle. Clinical physicians should be more concerned about the
manifestations of compartment syndrome presence of other nonspecific symptoms. A
include local limb pain, pale color, and weak- detailed neuromuscular examination, blood
ened or undetectable pulse. Sensory and motor pressure, sensory disturbances, and muscle
­
dysfunction may occur following severe limb strength and muscle volume abnormalities can all
ischemia [63]. provide an important diagnostic basis.
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 301

9.2.6.2 Laboratory Examination 9.2.7 Treatment

The serum CK level is an important consider-
ation for diagnosis. It is generally accepted that 9.2.7.1 General Treatment
levels more than five times higher than normal Patients should undergo electrocardiography
are problematic although there is no consensus (ECG) and EEG monitoring [71], close observa-
on the diagnostic criteria [67]. CK values can tion of vital signs and changes in state of conscious-
also predict the occurrence rate of acute renal ness, and regular measurement of body temperature
failure. The kidneys can be easily damaged when every day; these data should be recorded.
CK >5000 IU/L. CK levels should be detected
using a urine dipstick regardless of whether myo- 9.2.7.2 Treated with Convulsions
globinuria is positive. Myoglobinuria is also Patients with status epilepticus should be closely
important evidence supporting a diagnosis of observed for changes in their condition and should
rhabdomyolysis syndrome, but rhabdomyolysis be given drug treatment; a detailed record of the
cannot be excluded when urine is negative for number and duration of seizures in patients should
myoglobin. Myoglobin concentrations will be maintained. The safety of the patients should
return to normal levels within 6–8 h because be closely monitored through the placement of
the half-­life of myoglobin is shorter than that guard rails and protective belts to prevent falling
of serum CK during muscle injury. Therefore, off the bed and the self-removal of intravenous
the serum myoglobin levels are not as sensitive tubes and other tubes in the stomach, catheters,
as the serum CK levels. In some patients with etc. The airway must be kept open to prevent
rhabdomyolysis syndrome, electrolyte levels tongue bites. Convulsions will increase secre-
and renal function are abnormal when muscle tions; thus, it is necessary to aspirate in a timely
destruction releases large quantities of cre- manner and turn the head to one side [72, 73].
atine, which is converted into creatinine in the
blood, leading to a greater rise in creatinine 9.2.7.3 Rehydration Therapy
than urea nitrogen. Thus, a decrease in the Patients with rhabdomyolysis require rehydration
BUN/creatinine ratio can help differentiate to maintain blood volume, improve renal isch-
rhabdomyolysis from other causes of renal emia, prevent kidney damage, increase the glo-
­failure [68]. merular filtration rate, and dilute myoglobinuria
to prevent tube formation [74]. Therefore, rehy-
9.2.6.3 Pathology dration is one of the most important treatment
A muscle biopsy can identify the interstitial infil- measures; it is also key to the prevention and treat-
tration of inflammatory cells and the disappear- ment of renal failure. In the process of rehydration,
ance of striated muscle tissue [69]. A renal biopsy patients should be closely observed for the appear-
may show myoglobin casts within the distal ance of chest tightness, suffocation, palpitations,
nephron, epithelial cell shedding, and proximal and other symptoms. In particular, during the first
tubular necrosis when the disease is associated 30 min when drugs are administered, the infusion
with acute renal failure. Monoclonal antibodies rate should be controlled, and the patient should be
will also be positive [68]. closely observed. Timely symptomatic treatment
can prevent the o­ccurrence of adverse conse-
9.2.6.4 Imaging quences if an exception occurs [75, 76].
B-mode ultrasound or magnetic resonance imag-
ing can show local tissue swelling, which is used 9.2.7.4 P revention of Acute Renal
to detect muscle necrosis. These imaging modali- Failure
ties can also detect the degree of muscle damage, The urine and electrolyte balance must be moni-
range, and liquefaction situation. Imaging is a tored. Close observation of the patient’s urine color
noninvasive method that can diagnose muscle and urine output can be conducted through storing
necrosis [70]. urine samples and comparing them to previous
302 S. Zhou and X. Wang

samples. We can identify changes in renal function with acute stage RSE to intake food because of
based on urine volume and color. A change in urine dysphagia or disturbance of consciousness; on
color from light to dark or even to a soy sauce color the other hand, many antiepileptic drugs can sup-
suggests that the condition is deteriorating. The press appetite, interfere with the absorption of
timely detection of blood BUN, blood electrolytes, nutrients, and even cause nausea, vomiting, con-
creatinine, and the endogenous creatinine clear- stipation, and other side effects, leading to prob-
ance rate is necessary for the early detection of lems regarding nutrient and energy intake and
renal failure and early treatment [23, 24, 77]. metabolism; thus, malnutrition is more obvious
in RSE patients. Nutritional problems directly
9.2.7.5 Alkaline Urine affect the prognosis of RSE patients. Thus, they
Urine and plasma pH levels should be maintained are important clinical problems requiring
at <6.5 and <7.5, respectively, to avoid the block- attention.
age of renal tubules [76].

9.3.2 Historical Evolution

9.2.8 Prognosis and Epidemiology

The prognosis of rhabdomyolysis primarily depends The investigation of Guigoz et al. [78, 79]
on the complications presented and their underlying found that in common neurological disease
causes. The patient’s prognosis is good when the inpatients, the incidence rate of malnutrition
syndrome is treated promptly and properly, whereas risk was 46.5%, the rate of malnutrition was
the patient’s prognosis is poor if the syndrome fur- 15.8%, and the incidence rate of malnutrition
ther develops into acute renal failure. The mortality in refractory status epilepticus patients was as
rate of rhabdomyolysis is 8–10% [48]. However, high as 40% [80]. On the one hand, during a
the mortality rate can reach up to 42% when associ- sustained state of refractory seizures, patients
ated with acute renal failure. The mortality rate of cannot eat; they may have difficulty swallow-
rhabdomyolysis in children is 7–10% [31]. ing or experience vomiting, resulting in
reduced dietary intake. On the other hand, the
long-term use of antiepileptic drugs will also
9.2.9 Conclusion affect energy or nutrient intake and metabo-
lism; therefore, the risk of malnutrition in
SE and AEDs both can induce rhabdomyolysis. patients can increase significantly because
Understanding their association will facilitate a antiepileptic drugs may suppress appetite and
rational approach for the clinical use of these interfere with the absorption of nutrients,
drugs. Rhabdomyolysis is characterized by the resulting in the decreased uptake of foods or
emergence of unpredictable adverse reactions. nutrients such as iron and zinc [81].
The early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of Simultaneously, many ­antiepileptic drugs have
rhabdomyolysis are key to avoiding mortality. side effects such as drowsiness, nausea, vomit-
ing, and constipation, which interfere with the
intake of nutrients. Anticonvulsants also inter-
9.3 Nutritional Assessments fere with the metabolism of certain vitamins
in Refractory Status such as calcium and folic acid. Carbamazepine,
Epilepticus Patients ethosuximide, phenobarbital, phenytoin, val-
proate, and other drugs can inhibit intestinal
9.3.1 Introduction calcium transport and can interfere in the syn-
thesis of vitamin D [82]. Lipid oxidation as an
Malnutrition is an independent risk factor for independent predictor of seizure frequency
clinical adverse outcomes in patients with was significantly increased in patients with
RSE. On the one hand, it is difficult for patients refractory seizures [83]. A study found that
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 303

patients with epilepsy were underweight and 1. Body weight assessment is the earliest used
had a smaller upper arm circumference than ergonomic evaluation index [89]. Short-
normal [84]. Therefore, it is difficult for term weight change is a benign index of
patients with refractory status epilepticus to fluid balance changes, whereas long-term
avoid nutritional deficiencies. changes in body weight (such as 5% weight
Leibovitz et al. [85] found that serum albumin loss within 1 month of admission or 10%
levels directly affect the prognosis of patients and weight loss within 6 months of admission)
are closely related to neonatal intensive care unit can infer a general nutritional status change,
(NICU) hospitalization time, the total length of suggesting the need for a further nutritional
hospital stay, increased hospital consumption, assessment [88].
etc. An increased risk of undernutrition was asso- 2. BMI is an indicator of weight and height that
ciated with increased mortality in hospitalized is closely related to total body fat. The advan-
patients [86]. Reasonable clinical nutrition sup- tages of BMI include ease of use, no need for
port can reduce mortality and complications in in-depth procedures, and good specificity and
the treatment of refractory status epilepticus in sensitivity [90, 91].
patients with nutritional deficiencies, thus 3. Upper arm circumference and calf circumfer-
improving the success rate and quality of life of ence are important indicators of nutritional
the patient [87]. Consequently, it is imperative to status [92]. The upper arm measurements
increase focus on the nutritional conditions of include triceps skinfold (TSF) thickness, arm
refractory epilepsy patients and improve nutri- circumference (AC), and arm muscle circum-
tional risk screening and nutrition management. ference (AMC) measurements. TSF is used to
Emphasis should also be placed on using effec- measure subcutaneous fat thickness and
tive assessment methods and tools for “fast, reflects body fat storage, whereas upper arm
objective, comprehensive, and accurate” assess- AC and AMC reflect changes in protein con-
ments to achieve early detection. tent and storage of skeletal muscle in vivo.
Notably, people of different races and regions
have certain differences in their diagnostic
9.3.3  utritional Assessment Tools
N values of upper arm circumference.
and Methods Researchers of different countries use differ-
ent cutoff values of the upper arm and calf in
Currently, the application of nutrition assessment the diagnosis of patients with malnutrition.
tools in clinical work includes a single index and For example, the Canadian researcher
a composite index. The single index has certain Campillo [93] used an upper arm circumfer-
limitations: it can only reflect the nutritional sta- ence cutoff of 26.9 cm, whereas the Swiss
tus of a patient from the past or at a certain period researcher Guigoz [94] believed that the cut-
of time in the present. Thus, in recent years, off was 22 cm. The body composition analysis
research has primarily focused on the composite method is generally applied in the clinic
index screening tool to improve the sensitivity because it is noninvasive and simple, provides
and specificity of screening. abundant information, and is easily accepted
by doctors and patients; however, it requires
9.3.3.1 H  uman Body Measurement some technical equipment that can increase
Index the economic burden on patients.
Anthropometric measurements are suitable for
the assessment of short-term and long-term nutri- 9.3.3.2 Laboratory Biochemical
tional status. They are convenient, inexpensive, Indexes
and noninvasive [88]. Existing ergonomic indica- Clinical laboratory biochemical parameters
tors include weight, body mass index (BMI), arm include plasma protein, metabolite determination,
and calf fat measurements, and body composition and immune function evaluation. Plasma proteins
measurements: commonly used include albumin, prealbumin,
304 S. Zhou and X. Wang

transferrin, and retinol-binding protein. Prealbumin indicators. For all anthropometric measurements,
and retinol-binding protein are sensitive markers laboratory biochemical examinations of patients
of the early diagnosis of acute malnutrition: with nutritional deficiencies provide a nonspe-
cific diagnosis; thus, a nutritional status assess-
1. Albumin: currently, the most commonly used ment should be combined with patient history
clinical determination for the prognosis of and clinical data [88].
patients (such as mortality, complication rate,
etc.) is the serum albumin level. Risk evalua-
tion is very important, but because of the long 9.3.4 Composite Nutritional
half-life (20 days) of serum albumin [95], it is Assessment Tools
not specific for the diagnosis of malnutrition; and Methods
thus, its clinical application is limited. Seres
[96] noted that all visceral proteins should be 9.3.4.1 N  utritional Risk Screening
questioned for their reliability. Therefore, no (NRS)-2000
single visceral protein measurement can be The nutritional risk screening (NRS)-2002 is
used as a nutritional assessment for patients. summarized from 128 randomized controlled tri-
2. Metabolite indexes: creatinine height index als by Espen that used evidence-based medical
(CHI), nitrogen balance, 3-methyl histidine, methods; it was published in 2003. This table is
urinary hydroxyproline, and blood and urine recommended by most researchers as a new
creatinine. nutritional assessment tool for hospitalized
3. CHI is an indicator to observe muscle protein patients [98]. There are more studies confirming
consumption and a sensitive index to measure that, combined with the Chinese BMI normal
protein levels. However, CHI is susceptible to value, the NRS-2002 applies to more than 99% of
a variety of factors, such as advanced age, Chinese inpatients [99]. Compared to other
muscular dystrophy, renal insufficiency, being screening tools, the NRS-2002 has a high sensi-
long-term bedridden, catabolic state, high ani- tivity to critically ill patients with nutritional risk
mal protein diet, and other factors [95]. screening [100]. It includes four aspects: anthro-
4. Nitrogen balance: reflects whether the protein pometric measurement, recent weight change,
intake meets the needs of the body for protein dietary intake, and severity of disease. The NRS-­
synthesis and catabolism; it is the most com- 2002 has simple, noninvasive, strong operability
mon indicator of protein nutritional status characteristics; it can detect whether the current
evaluation. For hospitalized patients, the goal patient has nutritional deficiencies as well as
is to maintain a positive nitrogen balance assess whether the patient has a nutritional risk
(2–4 g/d); if the patient is in an acute catabolic and decide whether to provide nutritional sup-
state, the goal is to reduce the occurrence of a port. Notably, the NRS-2002 method is not suit-
negative nitrogen balance [95]. able for the elderly (>90 years old), those with
5. Immunologic function test: usually evaluated delirium (refractory status epilepticus), or those
by total lymphocyte count and the intensity of who are unable to stand up or have serious chest
delayed skin hypersensitivity [95], but the ascites. Furthermore, reductions in dietary intake
application is limited, and the results are easily and the degree of weight loss are affected by sub-
influenced by many factors [97]. This test is not jective factors, which may reduce the accuracy of
applicable in liver cirrhosis patients and patients the screening results.
undergoing chemotherapy, so the clinical appli-
cation value of immune function is small. 9.3.4.2 Malnutrition Universal
Screening Tool (MUST)
Laboratory biochemical examination is The malnutrition universal screening tool (MUST)
mainly used to identify early malnutrition, distin- is developed based on a community population
guish malnutrition types, and provide objective [101] and is used to assess the nutritional status of
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 305

all inpatients. MUST includes three aspects: BMI, 9.3.4.4 Patient-Generated Subjective
weight loss, and disease impact score. Advantages Global Assessment (PG-SGA)
of this tool are that it can be easily and rapidly The patient-generated subjective global assessment
used, and procedures can generally be completed (PG-SGA) has good applicability, validity, reliability,
within 5 min [102]. The results showed that specificity, and sensitivity [97]. It includes history of
MUST and other tools (mini nutritional assess- weight change, diet, gastrointestinal symptoms, stress
ment, NRS, SGA, etc.) have a good consistency reactivity, etc.; its ergonomic parameters include sub-
[103] (kappa value range 0.551–0.893). Stratton cutaneous fat thickness, muscle, and edema measure-
[102] also noted that MUST is effective in pre- ments [108]. However, the tool focuses on nutrient
dicting prognosis (mortality and length of stay) in intake and body composition assessment; it does not
elderly hospitalized patients. consider the intrinsic protein levels, resulting in
PG-SGA results with a low correlation to serum ALB
9.3.4.3 M  ini Nutritional Assessment levels [108]. To improve its accuracy and reliability
(MNA) and to enhance its ability to predict clinical adverse
The mini nutritional assessment (MNA) is a spe- outcomes of patients, Mariana Raslan [109] noted that
cial method used to evaluate the nutritional status the PG-SGA can be combined with NRS-2002
of the elderly [97]. The MNA is suitable not only requirements; furthermore, the NRS-2002 should be
for nutritional screening but also for nutritional completed within 48 h of admission. After screening
assessment. It is often used in the community, patients for nutritional risk, the PG-SGA is then per-
inpatient and elderly outpatients, chronic disease formed, resulting in an excellent complementary
patients, and surgical patients [104]. It includes effect of the two assessments.
anthropometric measurements, an overall assess-
ment, a dietary questionnaire, and a subjective
assessment of four dimensions of the 18 elements. 9.3.5 Conclusion
One study found that the MNA and traditional
nutritional assessment methods (BMI, upper arm Refractory status epilepticus is accompanied by
midpoint circumference, calf circumference, etc.) malnutrition, leading to adverse outcomes; thus,
have good consistency [105]. However, because early detection of nutritional risk and malnutri-
the MNA includes subjective and objective evalu- tion has a positive effect on the prevention of
ations, the measurement results may be affected complications and outcomes. However, the cur-
by human error; therefore, operators must receive rent general nutritional risk screening and assess-
professional training before conducting the ment tools have their own advantages. Thus, how
MNA. In 2001, a simpler mini nutritional evalua- to properly use clinical assessment tools, develop
tion method was proposed based on the MNA. The a treatment for the early detection of malnutrition
short form of the mini nutritional assessment risk, and create a nutritional management strat-
(MNA-SF) has been validated in various commu- egy are worthy of further research.
nities in Switzerland and in hospitalized elderly
patients [106]. A recent systematic evaluation of
the study also noted that for nutritional assess- 9.4  Phenomenon Requiring
A
ment in elderly patients, the MNA-SF is the most Attention in the Intensive
appropriate tool [107]. The method is rapid Care Unit: Acute Alcohol
(within 3 min), noninvasive, and simple, can be Withdrawal Syndrome
repeatedly measured, and can be used to dynami-
cally evaluate the nutritional status of patients. 9.4.1 Introduction
The MNA-SF is effective and practicable; for
refractory epilepsy patients and bedridden patients Drinking alcohol has become increasingly prevalent
in whom BMI cannot be obtained, small leg or worldwide. Alcohol abuse or dependence can cause
arm circumference can replace the BMI value. psychological and physiological dependence. A
306 S. Zhou and X. Wang

series of adverse reactions may occur after discon- sands of years, as the most influential drink, wine
tinuing drinking. Severe cases can progress to alco- permeated daily life and social, economic, and cul-
hol withdrawal syndrome, producing delirium tural activities. Moreover, alcohol is a common
tremens (DTs), generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and choice for people to ease the pressure of social life.
potentially endangering the patient’s life. Intensive Consequently, alcohol is the most addictive sub-
care unit (ICU) patients generally must stop drinking stance in the world. Drinking induces brain func-
passively, which can cause acute withdrawal syn- tion, cognitive function, and emotional and
drome, leading to problems for the diagnosis and behavioral changes. There are two billion global
treatment of the primary disease. Understanding the drinkers, of whom approximately 140 million are
specific phenomenon in the neuroscience ICU will classified as alcohol-dependent individuals [113].
help us better manage our patients. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO) “2014 alcohol and health global status
report,” in 2012, the harmful use of alcohol caused
9.4.2 Definition 3.3 million deaths worldwide, accounting for 5.9%
of global deaths [114]. In the United States, alcohol
AWS includes a series of adverse reactions that are dependence occurs at twice the rate of other drugs
likely to occur when alcohol is consumed in large of abuse, and there were more than 80 million peo-
quantities for a prolonged period and then abruptly ple with alcohol dependence [115].
discontinued [110]. The long-term or excessive Alcohol dependence refers to the frequency and
use of alcohol can increase the body’s tolerance amount of alcohol consumed; to a certain extent, the
and nerve dependence. Without alcohol stimula- drinkers cannot control their drinking behavior and
tion, the central nervous system will produce auto- often experience somatization and alcohol with-
nomic nerve dysfunction and nerve symptoms, drawal symptoms. As a result of alcohol depen-
namely, withdrawal symptoms. Mild cases include dence, alcohol withdrawal syndrome occurs in
symptoms of anorexia, nausea, vomiting, palpita- approximately 50% of abstainers [116, 117]. Most
tions, high blood pressure, anxiety, depression, patients experience mild withdrawal symptoms such
and bad mood changes. It may become life-threat- as anxiety and trembling, which can be effectively
ening in severe cases with delirium tremens, sei- controlled. However, approximately 5% of patients
zures, and other symptoms. Alcohol withdrawal will experience severe seizures and delirium tremens
symptoms depend on the last alcohol intake [117]. Bayard and others [112] noted that, in the
amount rather than the blood alcohol concentra- United States alone, more than two million people
tion [111]. The metabolic rate of alcohol is 15 mg/ each year are treated for seizures as a result of acute
dL per hour, independent of the initial concentra- alcohol withdrawal. The possibility of seizures dur-
tion. Thus, withdrawal symptoms usually appear ing the period of alcohol withdrawal is approxi-
6–72 h after discontinuing drinking, and general- mately 10% [118, 119]. In addition, approximately
ized tonic-clonic seizures usually appear within 3–5% of patients who are treated for alcohol with-
24–48 h. However, there are also reports that sei- drawal symptoms meet the clinical criteria for the
zures can occur in the early stage (2 h after discon- diagnosis of delirium tremens [117, 120]. Untreated
tinuing drinking). Delirium tremens usually occur delirium tremens can reach a mortality of 5–15%
48–72 h after discontinuing drinking, but they can [118, 121]. A timely and clear identification of with-
be delayed up to 5 days [112]. drawal symptoms will help patients to navigate the
risk period during alcohol withdrawal.

9.4.3 Historical Evolution

and Epidemiology 9.4.4 Clinical Features

Early in the dawn of human civilization, the ancient Alcohol withdrawal syndrome displays a wide
art of wine culture had already sprouted. For thou- variety of symptoms. The severity of the symp-
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 307

toms is related to the alcohol intake, the length drinking. Delirium tremens is the most severe
between the last time of drinking and the number alcohol withdrawal symptom, and it can be fatal.
of previous instances of drinking [111]. Delirium patients not only exhibit disturbance of
consciousness and increased action and thinking
9.4.4.1 Simple Withdrawal Symptoms disorders, but they also cannot correctly identify
Simple withdrawal symptoms usually occur the surrounding environment [127]. Patients with
6–36 h after discontinuing drinking [122]. The alcohol withdrawal first exhibit tremors; when
patient will exhibit a series of autonomic dys- they occur in the morning, they are called morn-
function symptoms, such as sleep disorders ing tremors. Severe hallucinations with photism
(sleep difficulties, nightmares, shallow sleep), and tactile elements may also occur. In 1996,
trembling, mild anxiety, gastrointestinal discom- Ferguson et al. [128] analyzed 200 patients with
fort, headache, sweating, palpitations, anorexia, alcohol withdrawal and found that 24% of
and other symptoms. These symptoms will grad- patients exhibited delirium during hospitaliza-
ually disappear in a few days. tion. A multivariate logistic regression analysis
shows that those whose last drinking episode was
9.4.4.2 Withdrawal Seizures longer are more prone to delirium tremens. If not
Withdrawal epilepsy refers to the appearance of accompanied by other influencing factors, the
seizures in chronic alcoholics after absolute or delirium incidence rate was 9%. If there was a
relative drinking prohibition. LaRoche and others precipitating factor, the incidence rate was 25%,
[123] believe that withdrawal seizures usually and with two types of precipitating factors, it was
occur 48–72 h after discontinuing drinking. The 54%. Lee et al. [129] showed that a previous his-
patients who have a history of long-term high tory of delirium tremens and a higher pulse rate
concentrations of drinking or previous with- (more than 100 bpm) were important predictive
drawal seizures are more likely to develop status factors of delirium tremens. In 2011, Eyer et al.
epilepticus, and status epilepticus can also occur [125] conducted a study in a large cohort of
6–48 h after the first drink [124]. The severity of patients treated for AWS. Significant predictors
alcohol withdrawal symptoms, EEG abnormali- at admission for the occurrence of DTs were
ties, and changes in the same type of semi-amino lower serum potassium, a lower platelet count,
acids will have a certain effect on the prediction and the presence of structural brain lesions. A
of alcohol withdrawal after discontinuing drink- recent prospective study about the severity of
ing. In 2011, Eyer et al. [125] conducted a study alcohol withdrawal symptom scale prediction of
in a large cohort of patients treated for AWS; they alcohol withdrawal severity scale (PAWSS)
found that a significant predictor of withdrawal showed that the PAWSS includes useful psycho-
seizures during AWS therapy was the severity of logical characteristics and has a good predictabil-
withdrawal symptoms after admission. EEG ity, which can help clinicians identify complex
plays an important role in the diagnosis of epi- alcohol withdrawal symptoms for the timely pre-
lepsy. Bleich et al. [126] analyzed 191 patients vention and treatment of AWS [130].
with withdrawal seizures; 91.4% of those patients
found EEG had different degrees of abnormality
in their results, which indicates that high homo- 9.4.5 Pathogenesis
cysteine levels are associated with alcohol with-
drawal seizures. Homocysteine levels may be 9.4.5.1 Central Neurotransmitter
helpful to predict which patients are at risk for Mechanism
first-onset alcohol withdrawal seizures. Alcohol is a fat-soluble neurotrophic substance
that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, inhibit-
9.4.4.3 Delirium Tremens ing the central nervous system. Large amounts of
Delirium is an acute brain syndrome that occurs alcohol can cause acute alcohol poisoning, and
once individuals with alcohol dependence stop long-term drinking can result in alcohol abuse
308 S. Zhou and X. Wang

and dependence. In the central nervous system, dopamine neurons will rebound. Heinz et al.
related transmitters such as γ-aminobutyric acid [135] noted that increasing dopamine activity can
(GABA), glutamate, and dopamine participate in lead to more severe withdrawal symptoms.
the formation of this process. Clements [136] also stressed that the high con-
centrations of dopamine in the synapse during
Neurotransmitter Mechanisms Related the process of neural signal transmission can
to Withdrawal Seizures cause severe withdrawal symptoms. In addition,
When a small dose of ethanol reaches the blood, delirium tremens of alcohol withdrawal is closely
it can inhibit the inhibitory effect of GABA on related to the polymorphism of dopamine-related
the brain and show exciting benefits. However, genes. In 2010, Munster et al. [137] found that
high doses directly inhibit the central nervous dopamine transporter gene SLC6A3 can reduce
system, causing lethargy and coma. Long-term the risk of delirium and dopamine receptor
exposure to alcohol can increase the effect of DRD2 genes are related to the occurrence of
GABA on the GABA receptor and reduce the delirium [138].
binding of glutamate and the N-methyl-d-aspartic
acid (NMDA) receptor. Thus, a reduced excit- 9.4.5.2 Neuroendocrine Mechanism
atory stimulus response occurs with later epi- Tremors are the most common symptom of
sodes of alcohol drinking. Brain GABA-A comprehensive abstinence syndrome.
receptors decrease compensatively, and the num- Discontinuing drinking makes the central and
ber of NMDA receptors increases, thus increas- peripheral nervous beta-adrenergic receptors
ing the tolerance to alcohol; likewise, blood hyperactive, blood catecholamines increase, and
alcohol levels must increase to maintain the same the skeletal muscle contraction rate increases,
effect [131, 132]. The occurrence of seizures is interfering with the transmission of nerve-muscle,
closely related to the excitatory neurotransmitter or muscle spindle activity, resulting in an
glutamate and its receptor. Long-term drinking increase of tremor strength. A series of auto-
can inhibit the combination of glutamate and its nomic dysfunctions appear after discontinuing
receptor. Conversely, upon discontinuing drink- drinking because of sympathetic nerve activity,
ing, the inhibitory effect of alcohol diminishes, which weakens the inhibition of the central ner-
and the excitatory effect of glutamate becomes vous system.
hyperactive, leading to ion changes in Na+, Ca2+
flow, and K+ efflux, producing depolarization.
The ion imbalance causes seizures [133]. 9.4.6 Treatment

The Neurotransmitter Associated The primary method of treatment is to relieve

with Delirium Tremens symptoms. The clinical symptoms in patients
Under normal physiological conditions, the func- with alcohol withdrawal differ, and the risk of
tion of two neurotransmitter systems, GABA and withdrawal seizures and delirium tremens must
dopamine, is antagonistic in the nigrostriatal sys- be properly assessed in each patient. The early
tem. The dopamine system in the brain is the treatment and prevention of severe symptoms
most important euphoric area and includes the and maintaining normal vital signs are
midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the important.
nucleus accumbens (NAC). Addictive drugs can
increase the level of the dopamine in the two 9.4.6.1 Benzodiazepines
regions, producing a euphoric feeling [134]. Benzodiazepines have strong inhibitory effects
Long-term alcohol consumption exposes dopa- on the central nervous system and can enhance
mine neurons to long-term stimulation with alco- the inhibitory effect of GABA neurotransmission
hol; thus, their reactivity and sensitivity decrease. and synapses, which promotes its receptor-­
Upon discontinuing drinking, the function of binding function, improves the symptoms of
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 309

alcohol withdrawal and duration, and delays 9.4.6.3 Propofol

progress to withdrawal seizures and delirium Propofol is a nonbarbiturate anesthetic that has
tremors. As early as 1969, a study about benzodi- antiepileptic effects. It has stable, obvious, and
azepines in the management of alcohol with- rapid effects in the induction of anesthesia, a
drawal syndrome identified its role as a first-line short half-life, rapid recovery of consciousness,
therapy in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal and few respiratory and cardiac side effects, and
[139]. A long-term benzodiazepine such as diaz- it can reduce the metabolism of brain tissue and
epam has the advantages of a fast-acting time and intracranial pressure. Because propofol can
a long half-life. It does not need to be combined enhance GABA-mediated presynaptic or post-
with other drugs [140]. Muzyk et al. [140] synaptic inhibition and reduce excitatory neu-
showed that compared to traditional treatment, rotransmitter (such as glutamate and aspartate)
diazepam can effectively improve alcohol with- release, it plays a role in antiepileptic mecha-
drawal symptoms, including delirium tremens. nisms [131]. In view of the above reasons, propo-
However, absorption by intramuscular injection fol can control the symptoms of alcohol
is not stable. Because it is metabolized in the withdrawal [147]. There have been some cohort
liver, diazepam can damage the liver function. analyses and retrospective studies demonstrating
Compared to diazepam, lorazepam does not that propofol can be used to treat refractory
undergo the same degree of metabolism in the tremor delirium in patients [148–152]. However,
liver, but its onset time is slow. Stehman et al. the side effects of propofol cannot be ignored.
[141] compared the effects of diazepam, loraze- Compared to the use of benzodiazepines alone,
pam, and alprazolam on alcohol withdrawal syn- propofol increases the use of benzodiazepines,
drome. The results showed that lorazepam was resulting in increased mechanical ventilation and
the weakest and alprazolam had the strongest hospital complications [153].
effect.
9.4.6.4 Dexmedetomidine
9.4.6.2 Barbiturates Patients with alcohol withdrawal syndrome use
Barbiturates work by enhancing the function of gamma amino acid agonists, such as benzodiaz-
central GABA (extending Cl− channel opening epines, even if the symptoms are still not com-
time, increasing Cl− flow); the excitatory pletely alleviated after increasing the dose of the
responses after depolarization can be reduced drug. At this time, dexmedetomidine may be
or blocked in the corresponding receptor of glu- beneficial to some patients. As an alpha-2
tamate, causing central inhibition [142]. Thus, ­adrenergic receptor agonist, dexmedetomidine
it can be used for alcohol withdrawal, but sup- should be considered the adjuvant treatment for
porting evidence is limited [143, 144]. When severe alcohol withdrawal symptoms.
barbiturates are used simultaneously with any Dexmedetomidine can reduce the short-term
type of benzodiazepine, they can enhance the demand for benzodiazepines and improve the
inhibitory effect of the latter. Gold et al. [145] epinephrine-driven hemodynamic parameters of
selected 54 patients in clinical trials; the results alcohol withdrawal [154].
showed that for delirium tremens in patients,
the combination of the two drugs can reduce the 9.4.6.5 Other Treatment Measures
time of mechanical ventilation and hospitaliza- During the alcohol withdrawal period, the patient
tion of patients. Recently, Askgaard et al. [146] must be provided with adequate nutritional sup-
compared 1063 patients receiving long-term port. Thiamine in alcohol withdrawal patients is
benzodiazepine chlorodyne treatment with usually lacking, which leads to the development
1365 patients receiving phenobarbital treat- of Wernicke’s encephalopathy, mental abnormal-
ment and found that phenobarbital did not ities, ophthalmoplegia, and ataxia. The recom-
reduce the risk of alcohol relapse, but it reduced mended daily thiamine intake is 1–2 mg [155].
the mortality rate. However, with the occurrence of Wernicke’s
310 S. Zhou and X. Wang

encephalopathy, acute treatment requires initial epileptics. Therefore, realizing SUDEP and its
doses up to 1500 mg [156]. Because chronic relationship to both epilepsy and refractory epi-
alcohol consumption is associated with hyperho- lepsy will help us to understand refractory status
mocysteinemia, which is generally considered to epilepticus from a different perspective.
be caused by a lack of folic acid, folic acid must
be added to the diet [157]. The use of a variety of
vitamins can supplement the nutritional deficien- 9.5.2 Definition
cies caused by chronic alcohol consumption. In
the process of alcohol withdrawal, patients often SUDEP refers to deaths that are sudden,
encounter a water-electrolyte imbalance. unfounded, and nontraumatic or uncomplicated
Hypokalemia appears at this time; thus, the drownings that occur in patients with epilepsy.
timely supplementation of potassium is very These deaths do not present with evidence of epi-
important to maintain normal renal function. leptic seizure and are not caused by status epilep-
Hypophosphatemia is common in alcohol with- ticus. In addition, these deaths are not caused by
drawal and should be promptly identified. When poisoning or by any anatomical structural abnor-
the patient is experiencing severe seizures and malities found on the autopsy after death. Both
delirium tremens, mechanical ventilation and refractory epilepsy and refractory status epilepti-
monitoring of normal vital signs are necessary to cus are independent risk factors for SUDEP.
maintain airway patency.

9.5.3 Historical Evolution

9.4.7 Conclusion and Epidemiology

The management of patients with alcohol with- The concept of SUDEP was first distinguished by
drawal syndrome is also a challenge, particularly the American President George Washington,
in critically ill patients. A correct understanding because of the sudden death of his stepdaughter
of the mechanisms of alcohol withdrawal, clini- who had developed refractory epilepsy after a
cal manifestations, and risk factors is the key for seizure [158]. Although at that time it was con-
the treatment of patients. troversial that epilepsy could lead to death, the
sudden death phenomenon of epilepsy was fur-
ther confirmed by Bacon [159] in 1868 and was
9.5  efractory Status Epilepticus
R then increasingly valued and standardized.
and SUDEP First proffered by Nashef [160] in 1997, the
notion of SUDEP as a criteria-based diagnosis is
9.5.1 Introduction still in use today as the sudden death of the epi-
leptic, that is, with or without cause, without
SUDEP is dissimilar to death caused by status warning, nontraumatic in nature, and without
epilepticus. Because of this, the diagnostic crite- occult causes. Regarding the actual death, there is
ria for SUDEP need to exclude status epilepticus; neither evidence of a real-time epileptic event nor
however, given that refractory epilepsy is one of is it preceded by status epilepticus. In addition,
the independent risk factors of SUDEP, refrac- the autopsy results after the death find a lack of
tory status epilepticus is one of the most serious evidence to support poisonings or any anatomical
outcomes of refractory epilepsy. Therefore, structural defect as the cause. It is worth noting
refractory epilepsy may produce SUDEP in the that SUDEP has been called as a special cause of
progression of the disease from refractory epi- death for epileptics that is associated with
lepsy to refractory status epilepticus. At the same epilepsy.
time, people with refractory status epilepticus The number of people with epilepsy accounts
have a higher mortality from SUDEP than other for 0.5–1% of the world’s total population. The
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 311

mortality of patients with epilepsy is 24–28 sory cortex, the cingulate gyrus, and the prefron-
times higher than that of people who do not suf- tal cortex. The hypothalamus is the secondary
fer from epilepsy. In addition, the mortality of center of neuroendocrine function and the auto-
children with epilepsy is 90 times greater than nomic nervous response. The connection of the
those who are never diagnosed with epilepsy amygdala to the prefrontal cortex in addition to
[161, 162]. Approximately 0.4–1 per 1000 of the subcortical part of the limbic system is
epileptic patients die from SUDEP [163], with a responsible for the integration of the autonomic
mortality that increases to 9.3% when referring nervous system’s response to emotion. These
only to patients who have refractory epilepsy structures are part of a common cause of sexual
(about a third of people with epilepsy develop epilepsy. Therefore, a series of changes in the
refractory epilepsy due to various reasons) [164, autonomic nervous system can be observed when
165]. SUDEP is also one of the most common epileptic seizures (especially partial seizures)
causes of death from chronic refractory epilepsy occur [177, 178]. For example, patients whose
and is the leading cause of death of refractory seizure activity is monitored can present with an
status epilepticus and drug-resistant epilepsy accompanying arrhythmia, and generalized
[166]. The incidence of SUDEP in children with tonic-clonic seizures have a higher probability of
epilepsy is 24–28 times higher than that of other serious arrhythmia than complex partial seizures
age groups [167–170] and most frequently [179, 180]. The sensitivity of baroreceptors may
occurs in persons aged 21–40, of which also be associated with SUDEP, despite the acute
31–40-year-olds have the highest incidence. In reactivity of common pressure sensors, but
people with epilepsy in the 15- to 44-year-old SUDEP occurs because of heart rate variations
age group, the highest incidence of SUDEP was that result from the chronic response of the vagus
close to 9%, and the reported rate of SUDEP in nerve. In addition, all the factors that resulted in
patients who underwent surgery for refractory cardiac death, such as inflammation, fever, and
epilepsy and still had a recurrence of epilepsy high levels of C-reactive protein, may increase
was nearly 50% [171]. In a 10-year follow-up, the risk for SUDEP [181].
approximately 1012 children with epilepsy In addition, certain genetic defects can cause
found that in 42 deaths, 11 of those children died arrhythmias and include short or long QT syn-
from SUDEP. Therefore, SUDEP has become drome, Brugada syndrome, or catecholamine-­
one of the specific causes of death in epileptic induced polymorphic ventricular tachycardia.
children [172]. The KCNQ1 and KCNH2, RyR2, and SCN1A
genes have a dual effect on the heart and brain,
and some of those genes are associated with
9.5.4 Pathogenesis sodium-calcium ion channels [181]. Seizures
with excitatory responses in the sympathetic divi-
9.5.4.1 Fatal Arrhythmias sion are simultaneously accompanied by aggre-
Research on the pathogenesis of SUDEP has gation of the solute of the muscle and excessive
mostly focused on the complication of the cardio- parasympathetic tone, which are all likely causes
vascular system [173]. In a retrospective study of of SUDEP. In experimental epileptic animal
SUDEP in patients with epilepsy, 11 patients had models, it was observed that the brain released
generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS), and signals that directly connected to the cardiac
during the process of the seizure, the heart and autonomic nervous system, which would induce
respiratory rates increased, which then developed arrhythmias. For example, the stimulation of the
into a central apnea and significant bradycardia. parasympathetic nervous system can induce a
One clinic found that during a seizure episode, sensation of euphoria after seizures that can cause
nearly every type of arrhythmia can appear [174– cardiac arrest, excessive activation of barorecep-
176]. The insula controls the autonomic nervous tors, etc. Increased levels of cardiac catechol-
system, which is composed of the visceral sen- amines can be one of the main causes of cardiac
312 S. Zhou and X. Wang

damage after a seizure. This idea is unique as the including adenosine, which is an anesthetic neu-
cause of myocardial ischemia in patients with rotransmitter that affects calcium efflux and is
atherosclerosis but can also increase the risk for produced after the occurrence of epilepsy and,
SUDEP in people with epilepsy. Other possible after the onset of epilepsy, may appear “close” to
mechanisms for SUDEP include arrhythmia, ion the brain and may also include the cessation of
channel disease, nerve conduction block, or spe- respiratory function [184]. A specific explanation
cific exogenous factors or all of the above caused may be that the function of monoamine neurons
by or during the use and withdrawal of epileptic includes these 5-HT serotonin neurons which are
drugs [181]. lost after an epileptic seizure, and the failure of
Ryvlin [182] conducted a systematic retro- these single amine neurons is simultaneous when
spective survey on SUDEP patients over a 2-year central apnea is associated with a lower arousal
period across 160 epilepsy centers in Europe, level in the postictal state. These two kinds of
Israel, Australia, and New Zealand. The results clinical symptoms appear in SUDEP [181]. In
showed that, out of 147 epilepsy centers that addition, the clinical pathological changes in
responded to the survey, 29 epileptic patients neurogenic pulmonary edema can be found in a
died from cardiopulmonary arrest, and 16 large number of patients with SUDEP; the mech-
patients died from SUDEP with cardiopulmo- anism is likely to produce continuous seizures
nary arrest. The survey also showed that, in epi- with systemic vasoconstriction, while simultane-
leptic patients who suffered a cardiopulmonary ously causing excessive stimulation of the sym-
arrest, at least ten of those patients’ arrests were pathetic nervous system associated with the
due to secondary GTCS that caused an increase actual epileptic seizure, which causes increased
in respiratory frequency (18–25 breaths per min) pulmonary vascular resistance and finally pro-
and a short period (within 3 min) of cardiopul- gressed into pulmonary edema [185]. In addition
monary dysfunction. Although this was a short to epileptic seizures, concurrent subarachnoid
period of dysfunction, that cardiopulmonary hemorrhage, brain damage, and hypoventilation
dysfunction recurred within 11 min after the sei- can also lead to acute pulmonary edema [186].
zures, which eventually lead to suffocation and
cardiac arrest [182]. 9.5.4.3 The Endocrine
and Microenvironmental
9.5.4.2 Lethal Respiratory Arrest Disorders
SUDEP is associated with the respiratory system Studies have found that in the process of status
mainly in terms of the resultant respiratory arrest, epilepticus, the endocrine system secretes multi-
and laboratory studies have shown that ple hormones that can lead to microenvironmen-
5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) serotonin receptors tal changes. These changes may promote the
are associated with breathing in patients with epi- mechanism for the occurrence of SUDEP. For
lepsy. 5-HT receptors can increase the respiratory example, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolac-
dynamics and the body’s sensitivity to hypercap- tin, oxytocin, vasopressin, cortisol, and adrena-
nia, while simultaneously reducing the incidence line are all secreted in patients with tonic-clonic
of apnea. seizure activity (especially status epilepticus)
Central and obstructive apnea, acute neuro- [171, 187, 188]. The secretion of hormones low-
genic pulmonary edema, hypoxia, and laryngo- ers the body’s pH, and there is a characteristic
spasm are causes of SUDEP that occur in people hyperkalemia and acidosis that is caused by sta-
with epilepsy. Central apnea is particularly tus epilepticus [189, 190]. The acid environment
important since clinical observations have sug- in vivo can induce cardiac excitability and can
gested that a period of central apnea that lasts for produce changes in the heart rate, myocardial
just 10 s may induce 40% of the seizures in peo- infarction, and even bradyarrhythmia or tachyar-
ple with epilepsy [183]. Similarly, central apnea rhythmia, which promote the occurrence of
is regulated by large amounts of substances SUDEP [191, 192]. In addition, the latest research
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 313

has also confirmed that the onset of autonomic used second-generation sequencing technology
dysfunction is associated with episodes of hypox- to conduct gene analysis to screen potential genes
emia after a seizure. Long-term damage of para- that may be associated with SUDEP, which
sympathetic tone will increase the likelihood that included FBN1, HCN1, SCN4A, EFHC1,
patients will experience SUDEP [193]. CACNA1A, SCN11A, and SCN10A [207].

9.5.4.4 SUDEP-Related Genes

Research has shown that some genes may be 9.5.5 Clinical Manifestations
associated with SUDEP and may be biological
risk assessment indicators for the clinical presen- SUDEP patients usually have the following clini-
tation of SUDEP in epileptic patients. Most of cal characteristics: (1) patients with definitive
these genes are commonly related genes of either epilepsy who have died and who have a history of
the brain and cardiac or the brain and respiratory recurrent seizure activity; (2) patients who have
systems. For example, the KCNA1 gene is died without warning with a relatively stable
responsible for encoding one part of a voltage-­ health status prior to death; (3) patients whose
gated potassium channel called the Kv1.1 alpha death occurs suddenly, and before the occurrence
subunit, and laboratory studies have found that of a terminal event (death), patients have pre-
when they knocked out the KCNA1 gene in rats, sented as completely lucid or suffering from
they not only seized, but 75% of the rats died other diseases that were controlled or were in
within 10 weeks. The experimental rats also pre- remission; (4) patients whose death can be
sented with atrioventricular blocks and cardiac ­witnessed or not; (5) patients that have seizures
abnormalities, such as paroxysmal bradycardia prior to the death but this criteria is not required;
[194]. The SCN1A gene is responsible for encod- (6) patients whose surrounding environments are
ing one part of a voltage-gated sodium channel considered safe at the time of death; (7) patients
called the Nav1.1 gene, whose mutation has been whose deaths are not due to status epilepticus,
confirmed to be one of the main causes for drowning, or traumatic causes; and (8) patients
SUDEP in Dravet syndrome (infant severe myo- whose autopsy results are not definitive as to the
clonic epilepsy) and in generalized epilepsy in cause of death [208].
patients with febrile seizures [195, 196]. The
SCN5A [197, 198] and SCN8A (encoding the
Nav1.6 alpha subunit of nerve cells through 9.5.6 Diagnostic Criteria
voltage-gated sodium channels) [199], the
HCN2 (encoding hyperpolarization-activated Over the past 20 years, both in clinical and scien-
nucleotide-gated potassium channel) [200], the tific research, researchers have studied epilepsy
KCNQ1 gene (encodes voltage-gated potassium on the basis of the definition of sudden death.
channels, the Kv7.1 alpha subunit,which can Recently, Nashef [209] and other scholars have
activate the slow delayed potassium rectifier cur- redefined SUDEP by collecting large amounts of
rent and may be associated with congenital long clinical data. Consequently, they have created the
QT syndrome) [201, 202], and the KCNH2 unified standards for the identification of SUDEP.
gene (encoding proteins that are associated with
congenital long QT syndrome) [203], the PRRT2 9.5.6.1 Definitive SUDEP
gene (encodes genes that regulate the release of Sudden death, that is, with or without cause,
neurotransmitter protein genes) [204, 205], and without warning, nontraumatic in nature, and
the RYR2 (encoding ryanodine receptor-­ without occult causes that occur in epileptic
mediated Ca2+ release in cardiac cells) [206], patients. Death that occurred when the surround-
have been confirmed in reports to be associated ings were safe, death that occurs in epileptic
with SUDEP in laboratory animal models or in patients without evidence of an epileptic seizure,
clinical epilepsy patients. Recently, researchers or death that is not caused by status epilepticus
314 S. Zhou and X. Wang

(seizure activity that lasts more than 30 min or with epilepsy can be divided into epilepsy-related
multiple seizures of greater than 5-min duration death, pathological changes after epilepsy that
without periods of lucidity) and autopsy results caused death, and cause of death unrelated to sei-
without a clear cause of death. zures. Among these, SUDEP, status epilepticus,
and suicide all belong to accidental deaths in
9.5.6.2 Definitive SUDEP Additional ­epilepsy [210].
Meets the diagnostic criteria for definitive
SUDEP, but whose death was accompanied by 9.5.7.1 D  eaths Caused by Status
other symptoms of proven non-epileptic seizures Epilepticus
before and after death, or the symptoms and the SUDEP needs to be differentiated from deaths
death occurred at the same time, or the autopsy, that are caused by status epilepticus. Although
direct observation, or medical records found the status epilepticus is caused by epilepsy, the
accompanying symptoms of a terminal illness direct cause of death is status epilepticus, and
that was not the direct cause of death. the morbidity is approximately 10–60 per
100,000, which constitutes approximately 0.5–
9.5.6.3 Probable SUDEP 10% of epilepsy-related mortality [211–213].
Conforms to definitive SUDEP but without con- There are no significant gender differences, and
firmation on the autopsy and the accidental death SE often occurs in older patients (approxi-
of the epileptic patient whose body is in a stable mately 40% of the SE death rate), and there is a
state, was performing regular activities, and was positive correlation between mortality and sta-
in safe environment and that the patient has no tus epilepticus duration [214, 215]. Short-term
obvious structural damage to the body that could mortality (SE attacks within 30 days) is corre-
have led to death. lated to the severity of the symptoms of SE and
other combined causes. Long-term mortality
9.5.6.4 Possible SUDEP (30 days after the onset of SE and in the subse-
Cannot be ruled out, but there is insufficient evi- quent 10 years) is related to the severity of the
dence to support a diagnosis of SUDEP. acute symptoms of SE, the myoclonic seizure
activity, and the duration of SE (if more than
9.5.6.5 Near-SUDEP 24 h). The clinical diagnosis of SE before death
The epileptic patient recovered from a cardiopul- can show characteristics of status epilepticus on
monary arrest that occurred for a period of more EEG, which have been clearly shown [216].The
than 1 h and was confirmed by inspection. The main risk factors that cause death include cere-
event does not constitute a structural damage that brovascular accident, ischemia anoxic encepha-
caused the arrest. lopathy, brain tumors, metabolic disorders, and
systemic infection. Secondary risk factors
9.5.6.6 Non-SUDEP include the decrement of antiepileptic drugs,
There is a clear cause that leads to the patient’s alcohol, or other organ diseases. Regarding the
death. secondary risk factors, the clinical characteris-
tics of SUDEP include death without a clear
9.5.6.7 Unclassified etiology, and patients are often found dead in
Cannot completely access the information their beds, even if there was evidence that epi-
regarding a confirmed diagnosis of SUDEP. leptic patients may have had a recent seizure,
but before the death without status epilepticus
occurred. The incidence of SUDEP is higher in
9.5.7 Differential Diagnosis men than in women, and the incidence of
SUDEP in patients with symptomatic epilepsy
Epileptic mortality is two to three times that of is relatively higher than for patients with cryp-
the general population, and the death of patients togenic epilepsy.
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 315

9.5.7.2 Suicide epilepsy or refractory status epilepticus) the risk

Suicide is also a common cause of death associated of SUDEP increases by at least tenfold. Because
with epileptic patients, and the incidence of suicide at least 30% of epileptic patients may develop
accounts for 5–14% of the mortality in epileptic refractory epilepsy and the independent risk fac-
patients. These patients are more easily identified if tors of SUDEP are refractory epilepsy, the effect
they have a history of mental illness, especially of antiepileptic drugs to reduce the incidence of
depression, and use psychotropic drugs [217, 218]. SUDEP is mainly utilized to reduce the seizure
frequency and the drug side effects [222].
9.5.7.3 Accidental Death Consequently, controlling epilepsy is the pri-
Correlations between epilepsy and larger acci- mary endpoint in the prevention of SUDEP
dental death include trauma, traffic collisions, [223, 224]. Before the combination we could
high-altitude falls, burns, and submersions. These identify patients with epilepsy earlier who may
are fatal events that occur more often in epileptic develop refractory epilepsy and adopt other
patients than in ordinary patients [219, 220]. measures as early as possible, such as an early
Accidental death in the majority of patients can surgical intervention, etc., that may reduce the
be because of accidental death after a seizure that incidence of SUDEP. Clinical studies have
occurs at the same time. There may be a clear found that in patients with refractory epilepsy,
cause of death, a specific environment and struc- the incidence of SUDEP can be reduced seven-
tural damage to the body that is easy to find, mak- fold when patients use the appropriate doses of
ing these events easy to distinguish from SUDEP. their AEDs to treat refractory epilepsy relative
to the inappropriate use of AED treatments in
9.5.7.4 D  eath After Surgery patients [225].
for Epilepsy
It is worth mentioning that death associated before 9.5.8.2 A djusting the Cardiovascular
and after surgery for the epileptic condition may System to Prevent SUDEP
be directly related to whether the epilepsy was The cardiac autonomic nervous response
cured or the seizures recurred after the procedure caused by epilepsy may include arrhythmias,
[221]. A large number of investigations on mor- such as bradycardia, tachyarrhythmias, cardiac
tality that were based on race, disease characteris- arrest, and heart failure [226, 227]. Therefore,
tics, and different surgical methods concluded monitoring and evaluating epileptic patients
that postoperative patients with epilepsy could using an ECG is particularly important so as to
still experience SUDEP; however, the mortality of distinguish long QT syndrome that can be eas-
SUDEP after surgery in patients with epilepsy has ily misdiagnosed as epilepsy, although some
been shown to be less than in nonsurgical patients patients may also suffer from long QT syn-
with epilepsy. Therefore, we can speculate that drome concomitant with epilepsy. These
death after surgery for epilepsy may be due to a patients have a higher incidence of
variety of other causes. SUDEP. Therefore, the treatment for long QT
syndrome can reduce the incidence of
SUDEP. For example, implanting the patient
9.5.8 The Prevention of SUDEP with a cardiac pacemaker to prevent cardiac
arrest is one option, but clinical evidence still
9.5.8.1 P
 revention of SUDEP by lacks that epilepsy patients will have a reduced
Controlling Epilepsy, Refractory incidence of SUDEP after cardiac pacemaker
Epilepsy, and Refractory Status implantation. Currently, we cannot be certain
Epilepticus that in this group of patients with implanted
A recent survey showed that the incidence of pacemakers, the treatment is helpful for
SUDEP in ordinary people is 0.7–1.3 per 1000 improving the prognosis of patients with
and in patients with severe epilepsy (refractory ­epilepsy [173, 174, 177].
316 S. Zhou and X. Wang

9.5.8.3 A  djusting the Respiratory resected, 141 of them had recurrent seizure activity,
System to Prevent SUDEP but only two experienced SUDEP. Lastly, because
Preventing or reducing the respiratory distress, of this curative surgery, 230 patients with epilepsy
the hypoventilation, and the hypoxia caused by received follow-up for 5.5 years, and none of those
epilepsy is useful to prevent or reduce reflexes of patients experienced SUDEP [233, 234]. However,
the secondary autonomic nervous system, cardio- even though there is a surgery that can decrease
vascular abnormalities, and death. In a laboratory epilepsy-related mortality, the stimulation of the
study, Bateman [228, 229] found that drugs simi- vagus nerve does not decrease the incidence of
lar to fluoxetine, a type of selective serotonin SUDEP in epilepsy [235, 236]. However, a recent
reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), could reverse the study that used a vagus nerve stimulation surgery in
occurrence of respiratory failure in epileptic ani- epileptic patients with drug resistance has shown
mal models. However, there is no direct or cur- that vagus nerve stimulation is helpful to stabilize
rent evidence that these drugs can reduce the cardiac electrophysiology and reduce the risk of
incidence of SUDEP. Regulation of sleep at night arrhythmias in drug-resistant epilepsy and in drug-
has obvious effects on the reduction of SUDEP resistant status epilepticus [237].
[230]. Adjusting the sleeping posture of patients Although not all surgeries can achieve com-
can awaken the patients’ consciousness, which plete control of seizures, surgical intervention may
stimulates breathing. In one study of 105 patients serve the neural circuit that has formed in the brain
with generalized tonic-clonic seizures, there were to help interrupt the pathological connection that
39 patients who obtained a benefit from sleep nerve has to the cardiovascular and respiratory
regulation, and breathing disorders and postictal systems to reduce the occurrence of SUDEP. Future
generalized electroencephalography suppression studies will need to evaluate what kinds of surgical
(PGES) were significantly reduced [231]. intervention can reduce the risk of SUDEP. This
In addition, a portable oxygen saturation mon- research not only can reduce the incidence of
itor can remind the patient and the surrounding SUDEP but can also provide further understand-
family members to improve the patient’s ventila- ing of the pathogenesis of SUDEP. However, just
tion in a timely manner. Positive pressure ventila- because epileptic patients passed the preoperative
tion equipment for the treatment of patients with screening does not mean that they will elect to
obstructive sleep apnea can also help reduce the have the surgery to treat epilepsy, so these patients
incidence of SUDEP. Diaphragm pacemakers also face a risk for SUDEP. Therefore, auxiliary
[231, 232] may also be an effective way to antiepileptic drugs and palliative surgeries can
improve hypoventilation after epilepsy [227]. also be adequately considered.

9.5.8.4 P  revention of SUDEP Through

Surgical Intervention 9.5.9 Conclusion
Patients with complex partial seizures can treat
their epilepsy and prevent SUDEP by electing to Refractory status epilepticus is the most serious
have the epileptic foci and part of their frontal or outcome of refractory epilepsy, although for a
temporal lobe resected, if necessary. There is evi- diagnosis of SUDEP, we must first exclude that
dence in multiple clinical case reports to suggest the patient experienced status epilepticus before
that surgical intervention is positive. In 70 patients death or for at least 24 h prior to death, and the
with epilepsy, 39 epileptic patients underwent a differential diagnosis of death caused by status
frontal lobe resection and only two experienced epilepticus is different from SUDEP. However,
SUDEP. Another study showed that, because of the patients with refractory status epilepticus may
curative surgery for epilepsy, 31 patients were fol- experience any of the above two causes of death
lowed up for 10 years and none experienced in various circumstances. Thus, patients with
SUDEP. In addition, of 371 epileptic patients who refractory status epilepticus have a higher risk for
had the epileptogenic zone of their temporal lobe death than any other type of epilepsy.
9 Complications and Other Conditions in Refractory Status Epilepticus That Require Attention 317

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 Special Cases of Refractory Status
Epilepticus 10
Xuefeng Wang

10.1  ase 1: Anesthetics

C seizures could last approximately 1 min, but the
and Status Epilepticus patient could not recall the details during sei-
zures. Her epilepsy relapsed many times during
Abstract the course of the disease, and the symptoms were
Anesthetic-induced refractory status epilepticus similar each time. Fortunately, no seizure attacks
(RSE) has been shown to be resistant to five anti- had occurred in recent 4 years after she began
convulsants. However, it can be resolved using a treatment with carbamazepine (0.1 g tid).
combined therapy consisting of diazepam and Five days before admission, the patient was
propofol. In this chapter, we discuss the inci- admitted to the local hospital due to parturition
dence, rate, and timing of the onset of anesthetic-­ and received epidural anesthesia with lidocaine
induced RSE with a particular focus on its (0.1 g) and ropivacaine (0.9 g) prior to a cesarean
characteristics. We also describe the relevant delivery. However, seizures began after 5 min of
anesthesia protocols and their appropriate use in anesthesia and recurred twice during the follow-
patients with epilepsy. In addition, when and how ing operation, and these attacks were not
to initiate polytherapy to treat RSE is also dis- addressed by doctors. After the patient gave birth
cussed in this chapter. to a boy, her seizures frequently relapsed every
2–5 min, lasting for 20–60 s each time, and she
was unconscious between attacks. As a result,
10.1.1 Case Summary she was admitted to the neurology intensive care
unit (NICU) in our hospital.
The patient was a 28-year-old parturient with a Upon admission, the patient was unconscious
20-year history of epilepsy. Seizures were char- and had persistent clonic twitches of her right
acterized by loss of consciousness, twitching of limbs. An electroencephalogram (EEG) showed
the right limbs and angulus oris, blank stares, a long-range outbreak of spike and wave dis-
teeth clenching, and foaming at the mouth. The charges in both hemispheres. A head CT scan
revealed decreased density of the left parietal
lobe, right temporal lobe, and right cerebellum.
First, she was injected with 20 mg of diazepam
X. Wang (DZP), which failed; then, we increased the bolus
Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated dose to 30 mg, followed by an infusion of
Hospital of Chongqing Medical University,
80–100 mg for 10 h, but her seizure frequency
Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology,
1 YouYi Road, Chongqing 400016, China decreased only slightly. Therefore, we used val-
e-mail: [email protected] proic acid (VAP) treatment (a bolus of 1200 mg,

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 325

X. Wang, S. Li (eds.), Refractory Status Epilepticus, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5125-8_10
326 X. Wang

followed by an infusion of 1200 mg/day), but the conditions such as during the perioperative
results were not satisfactory. On the second day, period, which should be noted. By investigating
midazolam was used with a bolus of 10 mg, fol- patients with or without epilepsy, researchers
lowed by 5–10 mg/h infusion. However, status have found that the incidence of ­anesthetic-­induced
epilepticus (SE) continued, and the patient pre- seizures is 0.031% in typical patients [1]; how-
sented dyspnea and decreased oxygen saturation. ever, in epileptic patients, the seizure incidence
As a result, propofol anesthesia (a bolus of could be as high as 3.4%, and if the patients have
100 mg) was added soon after intubation and suffered from seizures within 1 month of the pre-
mechanical ventilation. This time her SE was operative period, the seizure incidence could be
controlled for 40 min; therefore, infusion was up to 18.7% [2]. In addition, for preoperative
maintained at a rate of 100 mg/h, and the seizure patients who experience seizures more than once
interval was reduced to 2–5 h during propofol per week, the anesthetic-induced seizure rate is
infusion. Unfortunately, she began twitching fre- 26.3% [2]. All data indicate that the risk of anes-
quently again on the morning of day 3; thus, pro- thetic-induced seizures is much higher in epi-
pofol was stopped and was substituted by two lepsy patients than in patients without this
boluses of clonazepam (2 mg/bolus), which was disease.
also ineffective. Thus, DZP combined with pro-
pofol was selected. We first injected 40 mg of 10.1.2.2  idocaine and Ropivacaine
L
DZP followed by a continuous infusion of Can Induce Epileptic
100 mg. An injection of propofol (100 mg) was Seizures
also simultaneously administered. Five minutes Satsumae [3] reported a patient with a history
later, we obtained immediate, complete clinical of febrile convulsions who suffered from a
and EEG control. On day 4, the patient’s condi- generalized seizure after he received a brachial
tion and EEG remained stable, and she gradually plexus block with ropivacaine (300 mg). Tsai
regained consciousness. She was successfully [4] et al. also reported a young man who imme-
extubated 5 days later and was uneventfully dis- diately experienced seizures after local anes-
charged from the NICU on day 11. thesia using lidocaine. These results are
supported by other studies including a report
by Rezvani [5]. In this case, the patient received
10.1.2 Case Analysis both lidocaine and ropivacaine, which pro-
duces a higher risk of anesthetic-­ induced
1. In this case, an established epilepsy patient seizures.
exhibited seizures during cesarean delivery,
which developed into SE that was resistant to 10.1.2.3  easons for Epileptic
R
five anticonvulsants for 3 days, consistent Seizures During
with the definition of RSE. the Perioperative Period
2. The woman had no seizures for 4 years before The reasons for epileptic seizures during the peri-
the operation, but seizures relapsed after use operative period are not clear; they may be related
of anesthetics; therefore, anesthetic-induced to several factors. First, the serum concentrations
epilepsy should be considered in this patient. of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are decreased in
cases of jejunitis before surgery, and poor gastro-
10.1.2.1  pileptic Seizures During
E intestinal function could result in slow drug
the Perioperative Period absorption, both of which could induce epileptic
It is known that seizures often occur without seizures [2]. Second, anesthetics can induce epi-
warming, and no method exists to predict seizure leptic seizures by inhibiting ion channels or
occurrence. However, the risk of seizures is exciting N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA)
increased when patients are subjected to certain receptors [6].
10 Special Cases of Refractory Status Epilepticus 327

10.1.2.4  reatment of Anesthesia-­

T term administration of AEDs. During the course
Induced SE of this treatment regimen, AEDs can cause sei-
Anesthesia-induced SE often occurs during the zures and drug-induced systemic lupus erythe-
perioperative period while under monitoring by matosus (SLE), which are generally not detected
medical professionals, and these patients have the in affected patients in a timely manner. The sub-
opportunity to receive timely and effective treat- sequent use of high-dose methylprednisolone
ment. However, if treatment fails, the seizures treatment induces status epilepticus, and low-­
could develop into RSE, as reported by Kim [7]. dose propofol aggravates the onset of epilepsy,
Most anesthesia-induced SE is multidrug resis- which leads to the emergence of adverse conse-
tant and exhibits no response to initial treatment; quences. In this report, we discuss the key factors
thus, polytherapy should be considered when ini- that are targeted during the identification of epi-
tial treatment fails. For the treatment of the patient leptic and non-epileptic seizures following a head
described here, we previously initiated DZP and injury, the methods used to diagnose hyperventi-
propofol monotherapy separately, but her seizures lation syndrome, the characteristics and differen-
were not resolved. However, the seizures were ter- tial diagnosis of drug-induced SLE, and
minated after combined DZP and propofol admin- precautions that should be taken when using both
istration, indicating that polytherapy may be a methylprednisolone and propofol.
rational protocol for anesthesia-­induced SE.

10.1.2.5  rophylaxis of Anesthesia-­

P 10.2.1 Case Summary
Induced SE
Not all anesthetics induce seizures, but when The patient was a 24-year-old female. In June
anesthesia is necessary for epilepsy patients, 2009, the patient was riding a motorcycle on her
anesthetics that exert the strongest seizure-­ way home and was injured after being struck
promoting effects, such as sevoflurane, desflu- head-on by a vehicle. The patient was unrespon-
rane, enflurane, etomidate, and methohexital, sive on the ground, and bystanders immediately
should be avoided. It is better to choose anesthet-
sent her to the local hospital for treatment. A
ics that have a lower risk of inducing epileptic physical examination indicated a left-sided
seizures, such as midazolam combined with pro- occipital hematoma that was 2 × 3 cm; a physical
pofol. Additionally, it has been found that examination of the patient’s cranial nerves and
anesthesia-­induced seizures are often related to limbic nervous system indicated no obvious
the concentrations of anesthetics. When the con- abnormalities. A CT scan of the patient did not
centration of sevoflurane is below 1MAC, the indicate a skull fracture or an intracranial hema-
incidence of anesthesia-induced seizures is mark- toma. After 22 days of hospitalization, the
edly decreased, and similar results are observed patient’s condition improved, and she was dis-
when the concentration of lidocaine is below charged. After discharge, the patient experienced
15 mg/ml [6]. intermittent dizziness and headaches. After 6
months, the patient presented with numbness of
the left hand, which lasted for approximately
10.2 Case 2: The Misdiagnosis 10 min, self-improved, and was not accompanied
and Mistreatment of Status by a loss of consciousness, chest tightness, or
Epilepticus and Epilepsy respiratory difficulty. These symptoms were
recurrent, with a duration from 2 to 30 min. The
Abstract family’s description of the events indicated that
Non-epileptic seizures that occur following a the patient had three episodes that included limb
head injury are often misdiagnosed as post-­ twitching, a fall, and an unknown level of con-
traumatic epilepsy, which is treated using long-­ sciousness. In July 2010, as a result of the
328 X. Wang

f­ requent occurrence of the patient’s limb twitch- for antinuclear antibodies and lupus cells. A rou-
ing, the patient was emergently transferred to the tine scalp EEG examination was without excep-
local hospital, where a physical examination tion, and an immediate request was made for a
indicated that the patient was unable to answer neurology consultation. Considering the patient
questions and had shallow breathing and positive had SLE-induced seizures, hormone therapy was
bilateral pathological reflexes; the patient was recommended. The subsequent day, the patient
ultimately diagnosed with SE. An intravenous was started on 1000 mg of methylprednisolone
injection of 20 mg diazepam was administered, via intravenous infusion. More frequent seizures
and the episode was terminated. The routine occurred 4 days later. The patient was transferred
blood work indicated that the patient’s white to the intensive care unit (ICU), where 20 mg of
blood cell count was 8.2 × 109/L, her electrolytes intravenous DZP was administered with no
were normal, and the partial pressure of carbon effect. The treatment protocol was repeated
dioxide was 37 mmHg (normal 35–45 mmHg). 10 min later, once again with no effect. Sodium
An EEG examination revealed paroxysmal slow valproate was administered without an effect. On
waves (another EEG examination indicated a the ninth day after admission, 200 mg of continu-
similar episode), and an MRI of the brain sug- ous intravenous propofol (2 h) was initiated, and
gested no abnormal findings. The patient was blood tests indicated that the patient’s serum
hospitalized for 6 days and did not exhibit further sodium level was 128 mmol/L. On the tenth day
seizure activity; a repeat blood panel indicated after admission, the patient died, which resulted
normal results. The partial pressure of carbon in a doctor-patient dispute.
dioxide was 42 mmHg, which had improved; Autopsy report: The patient had a normal
thus, the patient was discharged from the hospi- appearance of the skull, with no skull fracture.
tal. The patient was discharged with a prescrip- Extensive swelling in the brain tissue, shrunken
tion for carbamazepine 0.1 g tid. The patient ventricles, an obvious cerebellum, and a cerebel-
continued to have occasional episodes; thus, the lar tonsil embedded in the foramen magnum were
carbamazepine dose was adjusted to 0.1 g in the noted. The morphologies of both sides of the hip-
morning and at noon and 0.2 g in the evening. pocampus were normal, symmetrical, and dis-
The patient gradually stopped taking her medica- played no hardening or atrophy. A microscopic
tions over a 4-month period. Family members examination showed that the number of neurons
subsequently reported that the patient had an epi- was normal, glial hyperplasia was not identified,
sode of unresponsiveness, which was described and silver staining of the slices indicated no obvi-
as a sudden, unexplained “daze” that was, in ous mossy fiber buds. An examination of the
some cases, accompanied by a slight twitch at the other body organs did not indicate pathological
left side of the patient’s mouth, during which the changes consistent with SLE.
patient was unresponsive to verbal commands.
Afterwards, the patient could not recall the event,
and she had repeated episodes with similar symp- 10.2.2 Case Analysis
tomatology. The duration of each episode was
very short. Family members claimed that the 10.2.2.1 Seizures After a Head Injury
duration of each episode was not more than Head injuries may cause seizures; however, more
1 min, and the episodes occurred once every often than not, these seizures are non-epileptic. It
3 months. The patient was readmitted, and her must be determined whether the onset of seizures
prescription for carbamazepine was changed to after a head injury is epilepsy, in addition to iden-
0.2 g tid. In March 2011, the patient was admitted tifying the diagnostic criteria for epilepsy accord-
to the hospital for general surgery as a result of ing to the common presentation (i.e., sexual,
abdominal pain, and a routine preoperative exam- transient, stereotyped, and repetitive) and person-
ination indicated that the patient had a white ality changes (which are characteristic of this
blood cell count of 1.2 × 109/L. She was positive type of seizure) that determine epilepsy. The
10 Special Cases of Refractory Status Epilepticus 329

r­elationship between a head injury and epilepsy 10.2.2.2 Hyperventilation Syndrome

should be determined by the following factors: Hyperventilation syndrome (HVS) is one of the
most common onsets of the disease, and its vari-
1. The time of epilepsy: in general, the onset of able presentation may be easily misdiagnosed as
seizures after headache occurs within 1 week epileptic seizures. In general, it is thought that the
after a head injury or 1 week to 2 years after occurrence of HVS is related to psychological
the head injury. The former is referred to as factors; however, the prevalence of HVS in
early-onset epilepsy, which is rarely recurrent patients with neurological disorders is often not
and does not require special treatment. The the result of psychological trauma. In addition,
latter is referred to as delayed epilepsy, and the mere presence of the disease may be its pre-
the possibility of recurrence is high. disposing factor, particularly when the ineffec-
2. Accompanying factors: these factors include tiveness of chronic disease treatment is more
whether the onset of seizures after a head likely to be an incentive. In the present case, the
injury is also related to the head injury sever- patient with non-epileptic seizures secondary to a
ity. An epidemiological survey indicated that head injury was both misdiagnosed and treated
head injuries with concomitant skull fracture, for epilepsy, which produced an ineffective treat-
cerebral contusion, intracranial hematoma, or ment course. The patient was prone to develop
a duration of >24 h of amnesia in patients pro- HVS under long-term stress [11, 12].
duce a greater risk for seizures. If none of According to the literature, HVS does not nec-
these four factors are present, then there is a essarily occur when the respiratory rate is accel-
limited chance of a seizure because there is no erated; increasing the volume of the breaths may
basis for an epileptic seizure to occur. also induce clinical seizures. The general diagno-
3. Types of seizures: SE and generalized tonic-­ sis of clinical HVS is based on the following
clonic seizures may occur after a head injury; characteristics: (1) The reproducibility of symp-
however, the more common seizure types are toms. When HVS is considered, the patient may
partial seizures, whereas other types of sei- be given excessive ventilation and, this may
zures are rare. If the patient presents with induce the same or similar performance at the
other types of seizures, the relationship of time of onset. (2) Blood gas analysis results in the
the seizure to the head injury is not normal-to-low range: the partial pressure of CO2
significant. would be decreased or in the normal-to-low range
4. Non-epileptic seizures after head injury are based on blood gas measurements obtained dur-
diverse and, in general, do not have a stereo- ing the seizure period compared to those obtained
typical seizure presentation pattern. during the intermittent period, which corresponds
5. Epilepsy after a head injury is often refractory, to the initial onset of the seizure compared to 4 h
and traditional drug treatments are not ideal. after the onset, respectively. (3) Excessive venti-
If various drug treatments have no effect, the lation may lead to respiratory alkalosis, and when
clinician must consider the presence of epi- it reaches a specific level, there may be diffuse or
lepsy after a head injury. In this case, despite focal neurological damage; seizures are not
the time of onset and seizure type, the drug uncommon in these situations. At this point, there
treatment effects were similar to epilepsy that may be a transition from the original non-­
presents after a head injury; however, the epileptic seizures to real SE. Therefore, the exis-
patient’s head injury was mild, and there was tence of excessive HVS in a patient’s history
no basis for a lesion that was induced by a should not be overlooked because of the exis-
traumatic brain injury. These findings do not tence of organ damage. (4) HVS is complex: limb
support the presence of epilepsy after this twitching in patients is very common and is a
patient’s head injury, and it was more likely presentation that requires special attention.
that the patient had non-epileptic seizures For the patient in this case, the episode in July
after her head injury [8–10]. 2010 was accompanied by significant difficulty
330 X. Wang

in breathing and a normal-to-low partial pressure be related to carbamazepine because diluted

of CO2. This was a completely different presenta- hyponatremia was observed, and treatment
tion from the apnea of epileptic seizures; in addi- should have consisted of limited water intake.
tion, the duration of the episode was longer than Death resulting from increased salt and water
the duration of a typical seizure. Therefore, HVS intake is not a rarity in clinical practice.
cannot be ruled out in this case.
10.2.2.4 Methylprednisolone
10.2.2.3 Side Effects The current treatment regimen of SLE advocates
of Carbamazepine large doses of methylprednisolone; however, the
The serious adverse effects caused by carbam- most serious side effect of methylprednisolone is
azepine include rash and arrhythmia. In addition that it causes SE. In the presence of epilepsy, the use
to these common side effects, carbamazepine of methylprednisolone should be monitored with
may cause epilepsy and pseudo “SLE” and drug-­ particular vigilance. Once the original episodes are
induced hyponatremia. Patients with long-term aggravated or there is an emergence of new types of
use of carbamazepine may have blood that seizures, the consideration of the possibility of
appears anti-nuclear antibody positive, and the drug-induced injury or a reduction or withdrawal is
presence of lupus cells is possible. Once identi- a reasonable choice; moreover, continuing the med-
fied, the patient cannot simply be diagnosed with ication is not conducive to patient health.
SLE; the clinician must consider the adverse
effects caused by the drugs. Identification may be 10.2.2.5  reatment of SE
T
considered from the following aspects: (1) In with Propofol
general, carbamazepine-induced lupus appears in When two or more first-line AEDs fail in the
the long-term medication administration process. treatment of SE, the seizure activity may be sub-
Toepfer [13] reported a case of a patient with sequently diagnosed as RSE. RSE is advocated
medication-induced SLE that occurred after by the use of treatment with propofol; however,
8 years of treatment with carbamazepine. low doses of propofol may induce SE, and only
Therefore, if the use of short-term carbamazepine high doses of propofol play an antiepileptic role
may produce “lupus,” the possibility of primary in SE. Therefore, in clinical applications, high-­
disease must be considered. (2) If the patient with dose intravenous infusions should be advocated
drug-induced SLE stops using their prescribed for rather than a low-dose method. In this case,
AEDs, clinical manifestations may self-correct, the use of low doses of intravenous infusions to
and the amount of anti-nuclear antibodies will be treat SE was clearly unreasonable.
significantly reduced, whereas real SLE is rarely The diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy are an
self-limiting. (3) Compared with nonpharmaco- art. Not only are the diagnosis and treatment very
logical SLE, drug-induced SLE produces anti-­ complex, but comorbidities with epilepsy are
double-­stranded DNA and anti-SSA antibodies also very common, which make it easy to mis-
that are not obvious, and the amount of comple- judge. In the general epilepsy center, the typical
ment reduction is less than the former. misdiagnosis rate is approximately 20% [12, 14,
This patient had been taking carbamazepine; 15]. In the initial treatment of this patient, the
however, the patient also had clinical manifesta- non-epileptic seizures after the patient’s head
tions of a transient “absence” of clinicopatho- injury were misdiagnosed as epilepsy, which led
logic symptoms and blood tests with lupus cells, to the long-term use of AEDs. As a result of this
and in addition to considering the presence of misdiagnosis, the standard medications will not
SLE, the clinician must also consider the pres- be effective. In addition, long-term episodes as a
ence of drug-induced SLE. If the drug could have negative factor that causes psychogenic disorders
been stopped at this time, a series of iatrogenic are common in the clinical practice of epilepsy.
lesions may have been subsequently avoided. In As a result of the rare side effects of common
addition, the hyponatremia in this patient might drugs that are seldom understood, the clinicians
10 Special Cases of Refractory Status Epilepticus 331

in this case did not make timely and correct clini- anesthesia in patient with epilepsy. Korean J
Anesthesiol. 2013;65(1):93–4.
cal decisions, which ultimately contributed to the
8. Ritter AC, Wagner AK, Fabio A, Pugh MJ, Walker
occurrence of a poor prognosis in this patient. WC, et al. Incidence and risk factors of posttrau-
matic seizures following traumatic brain injury:
A Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Study.
Epilepsia. 2016;57:1968–77.
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