CONTANT TABLE

SCIENCE

1 Nutrition in Plants
2 Nutrition in Animals
3 Fibre to Fabric
4 Heat
5 Acids, Bases and Salts

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6 Physical and Chemical Changes
7 Weather, Climate and Adaptations of Climate

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8 Winds, Storms and Cyclones
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9 Soil
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10 Respiration in Organisms
11 Transportation in Animals and Plants
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12 Reproduction in Plants
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13 Motion and Time

14 Electric Current and its Effects
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15 Light
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16 Water- A Precious Resource

17 Forests- Our Lifeline
18 Wastewater Story

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 SCIENCE NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Nutrition in Plants

What is Nutrition?

• Nutrition is the mode of taking in food by an organism and its utilisation by the body.
• The nutrients present in the food help living organisms to build their body and to grow and repair
damaged parts of the body.

Modes of Nutrition

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Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
Autotrophs can prepare Heterotrophs cannot
their own food. prepare their own food.

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Photosynthesis
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• Plants prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight and the green pigment chlorophyll by a
process termed as photosynthesis.
• The process of photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, water, minerals, sunlight and chlorophyll.
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 SCIENCE NUTRITION IN PLANTS

• During photosynthesis, chlorophyll containing cells of leaves use carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight to synthesise carbohydrates along with the release of oxygen.
• Carbohydrates ultimately get converted to starch, and hence, the presence of starch in leaves
indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis.

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Importance of Photosynthesis
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Photosynthesis is a unique process where solar energy captured by leaves is stored as food in plants.
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The oxygen released in the atmospheric air during photosynthesis is useful because oxygen is
required by all living beings including plants.
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Synthesis of Plant food other than Carbohydrates
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• The soil contains some nitrogen-fixing bacteria which convert gaseous nitrogen into a more usable
form and release it into the soil.
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• These bacteria are present in the root nodules of leguminous plants. Example: Rhizobium is usually
found in the roots of gram, peas, moong and other legumes.
• The plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria, and in return, the bacteria fix nitrogen for the
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plants.
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• Certain plants convert carbohydrate into oils and store them in seeds. Example: Sunflower seeds. The
oil obtained from plant seeds is commonly known as vegetable oil.
• Vitamins made by plants are contained in vegetables, fruits and cereals.
• Plants combine some of the carbohydrate (made during photosynthesis) with nitrate minerals
(obtained from soil) to make amino acids which are then made into proteins.
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 SCIENCE NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Other Modes of Nutrition in Plants

• Some plants lack chlorophyll and hence, are unable to prepare their own food. This type of nutrition is
termed as heterotrophic nutrition. Examples: Humans and all animals.

Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition Examples

Parasitic Cuscuta plant
• It does not have chlorophyll and consumes food
prepared by other plants.
Insectivorous Pitcher plant
• It traps insects inside its pitcher and eats them.
Saprophytic Fungi

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• These organisms take in nutrients from dead and
decaying matter.

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Mushroom

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T • It takes nutrition from rotting wood of a dead tree.
Symbiotic association Lichen
• Lichens are a symbiotic association between algae and
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fungus.
• The fungus provides shelter, water and minerals to the
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alga, which in return provides food to the fungus.

• Algae contain chlorophyll and hence, are able to
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prepare food.
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Replenishment of Nutrients in Soil

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• Plants use nutrients available in the soil. Due to this, the amount of nutrients keeps declining in the
soil.
• Fertilisers and manures which contain phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen etc. are constantly added to
the soil from time to time to enrich the soil.
• Gardeners also use fertilisers in lawns and potted plants.
• Two common types of fertilisers are NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) and Urea.
• In addition, the association between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants provides nitrogen, and hence,
farmers need not add nitrogen fertiliser to the soil where leguminous plants grow.

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 SCIENCE NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Nutrition in Animals

Nutrition- Ways of Taking in Food

• The mode of taking in food by an organism and its utilisation by the body is called nutrition.
• The process of taking in food inside the body is called ingestion.
• Different animals have different feeding habits; their manner of taking in food also differs.

Animals Ways of Taking in Food

Frog, chameleon, wall lizard Use tongue to catch insects.
Bee, butterfly, humming bird Suck nectar from flowers of plants.

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Hydra Uses tentacles with sting cells to kill the prey and put it in the
mouth.
Butterfly Long feeding tube to suck nectar from flowers of plants.

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Snakes Swallow the whole animal in one go.

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Aquatic animals
T Filter tiny food particles floating nearby and feed upon them.
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Digestion in Human Beings
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• The breakdown of complex components of food such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats into simpler
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substances such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids respectively is called digestion.
• Digestion in human beings is carried out in the alimentary canal of the digestive system.
• The alimentary canal is about 8-9 metres long and consists of buccal cavity, oesophagus, stomach,
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small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.

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 SCIENCE NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Passage of Food in the Alimentary Canal

• Food is crushed and broken into small particles in the mouth with the help of teeth. It is then mixed
with saliva.
• This chewed soft food then passes through the oesophagus in a wave-like movement (peristalsis)
and moves to the stomach.
• In the stomach, food mixes with gastric juices and HCl.
• From the stomach, the food moves into the small intestine.
• In the small intestine, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are broken down with the help of juices
secreted by the pancreas, the liver and the small intestine itself.
• The broken down food is then absorbed by small projections present on the inner walls of the intestine
called villi.
• Finally, the food moves into the large intestine where most of the water is removed from the food and
is then thrown out of the body through the anus.

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Digestion in Grass-eating Animals

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• Cows and buffaloes fall in the category of grass-eating animals.
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They quickly swallow the grass and store it in the rumen, where the food gets partially digested and is
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termed as cud.
• The cud returns to the mouth in small lumps and the animal chews it. This process is termed as
rumination, and these animals are called ruminants.
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Feeding and Digestion in Amoeba

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• Amoeba is a unicellular microbe which has no definite shape, mouth or digestive system.
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It constantly changes its shape and position in order to obtain food.

• When it senses food, it pushes out pseudopodia or finger-like projections around the food and engulfs
it.
• The food gets trapped in food vacuoles.
• In food vacuoles, the digestive juices are secreted which act on the food, breaking it into simpler
substances.
• Gradually, the digested food gets absorbed. These absorbed substances are used for growth,
maintenance and multiplication.
• The undigested food is expelled by the vacuole.

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 SCIENCE FIBRE TO FABRIC

Fibre to Fabric
Wool

• Wool is obtained from sheep, goat, yak and some other animals such as Angora goat, Kashmiri
goat, camel, Llama and Alpaca.
• Wool is obtained by rearing sheep; their hair is cut and processed into wool.

Processing of Fibres into Wool

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Shearing
The first step involves shearing in which the fleece of the sheep along with the layer of skin is removed
from the body.

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The sheared skin with hair is thoroughly washed in tanks to remove any kind of dust, dirt or grease.
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Sorting
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The hairy skin is then sent to a factory where hair of different textures is separated and sorted.
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Combing
Burrs, small fluffy fibres, are picked out from the hair. Combing straightens the entangled woollen
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fibres and also removes burrs. The fibres are scoured again and dried.

Dyeing
Dyeing is the next step because the natural fleece of sheep is black, brown or white. Different colours
can be used for dyeing.

Spinning
The fibres are spun into thick yarn. The longer fibres are used to make wool for sweaters, and the
shorter fibres are spun and woven into woollen clothes.

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 SCIENCE FIBRE TO FABRIC

Silk

• Silk is obtained from silkworms.

• Rearing of silkworms for obtaining silk is called sericulture.

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The different varieties of silk are tassar silk, mooga silk, kosa silk etc.
• Natural silk is obtained from the cocoon of silkworms and is made of protein. Artificial silk, also known
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as rayon, is obtained from wood pulp and is made using modified plant material cellulose.
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Rearing of Silkmoth
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A female silkmoth lays hundreds of eggs at a time.

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The eggs laid by the silkmoth are stored on cloth or paper and kept under hygienic
and appropriate conditions.

The eggs are warmed to a suitable temperature for larvae to hatch from eggs.

The larvae feed on mulberry leaves kept in clean bamboo trays and increase
enormously in size.

After 25-30 days, the caterpillars are moved to a tiny chamber of bamboo in the tray
to spin cocoons.

The caterpillar or silkworm spins the cocoon inside which develops the silk moth.

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 SCIENCE FIBRE TO FABRIC

Processing of Silk

The cocoons are kept under the sun or boiled or exposed to

steam.

The silk fibres separate out from the cocoon using special
machines. This process is called reeling the silk.

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Silk fibres are then spun into silk threads, which are woven
into silk cloth by weavers.

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 SCIENCE HEAT

Heat
Concept of Heat

• Heat is a form of energy.

• We can feel heat by the sense of touch.
• This form of energy can be transferred between two objects with varying temperatures.
• The S.I. unit of heat is Joule (J).

Temperature

• Heat cannot be measured with any instrument directly, but its effect on a substance can be detected.

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This measurement is the temperature of the body.
• Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

Thermometer
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• A thermometer is a device which measures the temperature in a reliable manner.
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• It is made of a long, narrow, uniform glass tube with a bulb at one end.
• It is filled with mercury as it is in liquid state at room temperature. It expands or contracts with an
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increase or decrease in the temperature.

• There are different types of thermometers:
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Types of Thermometers
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Clinical Laboratory Maximum–Minimum

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Thermometer Thermometer Thermometer

Clinical Thermometer
• A clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body.
• It is very accurate because of its narrow tube in which the liquid rises fast.

• The scale on the clinical thermometer is called the Celsius Scale, indicated by °C.
• It reads the temperature from 35°C to 42°C.
• It is used in clinics by doctors.

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 SCIENCE HEAT

Laboratory Thermometer
• A laboratory thermometer is used to measure temperatures or the temperature changes of other objects.

• These thermometers are usually filled with red spirit rather than mercury.
• The range of a laboratory thermometer is generally from −10°C to 110°C.

Maximum-Minimum Thermometer
• A maximum-minimum thermometer is used to measure the daily temperature in order to prepare weather
reports.

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Scales of Temperature
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• A reference scale with respect to which the temperatures can be measured is known as the scale of
temperature.

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 SCIENCE HEAT

• There are different scales of temperature.

Temperature Scale

Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C) Kelvin (K)

Transfer of Heat

• Heat is transferred from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature, i.e. heat
flows from a hot object to a cold object.

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• The fundamental modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
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Heat transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation

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 SCIENCE HEAT

Conduction
• Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end of an object to the colder
end of the object.

• Conductors of heat:
o Materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are called conductors.
o Metals are good conductors of heat.

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o Examples: Aluminium, iron, copper, silver etc.

• Insulators or bad conductors of heat:

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o Materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are called insulators.

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o They are also known as poor or bad conductors of heat.
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o Examples: Plastic, wood, glass, rubber etc.
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• Applications of good and bad conductors of heat in our day-to-day activities:
o Boilers in industries and cooking utensils are usually made of metals which allow heat to flow
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quickly through the vessel for faster boiling and cooking.

o Mercury is used as a thermometric liquid as it is a good conductor of heat.
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o Wood and plastic are bad conductors of heat; so, they are used as handles of cookware.

Convection
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• Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of particles of a medium from one place to
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another.
• It occurs only in liquids and gases.
• Examples: Wind currents, the lower floor of a building is cooler than the upper floor, and the
atmosphere at the seashore is always pleasant because of convection.

Radiation
• Radiation is the transfer of heat which does not require a medium.
• All hot bodies emit heat by the process of radiation.
• We get heat from the Sun because of radiation as there is no medium present between the
atmosphere of the Earth and the Sun.
• Examples:
o When we sit near a room heater, we get warmth by the process of radiation.
o A hot utensil kept away from the flame cools down as it transfers heat to the surroundings by
radiation.
o Our body produces heat and receives heat from the surroundings by radiation.

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 SCIENCE ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids, Bases and Salts

Chemicals can be broadly classified into three categories, acids, bases and salts.

Acids

• Acids are substances which taste sour.

• They maybe corrosive or non-corrosive.
Examples:
Hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid are corrosive acids.
Carbonic acid is a non-corrosive acid.
• Acids turn blue litmus red.

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• There are two types of acids:
Organic acids: Naturally occurring acids obtained from plants and animals.
Mineral acids: They are obtained from minerals present in the Earth’s crust.

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Bases
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• Bases are substances which are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.
Examples: Calcium hydroxide and zinc hydroxide
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• Water-soluble bases are called alkalis.

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Example: Sodium hydroxide

• Bases turn red litmus blue.

Indicators
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An indicator is a substance which illustrates the presence of a chemical substance by changing colour.
Indicators can be natural or synthetic. For example, litmus, turmeric and China rose are naturally
occurring indicators, while methyl orange and phenolphthalein are synthetically produced indicators.

Natural Indicators
Litmus Paper:
Acids turn blue litmus red and bases turn red litmus blue. The solutions which do not change the colour of
either red or blue litmus are known as neutral solutions.

Turmeric:
It is yellow in an acidic medium and turns reddish brown in a basic medium.

China Rose:
It turns the colour of acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and that of basic solutions to green.

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 SCIENCE ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Substances which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are known as neutral
substances. These substances are neither acidic nor basic.

Synthetic Indicators

Phenolphthalein:
It remains colourless in an acidic medium and turns pink in a basic medium.

Acid Rain

• Rain which contains a higher level of acid than normal is called acid rain.
• Rain becomes acidic because carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (which are

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released into the air as pollutants) dissolve in the rain drops to form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and
nitric acid respectively.

Salts
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Salts are produced by the neutralisation of acids with bases. During this process, water is also produced
along with the evolution of heat.
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Example: Hydrochloric acid on reaction with sodium hydroxide gives sodium chloride salt along with
water.
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HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

Neutralisation
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• The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water is called a neutralisation
reaction.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Neutralisation in Everyday Life

Indigestion
Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. However, presence of a large quantity of acid in the stomach
causes indigestion. To relieve this, we take an antacid such as milk of magnesia, which contains
magnesium hydroxide base to neutralise the effect of excessive acid.

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 SCIENCE ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Ant Bite
The sting of an ant contains formic acid. When an ant bites, the effect of the sting can be neutralised by
rubbing a base like moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) or calamine solution, which contains
zinc carbonate.

Soil Treatment
When soil is too acidic, it is treated with bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide). If the soil is basic, organic matter is added to it. Organic matter releases acids which
neutralise the basic nature of the soil.

Factory Wastes
• The wastes of many factories contain acids.

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• If the waste is allowed to enter the water bodies, the acid will kill the fish and other aquatic organisms.
• So, factory wastes are neutralised with basic substances before releasing them into water bodies.

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 SCIENCE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical and Chemical Changes

There are two types of changes, physical and chemical changes.

Physical Changes

• In a physical change, no new substances are formed.

• Changes in size, shape, state and colour of a substance are physical changes.
• In a physical change, the changes are temporary and can be easily reversed to form the original
substance.
Example:
Melting of ice and freezing of water.

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Chemical Changes

• The new substances formed have properties entirely different from the original substances.
• In a chemical change, the changes are permanent and can usually not be reversed to form the original
substances.

Characteristics of Chemical Changes

• Heat, light or any other radiation may be given off or absorbed.

• Sound may be produced.
• A change in smell may take place or a new smell may be given off.
• A colour change may take place.

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 SCIENCE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Examples:
i. Burning of Magnesium Ribbon
o Burning of a magnesium ribbon is a chemical change. When a magnesium ribbon is held over
the flame of a burner, it burns with a dazzling white light to form magnesium oxide.
Mg + O2 → MgO
o The magnesium oxide obtained on dissolving in water also forms a new substance, magnesium
hydroxide which turns red litmus paper blue, indicating that it is basic in nature. Hence, the
dissolving of magnesium oxide in water is a chemical change.
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2

ii. Reaction between Copper sulphate and Iron

o The reaction between copper sulphate and iron is a chemical change. When an iron object is
placed in a copper sulphate solution, a chemical reaction takes place to give two new
substances, iron sulphate and copper.

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iii. Reaction Between Baking soda and Vinegar
The reaction between baking soda and vinegar is a chemical change. Baking soda is sodium

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bicarbonate and vinegar contains acetic acid. On mixing baking soda with vinegar, a chemical

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change takes place to form three new substances, sodium acetate, carbon dioxide and water.
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Distinguish between Physical and Chemical Change
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Physical Change Chemical Change

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No new substance is formed. New substance is formed.

Change is temporary. Change is permanent.
It is easily reversible. It is usually irreversible.
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Protective Shield of Ozone

• There is a layer of ozone gas high up in the atmosphere.

• The ozone layer protects us from the harmful radiations coming from the Sun.
• The ozone absorbs these harmful radiations and breaks down to form oxygen.
• This breaking down of ozone into oxygen is a chemical change.

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 SCIENCE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Rusting of Iron

Iron objects, on being left in damp air (or water) for a considerable period of time get covered with a red
flaky substance called rust. This is called rusting of iron.
Iron combines with oxygen in the air, in the presence of water (moisture), to form iron oxide. This
hydrated iron (III) oxide is nothing but rust.

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Conditions Necessary for Rusting

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Two reasons necessary for rusting are:

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Presence of oxygen (in the air)
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Presence of water or water vapour (moisture)
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How to Prevent Rusting?
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Methods to prevent rusting of iron:

Painting or Greasing: Applying a coat of paint or grease to the surface of the iron object prevents the
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surface from coming in contact with the air and moisture and thus prevents rusting.

Galvanisation: The process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation. A thin layer of zinc
is deposited on the surface of the iron object and protects it from rusting.
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Alloying: Stainless steel, an alloy is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals such as chromium,
nickel and manganese, so that it does not rust.

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 SCIENCE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Crystallisation
The salt obtained from seawater by the process of evaporation is not pure and its crystals are small.
Moreover, the shape of the crystals cannot be seen clearly.
However, large crystals of pure substances can be obtained from their solutions by the process of
crystallisation.
The process of cooling a hot, concentrated solution of a substance to obtain crystals is called
crystallisation.

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 SCIENCE WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

Weather, Climate and Adaptations of Animals to Climate

Weather

• The weather of a place is the day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere with respect to the temperature,
humidity, rainfall, wind speed etc. at that place.
• It provides brief information about the temperature, humidity and rainfall during the past 24 hours and
predicts the weather for the day.
• Temperature, humidity and other factors are called the elements of weather.
• The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment is termed as temperature.

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• Humidity is the measure of water vapour or moisture in the air.

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Climate

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• The average weather pattern over a long period of time, suppose 25 years, is called the climate of that
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place.
• The scientific study of weather is called meteorology, and the specialists who study and forecast the
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weather every day are known as meteorologists.

• There are four major types of climates in the world:
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• Snowfall is observed in this climate. The air

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Polar Climate
contains very little water vapour at the poles.
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• Climate which is neither very hot in summer nor

Temperate Climate very cold in winter is called temperate climate.
Moderate rain and snowfall are also observed.

• Climate with a very high temperature and high

Tropical Climate humidity is termed as tropical climate. There is
usually a lot of rain in such climate.

• It is very hot during the day; however, due to less

Desert Climate
rain, desert areas are very dry.

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 SCIENCE WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

Climate and Adaptation

• Animals and plants show different types of adaptations in their structures so as to adjust to the climate.
This is termed as adaptation.
• Features and habits which help animals to adapt to their surroundings are a result of evolution.

Polar Regions
• Countries such as Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the state of Alaska in USA
and the Siberian region in Russia represent the Polar Regions.
• These regions are covered with snow for most part of the year. In winters, temperatures can be as low
as −37°C.
• Animals such as polar bears, penguins, different types of fishes, seals, musk deer, reindeers, foxes and

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birds are found in polar regions.

Adaptations in Animals

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Animals T Adaptation
Polar bears • Polar bears have two thick layers of fur and a layer of fat under their skin,
thereby protecting them from cold.
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• They have wide and large paws which not only help them to swim well but
also walk with ease in the snow.
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• They can close their nostrils and remain under water for a long time.
• They also have a strong sense of smell which helps them to hunt.
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Penguins • Penguins have thick skin and a lot of fat for protection against the cold.
• They move in groups which helps to keep their body warm.
• Their streamlined bodies and webbed feet make them good swimmers.
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Siberian cranes • Siberian cranes come from Siberia to warm places such as Bharatpur in
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Rajasthan and Sultanpur in Haryana to escape cold winters.

Reindeers • Reindeers migrate to warmer regions in the south where sufficient food is
available.
• They return to their original habitat in North America after a few months when
the snow there starts melting.

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 SCIENCE WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

Tropical Rainforests
• Tropical rainforests are found in the Western Ghats and in Assam in India, Southeast Asia, Central
America and Central Africa.
• Tropical regions are around the equator and hence, have a hot climate. During summer, the
temperature may cross 40°C.
• Animals such as red-eyed frogs, monkeys, toucans, lions, tigers, lion-tailed macaques and elephants
are found in tropical rainforests.

Adaptations in Animals

Animal Adaptation
Red-eyed frog • The red-eyed frog has sticky pads on its feet to help it climb trees on which it
lives.
• Its green colour helps it to hide within the green leaves of the tree unnoticed

EE TE
by its prey.

• Monkeys live on trees and have long tails for grasping the branches of trees.
Monkeys

/N U
• Their hands and feet help them to hold on to branches.

T
•
TToucan has a long, large beak to reach the fruits on branches which are
Toucan otherwise too weak to support its weight.
EE TI
• It is capable of changing the colour of its feathers in order to blend with the
surroundings.
-J S

• Lions and tigers have sensitive hearing, sharp eyesight and thick skin.
IIT IN

Lions and Tigers • Their yellow-brown colour helps them to hide in the grass or forest.
• They have sharp claws on their front legs for catching prey.

Lion-tailed • Lion-tailed macaque has a silver-white mane surrounding the head from the
2

macaque cheeks down to its chin.

K

• It eats seeds, young leaves, stems, flowers and buds, but primarily feeds on
fruits.

Elephants • Elephants use their trunk as a nose, for picking up food and drinking water.
• Teeth are modified into tusk which they use to tear off the bark of trees.
• They have a strong sense of smell.
• Large ears help the elephants to hear soft sounds. They also help them to
keep cool in the hot and humid climate of the rainforest.

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 SCIENCE WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONES

Winds, Storms and Cyclones

Air Exerts Pressure

• It is the force exerted by the weight of the air particles on the body.
• Air exerts a certain amount of pressure on every single thing.
• When we pour some fresh water over a heated can which contains boiling water, then it is observed
that the shape of the can gets distorted.
• This is because when fresh water is poured over the can, some steam in the can condenses into
water. This reduces the amount of air inside the can, thereby reducing the pressure inside the can.
Now, since the pressure outside the can is greater than that inside the can, the can gets compressed.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S

Relation between Wind (Air) and Air Pressure

IIT IN

• Wind speed depends on the difference in the pressure between the two regions. Wind moves from a
region of high air pressure to a region of low air pressure.
2

• The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the wind moves.
K

• Increased wind speed causes reduction in air pressure and decreased wind speed causes increase in
air pressure.
• On blowing air into the mouth of the bottle, the air near the mouth has higher speed. This decreases
the pressure in that region. However, the pressure inside the bottle is high, which pushes the ball out.
So, it is difficult to force the ball into the bottle.

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 SCIENCE WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONES

Air Expands on Heating

• Air expands on heating and contracts on cooling.

• Warm air is lighter than cold air. It rises up and occupies a larger volume.
• A balloon gets inflated when the boiling tube is placed in hot water. However, the same balloon gets
deflated when the tube is kept in cold water.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
Wind Currents
-J S

•
IIT IN

Wind currents are generated due to uneven heating of the earth.

Uneven heating of the equator and the poles

•
2

The air in the equatorial regions becomes warmer due to the heating of the earth.
• This warm air rises and the cooler air from the regions in the latitude belt of 0-30 degrees on either
K

side of the equator moves in.

• At the poles, the air is colder than that at the latitudes of about 60 degrees.
• The warm air at these latitudes rises up and the cold wind from the Polar Regions rushes in to take its
place.
• This is how a wind circulation is set up from the poles to the warmer latitudes.

Uneven heating of land and water

• In summer, near the equator, the land warms up faster and the temperature of the land is higher than
that of the water in the oceans.
• The air over the land gets heated and rises. This causes the winds to flow from the oceans towards
the land. These are called monsoon winds.
• In winters, the direction of the wind flow gets reversed and it flows from the land to the ocean.
• The monsoon winds carry water due to which it rains.

The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausam’,

which means ‘season’.
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 SCIENCE WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONES

Thunderstorms

• The swift movement of the falling water droplets along with rising air creates lightning and sound. This
is called a thunderstorm.
• Precautions to be taken during a thunderstorm:

Do not take shelter under an isolated tree.

If in forest, take shelter under a small tree. Do not lie on the ground.

Do not take shelter under an umbrella with a metallic end.

EE TE
Do not sit near a window.

/N U
T
Do not take shelter in garages, storage sheds or metal sheds.
T
EE TI
Do not take shelter in a car or a bus.
-J S

Do not be in water.
IIT IN

Cyclone
2
K

• Water takes up heat from the atmosphere to change into vapour before forming clouds.
• When water vapour changes back to liquid form as raindrops, heat is released into the atmosphere.
• The heat released into the atmosphere warms the air around.
• This air tends to rise and causes a drop in the pressure.
• More air rushes to the centre of the storm. This cycle is repeated.
• The chain of events ends with the formation of a very low-pressure system with very high-speed winds
revolving around it. This is called a cyclone.

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 SCIENCE WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONES

Structure of a Cyclone
• The centre of a cyclone is called the eye of the storm. This is a calm region.
• The diameter of the eye varies from 10-30 km. This region is free of clouds and has light winds.
• Around this clear eye, there is a cloud region of about 150 km. In this region, there are high-speed
winds and thick clouds with heavy rains.
• As we move away from this region, the wind speed decreases.

Destruction Caused By Cyclones

Sea water enters the low-lying areas causing severe loss of life and property.

EE TE
Continuous heavy rainfall makes the flood situation worse.

/N U
T
T
High speed winds can damage houses, telephones and other communication
system, trees etc.
EE TI
-J S

Different names of Cyclone

IIT IN

Hurricane (In American

continent)
2

Different names of cyclone

K

Typhoon (In Philippines and

Japan)

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 SCIENCE WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONES

Tornadoes

• A tornado is a dark funnel shaped cloud which reaches from the sky to the ground.
• Most of the tornadoes are weak.
• A violent tornado can travel at a speed of about 300 km/hr.
• Tornadoes may form within cyclones.
• The east coastline of India is more vulnerable to cyclones.

Safety Measures for Cyclones

A cyclone forecast and warning service should be established by the

government.

EE TE
Rapid communication of warnings to all the government agencies,

/N U
ports, fishermen, ships and general public should be done.

T
T
EE TI
Construction of cyclone shelters in the cyclone prone areas need to be
done. Administrative arrangements should be done for moving people
-J S

quickly to safer places.

IIT IN

People should not ignore the warning issued by the meteorological

departments through TV, radio and newspapers.
2
K

People should make necessary arrangements to shift the essential

household goods, domestic animals and vehicles to safer places.

People should avoid driving on roads through standing water as floods

may have damaged the roads.

Phone numbers of emergency services like police, fire brigade and

medical centres have to be kept in hand.

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 SCIENCE SOIL

Soil
Soil Profile

• Soil is a mixture of decomposed rock and mineral material with decayed organic matter called humus.
• A process termed weathering results in the formation of soil. Weathering is the disintegration and
decomposition of rocks and minerals over a period of time.
• The nature of the soil depends on the rocks from which it has been formed and the type of vegetation
which grows on it.
• A soil profile is a vertical section through different layers or horizons of the soil. Each layer has
different texture, colour and chemical composition.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

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 SCIENCE SOIL

Types of Soil

• Sand particles are larger and have more air spaces

between them.
Sandy Soil • Sandy soil is well aerated and water drains quickly
through the spaces between sand particles.
• It is less fertile.

• Clay particles are smaller and closely packed, thereby

EE TE
leaving little air space between the particles.
Clayey Soil • The water-retaining capacity of clayey soil is good
because the particles are small.
• Clayey soil is more fertile than sandy soil.

/N U
T
T
EE TI
• Loamy soil is basically a mixture of sand, clay and silt.
• It is made of almost the same amount of large and
Loamy Soil fine particles and has the optimum water-retaining
-J S

capacity.
IIT IN
2

Properties of Soil
K

• Soil contains air and moisture.

• Soil allows water to percolate. Percolation is the process by which water passes down slowly through
the soil.

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 SCIENCE SOIL

Soil and Crops

• Soil profile is affected by climatic factors such as wind, rainfall, temperature, light and humidity which
bring about changes in the soil structure.
• The type of vegetation in a particular area depends on the type of soil available in that region.

Type of soil Crops grown

Clayey and loamy soil They are suitable for growing cereals such as wheat and gram due to
good water-retaining capacity.
Loamy soil It is suitable for growing lentils and other pulses as this soil drains water
easily which is good for the crops.
Sandy soil or loamy soil Either of them is suitable for cotton because each drains water easily

EE TE
and holds plenty of air.
Clayey soil It is suitable for growing crops such as wheat because it is rich in humus
and is very fertile.

/N U
T
Soil Erosion
T
EE TI
• The removal of fertile topsoil by wind or water is called soil erosion. As a result, infertile sub-soil is
-J S

exposed which does not support plant growth.

• Deforestation is the primary cause of soil erosion. When trees are absent, there are no roots to bind
IIT IN

the soil particles, and hence, rainwater or wind carries away this loose soil causing soil erosion.
• Soil erosion removes the fertile topsoil leaving the land infertile. The land can no longer support
agriculture. Soil erosion even causes floods.
•
2

Soil erosion can be prevented by afforestation, which is large-scale growing of forest trees instead of
cutting them.
K

• A piece of land should not be left barren for a long period; the soil should be put to use by regular
farming.

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 SCIENCE RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS

Respiration in Organisms
What is Respiration?

• A process in living organisms involving the production of energy, typically with the intake of oxygen
and the release of carbon dioxide, is called respiration.
• When the breakdown of food, i.e. glucose, occurs in the presence of oxygen, it is called aerobic
respiration.

EE TE
• When the breakdown of food, i.e. glucose, occurs in the absence of oxygen, it is called anaerobic

/N U
T
respiration. T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN

Respiration in Humans
2

• The process of taking in oxygen rich air into the body is called inhalation, and giving out of air rich in
K

carbon dioxide is known as exhalation.

• The process of inhalation and exhalation together is called breathing.

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 SCIENCE RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS

Mechanism of Breathing
• Air inhaled through the nostrils passes into the nasal cavity and reaches the lungs through the
windpipe.
• The windpipe, also known as trachea, branches into two smaller tubes called bronchi at its lower
end; the two bronchi are connected to the two lungs.
• Lungs are present within the chest cavity which is surrounded by ribs on the sides.
• Each bronchus is further divided into still smaller tubes called bronchioles which have air-sacs at their
ends called alveoli.
• Exchange of respiratory gases between air and blood occurs in the alveoli.

Respiration in Animals

EE TE
• Animals such as insects respire through spiracles through which air enters and is transported to every
cell of the body.
• Fishes breathe through gills. They take in the oxygen dissolved in water.
•

/N U
Earthworms breathe through the skin. They absorb oxygen from the air which is then transported to all

T
the cells in the body via blood.
•
T
Frogs can breathe through their lungs as well as their moist skin.
EE TI
Respiration in Plants
-J S
IIT IN

• Plants breathe in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.

• In plant cells, glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen.
• The exchange of gases occurs by means of tiny openings called stomata present on the lower
2

surface of the leaves.

K

• Oxygen enters the leaf through the stomata and reaches all the cells by diffusion. Carbon dioxide
produced also diffuses out through the same stomata.

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 SCIENCE REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Reproduction in Plants
• The production of new individuals from parents is known as reproduction.
• Plants reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

Pollination
Sexual
Reproduction
Fertilisation

EE TE
Reproduction in Vegetative
Plants propagation

/N U
T
T Budding
EE TI
Asexual
Reproduction
-J S

Fragmentation
IIT IN

Spore formation
2
K

Asexual Reproduction

• In asexual reproduction, new plants are obtained without the production of seeds or spores.

Vegetative Propagation
• In this type of reproduction, new plants are produced from roots, stems, leaves and buds.
• Since these parts are known as vegetative parts of a plant, this type of reproduction is termed as
vegetative propagation.

Stem Roots Leaves

Potato Dahlia Bryophyllum

Ginger Mango Begonia

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 SCIENCE REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Budding
• In budding, a small part of the parent plant body grows out as a bulb-like projection called the bud,
which detaches and becomes a new plant. Example: Yeast.

Fragmentation

EE TE
• Fragmentation involves breaking up of the plant body into two or more pieces on maturing, each of
which subsequently grows to form a new plant. Example: Spirogyra.

/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

Spore Formation
• Parent plants produce hundreds of tiny spores in spore cases. When these spore cases burst, spores
are spread into the air. Under favourable conditions, the spores germinate and develop into new
individuals. Examples: Rhizopus (bread mould), mosses and ferns.

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 SCIENCE REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Sexual Reproduction

• Flowers are reproductive parts of a plant. The stamen is the male reproductive part, while the pistil is
the female reproductive part.
• Flowers with either only stamen or only pistil are known as unisexual flowers. Examples: Corn,
papaya and cucumber.
• Flowers which contain both stamen and pistil are called bisexual flowers. Examples: Mustard, rose
and Petunia.
• The stamen consists of anther and filament. The anther contains pollen grains which produce male
gametes.
• The pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary. The ovary contains one or more ovules. The female
gamete or egg is formed in an ovule.
•

EE TE
Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote.

/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

Pollination
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
• When pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower, it is termed as
self-pollination.
• When the pollen grains of a flower land on the stigma of another flower of the same plant, or that of a
different plant of the same kind, it is known as cross-pollination.
• The pollen grains are light and can be easily carried by wind or water.
• Insects help in the transfer of pollen by carrying the pollen on their body on their visit to the flower.
• Pollination in aquatic plants such as Vallisneria and Hydrilla is carried out by water.

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 SCIENCE REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Fertilisation
• The fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote is termed as fertilisation.
• Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops into an embryo.
• The embryo is that part of the seed which develops into a new plant.

Fruit and Seed Formation

• After fertilisation, the ovule present in the ovary grows to become a seed and the ovary grows into a
fruit.
• The other parts of the flower dry up and fall off.
• The seed contains the embryo enclosed in a protective seed coat.
• Apples, oranges, mangoes, plums, tomatoes, walnuts and almonds are fruits with seeds.

EE TE
Seed Dispersal

/N U
T
• If all the seeds germinate in the same place, then there would be an unhealthy competition for food
T
and light between plants.
• This is avoided due to dispersal of seeds.
EE TI
Method of Seed Dispersal Mechanism
-J S

Dispersal by Explosion • In explosion, fruits of plants burst open when they are ripe, thereby
scattering the seeds in all directions.
IIT IN

• Examples: Pea, bean and castor.

Dispersal by Wind • Seeds of certain plants develop wing-like hairy structures which
allow them to be carried away by wind.
2

• When mature and dry, the fruit bursts open and releases seeds
K

which are dispersed by the wind.

• Examples: Maple, Moringa (drum stick), Calotropis (milk weed).
• Certain birds eat fruits along with their soft parts. Since these seeds
Dispersal by Animals are hard and thick, they escape digestion and are passed out with
bird droppings.
• Examples: Tomato, guava and chilly.
• Fruits of some plants are covered with tiny hooks, and those of
spear grass have stiff hair. When ripe and dry, fruits cling to the
bodies of passing animals or to the clothing of humans and get
transported over great distances.
• Examples: Xanthium and Urena.
Dispersal by Water • Some trees grow along the coastal regions and produce fruits which
can float in water, and thereby get transported by waves.
• Example: Coconut.

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 SCIENCE MOTION AND TIME

Motion and Time

Motion

• Motion refers to the change in the position of an object with respect to time.
• There are two states of an object:

States of an object

EE TE
Rest Motion

/N U
• When a body does not change its position with respect to time, then the body is said to be at rest.

T
o Examples: Chairs of a dining table, a flower vase, table, blackboard etc.
T
• When the body changes its position with respect to time, then the body is said to be in motion.
EE TI
o Examples: The blades of a rotating fan, the hands of a working wall clock etc.

Slow and Fast Motion

-J S

• An object is said to be moving slowly if it covers lesser distance in a given time interval.
IIT IN

• A slow moving object has low speed.

• An object is said to be moving quickly if it covers more distance in a given time interval.
• A fast moving object has high speed.
2

Rectilinear Motion
K

• Motion in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.

Circular Motion
• When an object moves in a circular path, it is said to perform circular motion.

Rotational Motion
• When an object turns/spins about a fixed axis, it is said to perform rotational motion.

Periodic Motion
• The motion which repeats itself after regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
• It is also called oscillatory motion.

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 SCIENCE MOTION AND TIME

Speed

• Speed is the distance covered by an object in unit time.

• If a body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with uniform
speed.
• If a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals or equal distances in unequal intervals, then it is
said to be moving with non-uniform speed.
• Speed is calculated as
Distance
Speed =
Time
• The basic unit for speed is metre per second (m/s).
• It is also measured in kilometre per hour (km/h) and kilometre per min (km/min).

EE TE
Average Speed
• The average speed of a moving object is defined as the total distance covered by it divided by the total
time taken.

/N U
Average speed =
Total distance covered

T
Total time taken
T
Measurement of Speed
EE TI
• Speed is how fast or slow an object is moving.
-J S

• Measuring speed means observing the distance and the time taken by the object.
IIT IN

Speedometer
• It is an instrument used in vehicles to show the speed with which the vehicle is moving.
•
2

Not all moving vehicles have a speedometer.

o Example: A bicycle does not have a speedometer, whereas a car has a speedometer.
K

• The speedometer has a needle which indicates the speed.

Odometer
• An odometer is a device on vehicles to track the distance covered.

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 SCIENCE MOTION AND TIME

Measurement of Time

• Certain events in nature help us track time.

Example: The phases of the moon indicate the time of the month.
• Man-made structures are also constructed to measure time.
Example: The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is a Sun clock which is used to measure the time.

EE TE
/N U
• Water clocks and sand clocks were used hundreds of years ago to measure time.

T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN

• The basic unit of time is a second, and it is represented by the symbol ‘s’.
2

• Larger units of time are minute (min) and hour (h).

K

• A pendulum is also used to measure time. It consists of a small metal ball called a bob, attached to an
inextensible string, which is fixed to a rigid support.

• The length of the pendulum is the distance from the point of suspension to the centre of gravity.
• The time taken by the bob of the pendulum to make one complete oscillation is called its time period.
• If the time period of a simple pendulum is two seconds, then the pendulum is called a second’s
pendulum.

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 SCIENCE MOTION AND TIME

Distance-Time Graph

• A distance-time graph is a visual representation of the collected data.

• The graph has a horizontal ‘x-axis’ which represents the time, and a vertical ‘y-axis’ which represents
the distance.
• If the line on the graph is horizontal, then it implies that the object is stationary.
• If the line on the graph is straight but with a slope, then the object is moving at a steady speed.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN

• If the line on the graph is steeper (shown by a blue line), then the speed of the object is greater.
2
K

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 SCIENCE TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Transportation in Animals and Plants

Circulatory System

• The circulatory system is defined as the system which moves blood, oxygen and nutrients through
the body.
• An example of the circulatory system is the functioning of the human heart, blood and blood
vessels.

Blood
• Blood is a fluid which flows in blood vessels and transports substances such as digested food from
the small intestine to other parts of the body.

EE TE
• It carries oxygen from the lungs to the other cells of the body.
• It transports waste for removal from the body.
• Blood is a liquid containing many kinds of cells suspended in it. The fluid part of the blood is called

/N U
plasma.

T
Red Blood Cells
T White Blood
Platelets Plasma
EE TI
(RBCs) Cells (WBCs)

• They contain a • They fight against • They are tiny • It is the liquid part
-J S

red pigment the germs which fragments of of blood and is a

called enter the body. special cells pale yellow, sticky
haemoglobin • Some which are formed liquid.
IIT IN

WBCs
which binds with make chemicals in the bone • It carries
oxygen and known as marrow. dissolved
transports it to all antibodies to fight • They help in substances such
parts of the body. against infection. clotting of blood as digested food
2

and prevent the and waste

loss of blood. products from one
K

part to another.

• Blood carrying oxygen is called oxygenated blood and the blood lacking oxygen is called
deoxygenated blood.
• Animals such as Hydra and sponge lack a circulatory system. The water in which they live carries
food and oxygen when it enters the body. The waste materials and carbon dioxide are carried away
with water when it moves out.
• Unicellular animals such as Amoeba and Paramoecium living in water also have no blood in them.

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 SCIENCE TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Blood Vessels
• Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. The walls of the arteries are
thick and elastic because the blood flow is rapid and at high pressure.
• Capillaries are present throughout the body. The exchange of substances (Examples - food, oxygen
and carbon dioxide) between the blood and the body cells occurs through capillaries.
• Veins carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body back to the heart. They have thin
walls.
• The number of pulse beats per minute is known as the pulse rate. The pulse rate is the same as the
heart rate.

Heart
• The heart beats continuously and acts as a pump for the transport of blood which carries other
substances with it.

EE TE
• The heart is located in the chest cavity with its lower tip slightly tilted towards the left.
• The human heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria and the two lower
chambers are called ventricles. This partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing of oxygen-
rich blood with carbon-dioxide rich blood.

/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

Heartbeat
• The walls of the chambers of the heart are made of muscles which contract and relax rhythmically.
This rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles constitute a heartbeat.
• The rhythmic beating of the heart maintains the circulation of blood and the transport of substances to
different parts of the body.
• The average heartbeat of an adult person while resting is 72 to 80 per minute. It increases during and
after physical exercise.
• The heartbeat can be heard by using an instrument called a stethoscope. It amplifies the sound of a
heartbeat.

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 SCIENCE TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Excretion

• When cells perform their functions, certain waste products which are toxic in nature need to be
removed. The process of removal of wastes is called excretion.

Excretory System in Humans

• The different parts of the human excretory system are two kidneys, two ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

• Of the useful and harmful substances in the blood which reach the kidneys, the useful substances are
reabsorbed into the blood. The wastes dissolved in water are removed as urine.
• From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through tube-like ureters.
• The bladder stores urine till the time it is passed out through the urinary opening at the end of a
muscular tube called urethra.
• An adult human being passes about 1-1.8 litres of urine which consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea and
2.5% waste products.
• Sweat is also a type of excretory product containing water and salts. It is removed from the body by
sweat glands through the skin.

Excretion in Animals
• Aquatic animals excrete cell waste in gaseous form (ammonia) which directly dissolves in water.
• Birds and land animals such as lizards, snakes and insects excrete a white-coloured semi-solid waste
called uric acid.

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 SCIENCE TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Transport of Substances in Plants

• Plants absorb water and minerals from the soil through roots and transport these to leaves, where
food is prepared.
• Since food is a source of energy, it must be made available to every cell of the organism. To serve this
purpose, a transport system is present in plants.

Transport of Water and Minerals

• Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil. These vessels are made
of special cells forming a vascular tissue.
• The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in plants is called xylem, while that for the
transport of food is called phloem.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

Transpiration
• When plants absorb mineral nutrients and water from the soil, some of it is absorbed by the plant while
some evaporates through the stomata present on the surface of the leaves by the process of
transpiration.
• This evaporation of water from leaves causes a suction pull which is able to pull water to great
heights in tall trees.
• Just like sweating helps to keep our body cool, transpiration cools the plants.

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 SCIENCE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS

Electric Current and its Effects

Electric Current

• An electric current is a flow of electric charge.

Symbols of Electric Current

• Electric components are represented by symbols.
• Symbols are used in circuit diagrams to show how a circuit is connected.

Sr.
Electric Component Image Symbol
No.
Electric Cell

EE TE
1.

/N U
Electric Bulb

T
2. T
EE TI
Switch in ‘ON’ Position
-J S

3.
IIT IN

Switch in ‘OFF’ Position

4.
2
K

Battery
5.

Wire
6.

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 SCIENCE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS

Electric Circuit

• Electric current that flows through wires, cells, a key, a bulb etc. in a closed path is called an electric
circuit.
• It is also known as a closed circuit.

EE TE
• The bulb glows only when the switch is in the ‘ON’ position.
• A cell has two terminals:
o Positive terminal (+)

/N U
o Negative terminal (−)

T
T
EE TI
• A key or a switch used in the circuit usually breaks the circuit when it is in the ‘OFF’ position and allows
the electric current to flow when it is in the ‘ON’ position.
-J S
IIT IN

Heating Effect of Electric Circuit

• When an electric current is passed through a metallic wire, it gets heated up. This is known as the
2

heating effect of current.

•
K

Electric room heater or an electric heater works on the heating effect of electric current.
• It contains a coil of a wire called an element.
• This element becomes red hot and produces heat. The amount of heat produced in the wire depends
on its material, length and thickness.

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 SCIENCE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS

Electric Fuse

• An electric fuse is an important application of the heating effect of electric current.

• The wires of an electric fuse are made of materials which melt quickly and break when large electric
current is passed through them.

EE TE
/N U
T
• There is a maximum limit on the current which can safely flow through a circuit.
•
T
If the current exceeds this safe limit, then the wires may become overheated and cause fire. Hence, a
EE TI
fuse is used to prevent such a dangerous occurrence.
-J S

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

IIT IN

• When an electric current passes through a wire, it behaves like a magnet. This is known as the
magnetic effect of the electric current.
• When a compass is brought near such a current-carrying conductor/wire, the needle of the compass
2

gets deflected because of the flow of electricity. This shows that electric current produces a magnetic
K

effect.

Electromagnets

• An electromagnet can be defined as a soft-iron core which is magnetised temporarily by passing a

current through a coil of wire wound on the core.
• When the electric current is switched off, the coil generally loses its magnetism. Such coils are called
electromagnets.
• Electromagnets are widely used in motors, electric bells, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks,
MRI machines as well as in industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and moving heavy iron
objects such as scrap iron.

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 SCIENCE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS

Electric Bell

• An electric bell is a device which produces sound at the push of a button.

EE TE
• It consists of a coil of wire wound on an iron piece. This coil acts as an electromagnet.
•

/N U
An iron strip with a hammer at one end is kept close to the electromagnet.

T
• A contact screw is placed near the iron strip. When the iron strip is in contact with the screw, current
T
flows through the coil. The coil thus, acts as an electromagnet. It then pulls the iron strip.
EE TI
• In this process, the hammer at the end of the strip strikes the gong of the bell to produce a sound.
• When the electromagnet pulls the iron strip, it breaks the circuit, and the current through the coil stops
flowing.
-J S

• The iron strip comes back to its original position and touches the contact screw again. This completes
IIT IN

the circuit and the current flows in the coil and the hammer strikes the gong again.
2
K

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Light

Light

• Light is defined as a radiation which is visible to the human eye.

• The natural source of light on the Earth is the Sun.
• Sunlight plays an important role in the process of photosynthesis and thereby, in the growth of plants.
• Other sources of light are candlelight, fire, lasers, tube lights, electric bulbs etc.
• Light can travel through vacuum, i.e. it does not require a medium to travel.
• The path of light is always straight and not curved. It does not bend.
o Examples: Light emitted from a torch and the headlights of a vehicle.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
• The direction of light can only be changed by reflection.
EE TI
-J S

Reflection of Light
IIT IN

• The bouncing of light from a smooth surface such as a mirror is called reflection of light.
2
K

• Due to the reflection of light, the impression of an object formed in the mirror is called the image of the
object.
• As the distance of the object from the mirror increases, the distance of the image also increases.
• Example: A candle placed in front of a plane mirror appears as if a similar candle is placed behind the
mirror.

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

• An image formed by a plane mirror is erect and of the same size as the object.

Laws of Reflection

EE TE
The laws of reflection are:
• The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
• The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface, all lie in the same plane.

/N U
T
Types of Reflection
T
EE TI
-J S

Types of reflection
IIT IN
2

Regular reflection Irregular reflection

K

Regular Reflection
• Regular reflection is the reflection of light rays from a smooth surface such as a mirror, glass or water.

• The reflected rays of light move in a fixed direction.

• Images formed by regular reflection are always clear and distinct.
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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Irregular Reflection or Diffused Reflection

• Irregular or diffused reflection is the reflection of light from a rough surface such as a plastic sheet,
writing paper, wooden board, cloth, skin, leather etc.

EE TE
• This reflection occurs when a ray of light is incident on a wall or wood, which is not smooth or
polished.
• The reflected rays do not travel in the same direction.

/N U
T
Left-Right Inversed
T
EE TI
• It means that the images are inversed, i.e. the right part of an object appears on the left in the formed
-J S

image, and the left part of the object appears to the right.
IIT IN
2
K

• Example: The word ‘AMBULANCE’ is painted left-right inversed. When the driver of a vehicle in front
looks into the rear-view mirror, he can read the word AMBULANCE quickly and make way.

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Characteristics of an Image

• The image formed by a plane mirror is:

Of the same size as that of the object.

Left-right inversed.

Erect and virtual.

EE TE
Formed behind the mirror at the same distance as the
distance of the object in front of the mirror.

/N U
T
Spherical Mirrors
T
EE TI
• Spherical mirrors have curved reflecting surfaces and are also called curved mirrors.
•
-J S

These mirrors are made from a hollow sphere.

• There are two types of curved surfaces at each hemisphere:
IIT IN

o Inner curved surface

o Outer curved surface
• The inner curved surface is called concave, while the outer curved surface is called convex.
2
K

• There are two types of spherical mirrors:

Concave

Spherical mirrors

Convex

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Concave Mirror

• If the reflecting surface of a mirror is concave, i.e. bent inwards, then it is called a concave mirror.

EE TE
• A concave mirror is used to magnify objects.

/N U
T
Uses of Concave Mirrors T
• These mirrors are used by dentists to obtain a magnified image of the teeth.
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

• Doctors use concave mirrors to examine the ears, nose and throat.
• They are used in headlights of cars and scooters in order to increase their focus and brightness..
• People use it to shave and apply makeup.

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Convex Mirror

• If the reflecting surface of a mirror is convex, then it is called a convex mirror.

EE TE
•

/N U
A convex mirror is also known as a diverging mirror or a fish eye mirror.

T
• The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual, erect and diminished, which means that a larger area
T
is visible in a convex mirror than in a plane mirror of the same size.
EE TI
Uses of Convex Mirrors
• These mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in cars and motorcycles, as they enable the driver/rider to
-J S

view the road and the vehicles behind.

IIT IN
2
K

• They are also used in supermarkets, stores and ATM centres as a security measure.

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Types of Images formed by a Mirror

• A mirror forms the following two types of images - Virtual and Real.

Virtual Image
• The image formed by a mirror which cannot be captured on a screen is called a virtual image.
• It is always erect.

Real Image
• The image which can be captured on a screen is known as a real image.
• It is always inverted.
Example: In a camera, images are real and can be captured on the negative, which acts as a screen.

EE TE
Lenses

/N U
T
T Lenses
EE TI
-J S

Concave lens Convex lens

IIT IN
2

Concave Lens
K

• When light rays are incident on a concave lens, they bend outwards or diverge.
• This lens is also called a diverging lens.
• A concave lens is thinner at its centre than at its edges.
• It is used to correct short-sightedness.

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 SCIENCE LIGHT

Convex Lens

• When light rays pass through a convex lens, they bend inwards and converge at a common point to
form an image of the source of light.
•

EE TE
This lens is also called a converging lens.
• A convex lens magnifies the object viewed through it.
• A convex lens is thick in the middle and thin at its edges.
• When the object is placed close to a convex lens, the image formed is virtual, erect and magnified.
•
/N U
T
When the object is placed at a far off distance from a convex lens, the image formed is real, inverted
T
and diminished.
EE TI
Applications of Lenses
-J S

• Lenses are used in magnifying glasses, peepholes, cameras, bioscopes, binoculars, telescopes,
IIT IN

microscopes and projectors.

• A refracting telescope uses a concave mirror and a convex lens.
2

Dispersion of Light
K

• The phenomenon of splitting of a beam of white light into its constituent colours on passing through a
prism is called dispersion of light.
• A rainbow is formed when white light from the Sun passes through tiny prism-like water droplets and
splits into different colours.
• The order of colours from the lower end is violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red, i.e.
VIBGYOR.

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 SCIENCE WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE

Water: A Precious Resource

• Water is an important natural resource.
• 71% of Earth is covered with water.
• Readily available water for use is only 0.006% of the total water present on the Earth.
• Water exists in three forms: solid, liquid and gaseous.
• Snow and ice are present as ice caps at the poles of the Earth, snow-covered mountains and glaciers
are solid form of water.
• Oceans, lakes, rivers and underground water represent liquid form of water.
• Water vapour in air is the gaseous form of water.

Water Cycle

EE TE
• Freshwater supply on land has been maintained by the water cycle.
•

/N U
Physical processes such as evaporation, condensation, precipitation and infiltration occur

T
continuously one after the other and constitute the water cycle.
•
T
The continuous cycling of water among its three forms keeps the total amount of water on the earth
EE TI
constant.
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

Groundwater and Depletion of Water Table

• On digging the ground near a water body, a level is reached where all the space between the particles
of soil and gaps between the rocks are filled with water. The upper limit of this layer is termed water
table which varies from place to place.
• The water found below the water table is called groundwater.
• The process of infiltration helps in replenishment of groundwater.
• An aquifer is a place where groundwater is stored between layers of permeable rock below the water
table. By using hand pumps or tube wells, water in aquifers can be pumped out.

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 SCIENCE WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE

• Increase in the usage of water may be due to a rise in population and industrial and agricultural
activities.
• Scanty rainfall, deforestation and decrease in the effective area for seepage of rainwater are other
reasons for depletion of water.
• Some places receive good amount of rainfall, while regions such as deserts have scanty rainfall. For
example, in India, Assam receives an average annual rainfall of 280 cm, whereas Rajasthan receives
an average annual rainfall of only about 49 cm.
• Excessive rains may cause floods, whereas insufficient rains may cause droughts.

Water Management

EE TE
Leakage in pipes leads to wastage of water.
• People often leave the taps open while shaving, bathing, brushing and washing vegetables even when
not required.
• Most rainwater flows into water drains and becomes useless. Such wastage of a precious natural

/N U
resource must be stopped.

T
T
Proper Management of Water
EE TI
Percolation Pit An important technique is rainwater harvesting which involves construction of
percolation pits and recharge wells to recharge groundwater.
-J S

Bawri A traditional way of collecting water is the ‘bawri. It was primarily constructed for
collecting water to be used during times of drought.
IIT IN

Drip Irrigation Drip irrigation is another technique of watering plants by making use of narrow
tubes which deliver water directly at the base of the plant. It minimises the use of
water in agriculture.
2
K

Water - Wise Habits

Do not keep the tap running all the time while brushing, shaving,
bathing and washing utensils. Turn it off immediately after use.

Instead of washing, mop the floor; this will help in saving water.

Leaking taps must be repaired immediately.

Use the water from washing rice, vegetables or fruits for watering
the plants at home.

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 SCIENCE WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE

Effects of Water Scarcity on Plants

If plants die due to insufficient water,

Water scarcity will affect the nutrient
there would be no food, no oxygen,
uptake by plants and the process of
not enough rainfall and several other
photosynthesis. This will lead to
problems which would affect man and
shortage of food.
animals.

Effects of water
scarcity on plants

Due to decreased photosynthesis,

Scarcity of water will reduce
sufficient oxygen will not be released

EE TE
transpiration which will result in lesser
in the air, which will affect respiration
of other living beings. rainfall.

/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN
2
K

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 SCIENCE FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE

Forests: Our Lifeline

• A forest is a large area of land mostly covered with trees and other plants.

Components of a Forest

• Living components: Plants, animals and microbes.

• Non-living components: Soil, air and water.

• They produce food by photosynthesis and are

Plants
called autotrophs or producers.

EE TE
• They are heterotrophs or consumers because

/N U
Animals
they cannot prepare their own food.

T
T
• They are also called saprotrophs because they
EE TI
Decomposers live and feed on dead plants and animals.
Bacteria and fungi are examples of
decomposers.
-J S
IIT IN

• They feed on dead bodies of animals. Vultures,

Scavengers crows, hyenas, termites and millipedes are
examples of scavengers.
2
K

Structure of Forest

Canopy • The uppermost branches and leaves of tall trees which act like a roof over the
forest ground are called canopies. The canopy comprises of large and mature
leaves.
Understorey • The layer of vegetation in a forest which is just below the canopy is called the
understorey. This layer consists of small trees and tree saplings.
Shrub Layer • This layer of vegetation is just below the understorey. It mainly consists of
mature shrubs and bushes.
Herb Layer • The layer of vegetation which is below the shrub layer is called the herb layer
which mainly consists of herbs, ferns and grass.
Forest Floor • The ground surface of the forest is called the forest floor. It has many kinds of
small, leafless plants such as moss, liverwort, lichen etc. and animals such as
tigers, lions etc. and insects and decomposers.

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 SCIENCE FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE

EE TE
• The branchy part of a tree above the stem is known as the crown of the tree.
• Crowns are mainly responsible for the absorption of Sun’s light energy, performing photosynthesis,
releasing oxygen and carrying out processes such as respiration and transpiration.

/N U
T
Forest- An Ecosystem
T
EE TI
• An ecosystem is a self-sufficient unit of the living and non-living environment only requiring energy
-J S

from the sunlight for its functioning.

• Living beings not only interact with each other but also with the non-living components of the forest.
IIT IN

• Plants interact with soil to obtain nutrients, with water to prepare food during photosynthesis and with
air to obtain carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
• Living beings interact with one another through the food chain. Example: Grass is eaten by a
2

grasshopper; the grasshopper is eaten by a frog; the frog is eaten by a snake; and the snake may be
K

eaten by a hawk.

Grass → Grasshopper → Snake →Hawk

• If any one of the components of a food chain is destroyed, it will disrupt the food chain causing
imbalance in nature.
• All the food chains interlink to form a food web.
• When plants and animals die, decomposers decompose their bodies into nutrients, water and carbon
dioxide.
• In this way, water and nutrients are returned to the soil and carbon dioxide is returned to the air. These
are reused and the process goes on like a never-ending chain.

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 SCIENCE FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE

Importance of Forests

Forests help to keep the environment cool, to receive a good amount of rainfall and to
reduce noise pollution by absorbing the noise of nearby highways.

We obtain several products from forests such as wood, honey, gum, sealing wax, fruits,
rubber and medicinal plants.

Forests absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen during
photosynthesis.

EE TE
Trees in the forest release water vapour into the air by transpiration which helps in the
formation of clouds and brings rain on the earth.

/N U
T
Forest cover helps to hold the soil particles together and prevents soil erosion.
T
EE TI
The forest floor absorbs most of the rainwater during heavy rains. This water seeps into the
forest ground and raises the water table. The forests release this absorbed water slowly into
-J S

the rivers through the soil. This prevents the occurrence of floods in rivers.
IIT IN

Regeneration of Forests
2
K

• The trees and plants in a forest can grow and regenerate on their own.
• The organisms decompose the wastes and the dead bodies of plants and animals and convert them
into humus which mixes with the soil making it fertile and appropriate for plant growth.
• In addition, animals and birds help in seed dispersal which helps in the growth of plants in different
areas of the forest.

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 SCIENCE FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE

Conservation of Forests

Excessive cutting down of forest trees should not be

allowed by the government.

Instead of taking resources from existing natural forests,

afforestation is a process used to plant trees and use them
as resources instead of using naturally existing forests.

EE TE
Paper products such as old newspapers, notebooks etc.

/N U
must be recycled.

T
T
EE TI
Reforestation is a method of planting trees in an existing
-J S

forested area.
IIT IN
2
K

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 SCIENCE WASTEWATER STORY

Wastewater Story

Water – Our Lifeline

• Water is used for a variety of purposes in our everyday life. When used, this water becomes
adulterated and is called waste water.
• Polluted water leads to people suffering from water-related diseases.
• Water gets polluted due to several factors such as increase in population, industrial development and
mismanagement.
• Waste water is subjected to a cleaning process often referred to as sewage treatment.

EE TE
Sewage

•
/N U
T
Sewage is liquid waste; most of it is water which has dissolved and suspended impurities.
•
T
Water which washes off the roads and roofs carries harmful substances and impurities called
contaminants.
EE TI
Types of Impurities Examples
-J S

Organic impurities Human faeces, animal wastes, oil, urea, pesticides,

herbicides, fruit and vegetable wastes
IIT IN

Inorganic impurities Nitrates, phosphates, metals

Nutrients Phosphorus and nitrogen
Bacteria Those which cause diseases such as cholera, dysentery and
2

typhoid
K

• A sewer is an underground passage for carrying off drainage water and waste matter.
• The provision of drainage at a place by laying sewers under the ground is called sewerage. It takes
the waste water to the point of disposal, i.e. a treatment plant.
• A manhole is a covered vertical hole in the ground, pavement or road. Manholes are located every
50-60 m in a sewerage system, at the junction of two or more sewers and at points where there is a
change in direction of the sewer line.

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 SCIENCE WASTEWATER STORY

Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

• Physical, chemical, biological processes are employed to remove physical, chemical and biological
matter from the water.

Screening
Waste water is passed through bar screens. Large and easily visible objects such as sticks,
cans, plastic packets and napkins are removed.

Grit and Sand Removal

EE TE
Water then enters a grit and sand removal tank. Water is passed slowly to allow sand, grit and
pebbles to settle down.

/N U
T
T
Water is allowed to settle in a large tank which slopes towards the middle. Solids settle at the
bottom and are removed with a scraper. A skimmer removes floatable solids.
EE TI
-J S
IIT IN

The solid sludge is then transferred to a separate tank where anaerobic bacteria decompose it
and produce biogas.
2
K

Aeration
Anaerobic bacteria are allowed to grow by pumping in air into clarified water. Bacteria consume
the unwanted matter still present in the clarified water.

From the aeration tank, treated water is sent to another sedimentation tank, where, after
several hours, the suspended microbes settle down as activated sludge and the water from the
top is removed. The activated sludge is removed using sand drying beds or machines.

• The dried sludge is now used as manure, thereby returning the organic matter and nutrients to the
soil.
• The treated water has a very low level of organic and suspended matter and is hence discharged into
seas, rivers or into the ground.
• Sometimes, chemicals such as chlorine and ozone are used to disinfect water before releasing it into
the distribution system.

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 SCIENCE WASTEWATER STORY

Alternative Arrangement for Sewage Disposal

Septic tanks • Anaerobic bacteria break down the solid-liquid waste, thereby reducing its
volume.
Composting • A composting toilet breaks down and dehydrates human waste to compost
toilets which can be added to soil to make it fertile.
Chemical toilets • These toilets have a chemically treated reservoir directly below the toilet seat.
• The chemicals help reduce the odour and carry out partial disinfection of
human waste.
Vermicomposting • Earthworms eventually eat up all the organic matter present in the excreta,
toilets decompose it and pass it out of their body as worm castings which act as a
very good manure for soil.

EE TE
Sanitation and Disease

/N U
T
•
T
A large number of diseases are caused by poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water.
•
EE TI
Water contaminated with untreated human excreta causes diseases such as cholera, typhoid and
dysentery.
-J S
IIT IN

The wastes generated at public places such as railways, bus depots, hospitals and
airports must be disposed off properly or else an epidemic could break out.
2
K

We must take care that water does not stagnate in the surroundings or that open
heaps of garbage do not lie unattended.

Low-cost onsite human waste disposal systems are being used to improve sanitation.
In this system, excreta from toilets flow through covered drains into a biogas plant. The
biogas produced is used as a source of energy.

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 SCIENCE WASTEWATER STORY

Good Practices of Waste Disposal

Citizens can approach the municipality or gram panchayat and

insist that drains be covered and a proper method for waste
disposal be used.

We must not litter public places such as roads and parks.

Paper, food waste, packets or empty plastic water bottles must
be thrown in dustbins.

EE TE
We must not spit or urinate in public places.

/N U
T
T
Authorities should look to it that there are public toilets and
dustbins.
EE TI
-J S

Awareness must be spread among the citizens about the ill-

IIT IN

effects of an unclean environment.

2
K

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