Lesson 2

PRE- HARVEST FACTORS AND POSTHARVEST BEHAVIOUR OF HORTICULTURE CROPS

Learning Objectives
1. Identify the morphological parts of some fruits and vegetables.
2. Explain the chemical basis of agronomic and horticultural crops relative to postharvest quality.

TOPIC

I. MORPHOLOGICAL BASIS OF AGRONOMIC AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS RELATIVE TO

POSTHARVEST QUALITY

1. Horticultural crops – fruits, vegetables, cutflowers, plantations

 Vegetable Crops
a. Green leafy vegetables – undergo wilting and yellowing after harvest
b. Fruit vegetables – physiologically ripens
c. Stem vegetables – undergo elongation and toughening ex. Asparagus
d. Root crops – sprouting
e.Modified stems – sprouting ex. Bulbs (vegetables), rhizomes (vegetables), potato, tubers, gabi

 Fruits – are classified as horticultural if are in fleshy forms and agronomic if are in dry form
Dehiscent – fruit opens upon maturity (legumes)
Pericarp (botanical term) – fruit wall; layer of cells making up the covering

3 layers of the pericarp

 Exocarp – outer layer
 Mesocarp – middle layer
 Endocarp – inner layer

2. Varying stages of fruits depending on use

a. immature/unripe – for vegetable purpose ex. Papaya, young corn
b. mature – undergo ripening (dessert purpose)

Types of simple fruits

a. berry – exocarp is generally thin and distinct but mesocarp and endocarp are fused ex: star apple, tomato,
eggplant
b. hesperidium – citrus fruits
c. drupe – endocarp is hard and seed is enclosed with hard drupe ex. Siniguelas, mango
d. Pepo – fruit type of crop under cucurbit; exocarp is mostly hard

Types of Fruits with more than two ovaries/flowers

a. Aggregate fruits – fruits/seeds (achene) ex: strawberry, atis
* The fleshy thing which is eaten is called the receptacle.
b. Multiple fruit – derived from many flowers ex: pineapples, jactfruit

 Cutflower Crops
Ornamentals – houseplants, landscaping
Cutflowers – for aesthetic gratification

II. MORPHO-ANATOMICAL BASIS OF AGRONOMIC AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS RELATIVE TO

POSTHARVEST QUALITY

1. Plant Part or Organ Utilized

Morphological Structures of:
a. Pineapple (crown, eye, shell, pulp, core, stalk)
b. Banana (crown, finger, hand, remnants of flowers, transitional hand)
c. Cabbage (head, butt, wrapper leaves)
d. Potato (eye, peel or skin, eyebrow)
e. Onion (neck, outer scale, stem, root plate)
f. Mango (peel, pulp or cheek, stone which consists of the fruit wall, seed)
g. Citrus (oil cells: outer rind, inner rind; juice vesicles)
h. Ramutan (spintern, peel, aril which consists of the fruit wall; seed)
i. Cutflower crops
 Gladiolus and Salvia (floret, spike)
 Chrysanthemum and daisies (head or composite composed of florets; ray floret – florets at the outer layer of
the head; disc florets – florets at the inner layer of the head)
 Calalilies – gabi family and Anthurium (spathe, spandex)
 Rose – solitary (cut at 25% anthesis – tightly closed, 50% anthesis -50% open, 75% anthesis – 75% open,
100% anthesis – 100% open)
j. Asparagus spears – (leaf bud)
k. Banana blossom – (bract, male florets, stalk)
l. Corn – (kernel, husk, shank, stem, silk or hair)
m. Citrus – (rind (thin coloured outer layer), flavedo (thick spongy layer) albedo (juice vesicles), seeds)
n. Durian – Shell or husk, spines, aril in locules, carpel sutures which are natural lines running from top bottom of a
fruit through which sections of the fruit when ripe can separate cleanly with a downward pressure of the hand
o. Lanzones – bunch (one common stem)

Note: The nature of the fruit wall greatly influences the effect of the environment on the organ and its susceptibility to
mechanical damage, insects and diseases; ex: citrus vs. potato or tomato.

2. Surface area to volume ratio – determines the reactive area for respiration, transpiration and penetration of
chemicals and microorganisms.
 A bigger commodity has a lesser surface area to volume ratio than a smaller commodity.
 Leaves have larger SAVR because of their two side surfaces therefore the faster the diffusion of gases
involved in respiration thereby a shorter postharvest life.

Transpiration – loss of water in vapour form from a plant

Respiration – series of complex oxidation reactions whereby living cells obtain energy through the breakdown of
organic materials and into simpler forms accompanied by the release of energy and heat.

3. Nature of the Cuticle

Cuticle – non- cellular waxy layer above the epidermal cells of the commodity.
- Varies in thickness, complexity and form; ex: fruit (has cuticle, epidermal cells, parenchyma
cells-outer and inner)
Note: The more wax there is on the cuticle, the lesser is the moisture loss. The thicker and more complex the cuticle,
the greater is its protective capacity for:
a. moisture loss (ex. Lanzones which is non-waxy, banana which is very waxy)
b. penetration of microorganisms and chemicals
c. mechanical damage
d. Temperature changes
e. Escape of flavour components

4. Number of Stomates – the more the stomates are, the faster is the deterioration. Leaves have more stomates
than fruits; fruits have more stomates than stems as there are than roots; ex: pechay – has 13,000 stomates per cm 2
in the lower surface of one leaf and possibly 2x as much for both surfaces; banana – has 500 stomates per cm2.
Question:
Why is it that immature fruits have more stomates than matured ones?
Answer:
Cuticle develops during development and maturation, some of the stomates get covered explaining that
immature fruits have more stomata than matured ones thereby deterioration is faster in immature ones.

5. Amount of Hairs and/or spines – more trichomes and emergences enhance deterioration since this structures
increase the surface area to volume ratio and processes involved in deterioration of the commodity.

Terms:
 Hairs and/or spines – elongations of the epidermal cells
 Emergences – visible hairs or spines
 Trichomes – tiny hairs may or may not be visible

Examples:
a. Rambutan – spintern, a single rambutan has 200 to 400 spinterns with several trichomes per spintern. A trichome
has stomates, hence rambutan is one of the most perishable commodities. Trichomes are also usually connected to
the vascular bundles, so water exits from them so fast.
b. Lanzones – has trichomes and no wax on the cuticle thereby very perishable
c. Chinese Cabbage – has more trichomes than mustard
d. Pechay – has NO trichomes but has a large surface to area volume ratio

6. Amount of Lenticels
Lenticels - are circular groups of protruding air-filled cells with central opening which often takes the place of
stomates in fruits, stem and roots. They appear as dot like on stems.

Ex: 1. on potato tubers

2. on surfaces of muskmelon as nets
3. Rambutan has more than 15 lenticels per spintern (Pantastico, E.R. et al,1975)

7. Presence of Laticifers
Laticifers – are sap-like or latex-producing ducts surrounding the vascular bundles. Latex decline the
quality of products, corrodes and discolours peel and serves as food for microorganisms. (Ex: mango, chico, banana)

8. Compactness of the Cells

Compactness affects the diffusion of gases; ex: banana have loosely arranged cells while mangoes and
potatoes have very well compact cells. Commodities with compact cells are susceptible to physiological disorders
since gasses cannot readily enter into nor exit from the cells. Increased temperature greatly increase respiration and
oxygen used up, causing death to oxygen starved cells as in potato and mango.

Examples: Potato – occurrence of blackheart disease

Mango – internal breakdown (white starchy area near the mango seed sometimes with air pockets
in the middle of the study area.

9. Changes in the Organelles

Mitochondria – important organelle because it is the power house of the cell where respiration takes place.
Changes in the mitochondrial membrane have been associated with the development of chilling injury in fruits.

III. CHEMICAL BASIS OF AGRONOMIC AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS RELATIVE TO POSTHARVEST

QUALITY
1. Carbohydrates – polysaccharides that consist of 2-40% in crops and higher in some crops especially with storage
organs.

Some types of CHO

a. Pectin – carbohydrate materials responsible in softening of fruits during ripening supported with mineral calcium.
Softening is due to degradation.
b. Dietary fiber - not digestible; cures constipation, appendicitis, diabetes, obesity. It is not digestible because a
human stomach does not possess the enzymes that break the constituents.
c. Starch – present in storage organs of crops
d. Sugar – CHO material
There is forward reaction that happens wherein starch is converted into sugar when commodity is stored at
4◦C for 1-2 days. But at 20◦C, sugar content is converted back to starch.

Starch Sugar

Example: Sweet corn – if harvested in an immature stage, starch is easily converted into sugars. But if harvested in
cool hours like morning, it taste starchy because sugar were used or consumed during the previous night. If corn is
harvested in the hottest days, it tastes sweeter because starch was converted into sugars.
e. Mucilage – a kind of carbohydrate abundant in some crops like okra, saluyot, and dragon fruit etc.

2. Protein (2-5%) – macromolecule; polysaccharide

* Amino acids – used as substrates (initial material); building block of proteins.
* Glucose – energy used during respiration in plants.

3. Minerals – ex: Ca, Fe, P

* during production the absence of Ca in soil produce more physiological disorders in harvests
*Physiological disorders – abnormalities not caused by pathogens

4. Organic Acids – acids present during the respiratory cycle

Importance of Organic Acids

a. Useful in respiratory pathway
b. Extra organic acids which are not used may be used up by the body
ex. 1. Succinic Acid
2. Maleic Acid

5. Pigments – Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll – pigment present in plants which is essential in photosynthetic life.

2 Types of Chlorophyll/pigments
a. Carotenoids – chemical components present in plants
- organic material
- has something to do with postharvest appeal or visual quality
- red and orange coloration
b. Anthocyanins – organic materials responsible in violet colours in fruits and vegetables.
* Chlorophyll – carotenoid pigments
*Tannin – combination of several chemical constituents which is organic in nature
- responsible for astringency
- from complex to simple
* Astringency – results when high tannin is present in fruits or leaves of fruits and vegetables.

6. Lipids – most found in all tissues in very low level which is less than 1%
- made up of glycerol or alcohol and fatty acids
- in form of waxes during postharvest which would help in the glossiness of crops.
* in cells and tissues – lipids are found in cuticle of cells/tissues
* cuticle – cell membrane containing wax

Materials Responsible for Flavour in Crops

 a. Esters, alcohols, acids in minute amounts – responsible for flavours and volatiles (odour); ex: durian,
in banana, there are 100 different chemical components that give flavour in banana fruits
Note: The amount of flavour components per crop will not be the same from each other.

7. Water – the chemical most abundant in plants which is about 80% or more particularly in perishable harvests.

8. Lignin – example of fibre; responsible in toughening in crops; ex: vegetable legumes.

IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF AGRONOMIC AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS RELATIVE TO

POSTHARVEST QUALITY

1. Respiration – the oxidative reactions in cellular metabolism involving the sequential degradation of
macromolecules and the use of molecular oxygen as a final hydrogen acceptor. CO 2, H2O and heat energy in the
form of ATP are the final products.

In postharvest respiration may be:

Low – cereals, legumes, potatoes – has long postharvest life
Medium – fruits – has moderate postharvest life
High – immature crops - has short postharvest life

Factors Affecting Respiration Rates:

a. Supply of O2

2 Kinds of respiration
a. Aerobic – with O2
b. Anaerobic – without O2 therefore fermentation results

Fermentation – process wherein wine or alcoholic flavour is produced

Role of O2 in Controlled Atmosphere Storage

- Regulation of O2 and CO2 in consonance with low temperature storage.
- Reducing O2 and CO2 can prolong the useful life of horticultural crops.

Basis: The atmosphere is composed of 21% O2; 0.03% CO2 which are the general requirements of crops; 78.07%
Nitrogen. For CAS, a 10% O2 plus a low temperature is needed however depending on the requirement of the crop.

Effect of Very Fast Respiration

Ex. CROP A CROP B

Stored 100 units Stored 100 units

Uses 25 units/day equivalent Uses 10 units/day

to 4 days long, therefore has equivalent to 10 days long,
a faster respiration rate therefore slower respiration rate
Illustration of groups of crops using different amount of energy that has direct effect on respiration

Fast Respiration – means fast depletion of food reserves; greater heat evolved; synthesis stops; fine layered
structures become disorganized; further disorganization of organelles; cells collapse; tissues breakdown; shortened
storage life.
2. Transpiration – Loss of water in the form of water vapour. There is weight and water loss. There is a 50-10%
decrease in weight and a loss in physical volume and decrease in some nutritional contents (ex. Vit. C); loss of
texture; shrivelling caused by water/ RH deficits in microenvironment.
3. Ethylene Production (C2H4)

Ethylene – growth regulator; ripening hormone; promotes abscission in leafy/stem harvests; hastens sprouting (i.e.
Use of CaC2 in potatoes).
Readings: Postharvest Technology for Southeast Asian Perishable Crops by OKBautista and EBEsguerra, 2007. pp. 21-23

Answer the following questions.

1. Draw and label the parts of the following:

a. pineapple
b. banana
c. cabbage
d. potato
e. onion
f. mango
g. rambutan
h. banana blossom
i. corn
j. durian
2. How does transpiration affect the quality of harvested commodity?
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3. Discuss the different chemical components present in the commodities.
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LESSON 3
HARVESTING

Learning Objectives
1. Explain the relationship of maturity indices to harvesting.
2. Identify various postharvest handling operations and their effect to the commodity.

TOPIC

Harvesting – it is the deliberate picking of the commodity at a stage considered mature by market.

A. Maturity Indices

Maturity Indices – are signs or indications of the readiness of the plant for harvest. It is the basis for
determining harvest date and involves assessment of some characteristics that changes as the crop matures. It is
also the sign of minimum acceptability for majority of consumers.

Maturity Standards – it is a characteristic of the commodity at different stages of maturity using a particular
type of index.

Characteristics of a Good Index

a. quick and easy to determine
b. reliable
c. independent of ripeness for fruits
d. show a significant relationship with consumer acceptance

Types of Maturity
a. Physiological Maturity – stage of development when the commodity has attained maximum growth and
development. It applies only to fruits and fruit vegetables in postharvest technology and is the end of development
stage with the ability to ripen normally after harvest or it is the stage at which the external and internal characteristics
of the fruit allow normal ripening after harvest.

b. Commercial or Horticultural Maturity – stage of development when the plant part possesses the necessary
characteristics preferred by consumers. It is used as the basis for deciding when to harvest or it is the stage at which
the external and internal characteristics of the fruit allow normal ripening after harvest.

Characteristics of Commodities Harvested at the Proper Stage of Maturity

a. Longer Storage Life
Ex.: garlic harvested at 150 days after planting exhibited a longer storage life than those harvested at 90 days after
planting. Mature garlic has small neck diameter, thicker papery sheath and no pores and emergences hence water
loss is restricted (Nuevo and Bautista, 1997 in Esguerra and Bautista 2007). As the garlic matures, each layer of the
papery sheath and protective leaf of garlic increases in thickness, respiration rate decreases and it takes longer for
dormancy to be broken.

b. Greater resistance to physical disorders

Ex.: Immature carabao mangoes are more susceptible to internal breakdown when subjected to vapour heat
treatment, a quarantine treatment of mangoes for export to Japan, Korea, Australia and USA (Esguerra and Lizada
1989; Maranon 1997 in Bautista and Esguerra 2007). Internal breakdown is commodity observed in mango
harvested during the early season (Dec. – Feb.) when farm price is high prompting some growers to harvest at an
immature stage.
Studies on carabao mangoes have indicated that immature fruits (floaters in 1% salt solution) are more
susceptible to chilling injury than mature one (Agillon 2003 in Bautista and Esguerra 2007). Immature eggplants
harvested at 8 days after flower opening were found also to be susceptible to chilling injury than matured ones.

c. Greater resistance to mechanical stress and water loss

Ex.: in okra, mature pods (harvested 7 days after floweing) were less susceptible to injury as shown by the lesser
number of collapsed cells due to scraping. Young pods harvested 5 days after flowering had greater amounts of
water loss since they have more stomates and trichomes, a thinner cuticle and smaller epidermal cells.

d. Ripe fruits possess all desirable characteristics

Ex.: fully mature mangoes ripen to full yellow colour, are sweeter and have higher Vitamin C content than less mature
fruits. In immature fruits, while chlorophyll degradation can be accelerated by calcium carbide or ethylene treatment,
the eating quality remaining poor.

Usual Harvesting Practices of Farmers

Farmers usually harvest seasonal crops earlier than the proper stage of maturity for the following reasons:
a. to take advantage of the high price at the early part of the season;
b. to prevent theft or attack of pests and diseases leaving them none or very little harvest;
c. to avoid forthcoming typhoon.

Ripening behaviour, physico-chemical characteristics and quality of ripe ‘Carabao’ mango fruits
harvested at three maturity stages.
Characteristics at 105, 110, and 115 days after flower induction Implication on quality or
Parameter 105 d 110 d 115 d postharvest response
Days to reach Cl 5 9.1 7.8 5.0 Faster rate of ripening
(yellow)
Fruits attaining full yellow 0.0 77.8 92.2 More uniform peel color
(%)
Weight loss (%) 13.5 12.0 11.2 Lesser shrivelling
Firmness (kg cm-2) 0.59 0.92 0.90 Firmness fruits
Total Soluble Solids (TSS) 14.18 16.65 17.42 Sweeter
 (◦Brix)
Titrable Acidity (%malate) 0.17 0.24 0.26 Higher amount of Acids
TSS/TA 88.98 73.92 69.24 Better balance of sugar
and acid
Vitamin C (mg 100-1) 27.53 30.74 33.33 Greater nutritive value
Carotenoids 1780 1836 1930 More intense pulp colour
Over all flavour (sensory 5.33 6.25 6.82 Better taste and aroma
score)
Source: Tirtosoekotjo 1985 in Bautista and Esguerra 2007

Techniques of Maturity Deterioration

1. Use of Subjective Indices – uses the senses, thus it can be visual or physical means; easy and inexpensive to
apply.
Disadvantages:
- Not accurate enough to set definite standards
- Inconvenient for a large scale enterprise
- Influence by growing conditions
 Plants subjected to drought or nutrient deficiency may look mature but in reality are not.

2. Use of Objective Indices – measurable indices; include measurements of time, chemical constituents, rates of
physiological processes, computation and physical characteristics.
Change in diameter is subjective when it is perceived by sight, objective when measured by a caliper. It is
more difficult to determine and is time consuming since measurements have to be made, however, are more
accurate by large- scale enterprises.

General Types of Maturity Indices, Methods Used and Examples of Crops

Type Index/Method used Crops
1. Visual (Gross Change in peel color Pineapple, lanzones, tomato
Morphological)
Change in pulp colour Mango, tomato
Drying of plant part Banana, onion, ginger, potato
Flattening of eyes Pineapple
Development of Abscission Zone Melons, Durian
Greater prominence of netting Melons
Appearance of Bloom Mango, grapes
Increase in size Eggplant, cucumber
Fullness of pods Cowpea, peas, snap beans
Change in shape Banana, Mango
Compactness of curd/bud Cauliflower/broccoli
Bud opening Roses
Change in angularity of fingers Banana
Appearance of corky spots Banana
Spear length is 5-8” above ground/no fiber Asparagus

2. Physical Specific gravity Mango

Sound produced when tapped Watermelon, Durian
Juice content Citrus
Ease of snapping Beans, okra, peas
Increased solidity/compactness Cabbage
Firmness Eggplant
Ease of Separation Muskmelon
Exudation of milk when pierced Sweet corn
Detectable Odor Durian, jackfruit
 3.Compositional/ Physico- TSS Melons, citrus, pineapple, rambutan,
Chemical lanzones
TA Mango, Citrus
TSS/TA Citrus
Oil content Avocado

4. Phenological Heat Units Mango, Sweet corn,cabbage,cucumber,

gladiolus, peas, cauliflower
Days from flower induction Mango
Days from anthesis Durian, Beans
Days from shooting or appearance of false hands Banana

5. Physiological Respiration rate and ethylene production Mango, Banana, Papaya

Maturity Indices for Florist Crops for Direct Sale

1. Anthurium – spathe is fully open with ½ to 2/3 of spandex changing color

2. Baby Aster – harvest when 1/3 to ½ of flowers opened
3. Baby’s breath – flowers at the top are open; for immediate use, half or all the flowers have opened
4. Bird of Paradise (Strelitzia) – flowers are fully open
5. Chrysantemum
 Spray – several distinct flowers on a main stalk
 Singles – daisy – like flowers having one or more outer rows of ray florets.
For immediate use, flowers of top 3 or 4 lateral buds should be open before center petals have completely expanded
or lost their greenish colour.
 Anemones – flower form similar to a daisy except that the disk florets are longer; outer flower
consists of short flat disk florets,
puffy in the center. Flowers open but before disk florets start to elongate
 Pompons – small and compact, broad incurving ray florets that form a rounded head; center of the
oldest flower fully opened.

 Standard – blooms are larger than 10 cm, with only one flower in a stem since all flower buds are removed
except the main bloom.
For immediate use, fully opened but before center petals, have reach full size or lost their greenish color; for
storage 1/3 petals are open.

Considerations in Harvesting

1. Minimize mechanical injuries (use clippers, shears, picking poles with attached cutting instruments, etc.)
2. Harvest at the right time of the day
3. Avoid exposure to direct sunlight
4. Minimize latex flow and oil release
5. Minimize microbial growth and contamination

B. Harvesting Methods

1. Mechanized Harvesting
- Harvesting done with the aid of machines (pickers, tractors)
- Done in large cultivated areas where cost of labor is high, or where speed is necessary
Ex. a. Pineapple, mango, small soft fruits like tomatoes – use pickers and tractors and conveyor belts.
b. Lettuce – use mechanical harvesters with x-ray or gamma ray detection devices to determine compact
heads which are then cut with a jet of pressurized air or a blade
c. peas – by use of pea-viners
d. root and tuber crops – harvested using subsoiler and vibrating digger blades and mould-board plows
Robotics – offers the long term potential of combining efficiency of machines and selectivity of humans.

Some Applications of Robotic Harvesting:

a. Asparagus and mushroom – a robot is programmed to find and select the mature crop.
b. Cherry tomato – (laborious because of the size) – a visual feedback control-based harvesting method.
The spectral reflectance in the visible region is identified and extracted to provide high contrast images for fruit
cluster identification; the three- dimensional or 3D position of each fruit cluster is determined using binocular
stereovision. The robot harvests one fruit at a time and the position of the next target fruit is updated based on a
newly acquired image and the latest manipulator position.
c. Oranges – robot identifies and measures the location of matured fruits in 3D which is performed using
image processing techniques that should cope with variations in lighting condition and changing environment.

2. Traditional Harvesting – Ex: jerking, twisting (citrus), pulling upward or downward, forcing pedicel to bend
(pineapple), snapping, using of bamboo or wooden props, using gloves (strawberry), climbing with bags/sacks
fastened around belt areas.

C. Packinghouse Operations, Structures and Equipment

(Trimming and cleaning, Curing, Sorting and Grading, Waxing and Packaging, Pre-cooling)

Packinghouse Operations – series of steps or practices done after harvest to prepare the commodity either for
market or for long-term storage. It constitutes a major portion of postharvest technology.

Structures and Equipment – either simple or sophisticated but must be appropriate for the level operations done for
the particular commodity involved.

1. Trimming – general term for cutting or removing unwanted parts, those likely to be rejected by consumers, or
those that can shorten storage life. It is also done in harvests that need to be harvested with accompanying
protective parts that need to be trimmed before finally retailed in markets.

Operations in Trimming:

a. Dehanding – separation of hands or removal of stalks of banana

b. Deflowering – removal of the floral or stylar remnants of banana
c. Dthorning – removal of thorns in roses
d. Topping – trimming of the tops and vegetative parts of carrots, garlic, onion bulbs, radish
e. Dehusking – removal of husk of sweet corn, baby corn and durian
f. Desilking – removal of the silk in baby corn and sweet corn
g. Detopping – removal of crowns of pineapple fruits
h. Delatexing – removal of latex

Objectives of Trimming
a. Facilitates handling (ex: dethorning in roses, dehanding in banana, dehusking in corns, detopping in pineapples,
removing wrapper leaves in cabbage heads)
b. Reduces likelihood of diseases
c. Minimize damages
d. Minimize transpiration (Ex: carrots, onions, calamansi that needs to have leaves intact to attract consumers but
these leaves must be sold immediately to minimize loss of water in the produce)
e. Retards sprouting in onions

2. Cleaning – removal of dirt

Purpose of Cleaning:
a. To meet the demand of consumers – cleaning must remove dirt, latex or sapota (chico), banana, mango, chemical
residues, mealy bugs on sour sop (guayabano), jackfruit and lanzones, sootymolds on citrus and lanzones and other
extraneous materials such as leaves and stones
b. To render commodity more saleable – clean produce commands a better price
c. To reduce microbial load – vegetable crops such as lettuce and bittergourd may have high microbial loads of
coliforms and parasitic protozoa and helminths that may cause decay and even health hazards

Methods of Cleaning

a. Washing (spray washing using a jet of fresh and clean water)

b. Soak and rinse (using tubs, large basins, water tanks, drums
c. Wiping (tomato, muskmelons, cucumber, gourds and citrus
d. Dry brushing (ginger to remove clods of soil, lanzones to remove mealy bugs and aphids, durian – by using small
brush or broom stick to remove adhering dirt and insects)
e. Forced air – ex: durian subjected to pressurized air to remove dirt and insects; silk in baby corn
f. Removal by hand

Chemicals for the Wash Water

a. Sanitizer/anti-microbial – highly reactive compounds that destroy microorganisms on contact and have a wide
range of action against a variety of microorganisms
 Chlorine – commonly used sanitizer in most packinghouse; kills decay-causing microorganisms; when
dissolved in water generates hypochlorous acid (HOCl), an active compound that kills pathogens; exists as
hypochlorite ion (OCl)

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-

 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) - In combination with lactic acid (1.5%) applied at 40◦C would effectively
deactivate E. coli O157:H7; Salmonella enteridis and Listeria monocytogenes on tomato, oranges and apple
 Peroxyacetic acid
 Ozone (O3) – water soluble gas formed by splitting O 2 that further reacts with O2 to form O3; one of the
strongest oxidizing agent and sanitizer; decomposes quickly in water with half-life of 15 -20 minutes; highly
toxic to human and must be generated onsite.

b. Fungicides
c. Sulfates – ex: aluminium potassium sulphate (tawas) and magnesium sulphate (to remove latex)

3. Curing or Wound healing (tubers and root crops)

A process of toughening and self- healing of bruises and skinned areas in root and tuber crops and citrus,
as well as the rapid closing of the neck of bulb crops under favourable conditions.

Stages of Curing
 For roots and Tuber Crops
a. Root and Tuber Crops

a. Deposition of suberin in tubers or lignin in root crops or both in carrots along the walls of cells adjacent to the
wound cells. Temporarily, the suberized or lignified layers act as barriers to water loss and microbial infection.
Suberin has been detected in all cells of the surface layer of carrots after 12 hours at 25◦C and 100% RH and lignin
surface cells at 120 hours at 25◦C.

b. In potato and sweet potato, the cells in a layer just below the suberized layer lose their starch and vacuoles, and
become the wound phellogen or cork cambium, an actively dividing layer.
c. Development of as much as six to eight layers of cells by the cork cambium forming a dense network of cells called
phellem or cork cells towards the outside. At the same time, new parenchyma cells are formed inward or on the other
side of the cork cambium. Cell division occurs within three days in sweet potato. The dead surface cells are pushed
out upon the formation of the corky cells. The parenchyma layer which grows away from the damaged part is called
the phelloderm. The cork cells become the new skin or wound periderm.

d. Subsequent suberization or lignidfications of the new cells.

Note: The whole process occurs in 7-15 days in potato and 3-12 days in sweet potatoes. The exact length of time
required for proper curing varies but on the average, 7-14 days is recommended.

* For Onion and Garlic – Curing is complete in onions if the moisture loss of the scales reaches 12-14%. Acceptable
weight loss after curing is 3-5%.

Methods of Curing in Bulb Crops:

a. Solar Drying, Windrowing
- for shallows, garlic, onions
b. Air or cold Curing
c. Forced heated-air curing for 48-60 hours instead of 4-10 days when under solar or air cold curing

Methods of Curing in Roots and Tuber Crops:

a. Ex: yam and ube can be cured outdoors by stacking and covering with materials like canvas or woven grass mats
to provide shade. Grasses or straw can be used as insulators to help confine self-generated heat and moisture. The
pile should be left for about four days.
* Citrus – involves lignifications of cells with minor injuries

Methods of Curing in Citrus:

a. Drying out for some time after picking so superficial wounds will heal through lignifications
ex: pummelos – kept at room temperatures after harvests for 1-2 weeks
mandarins – cured for 3-5 days at 30◦C before storage to reduce development of puffy fruit

Factors Affecting Curing

a. Temperature – the optimum temperature for curing is higher than the temperature at which the crop is normally
raised. Wound healing is usually faster in higher temperatures than in lower temperature.

b. RH – at a very low RH (ex:30%), no wound tissues appear to be formed. Outer layers of the cell dry up, forming a
crust resulting in inhibition or delay of the curing process. At optimum RH (80-95%), wounds heal rapidly. At 100%
RH, curing is delayed due to the formation of many cells on the surface of the wound.
Bulb crops require low RH (60-70%) for curing since the objective is to rapidly dry the necks. To achieved
good skin color, RH must not reach the values lower than 65%

c. Gases – CO2 levels of 10% or more and O2 levels below 5% inhibit wound healing of root/tuber crops because this
condition greatly shows down respiration which is important in cell division and enlargement which are processes that
occur during curing of root or tuber crops. If CO2 is high, wound healing is prevented even with sufficient O2.
d. Type of damage – smooth cuts heal faster than other types of damages

e. Length of period after harvest – the rate of wound healing is fastest immediately after harvesting and gradually
decreases during storage because metabolic processes are still proceeding at a fast pace. As the root or tuber
becomes dormant, its metabolism slows down.

4. Sorting, Grading and Inspection

The Processes Involved in Sorting, Grading and Inspection

a. Grading – the process of classifying the produce into groups according to a set of criteria of quality and size
recognized or accepted by the industry. Each group bears an accepted name and size grouping. Grades are the
names of the groups under which the produce are classified e.g. Extra Class, Class I and II.

Sorting – is the process of classifying produce into groups designated by the person classifying them according to
whatever criteria he may be desired.

Sizing – specifically refers to the classification of produce into different sizes. If the size specification used is
approved by a duly recognized authority, then sizing becomes a part of the grading process.

Size Classification – specifies the sizes grouping, e.g. large, medium, and small.

b. Standardization – process of formulating and issuing grade standards.

Grade Standards - also known as product standards or simply standards.

- Refers to the set of criteria and specifications of quality determining grades. The use of
standards enables the consumer and the seller to have a common understanding of the quality
and size of the produce being traded. Standards describe the characteristics of the produce
such as maturity, color, cleanliness, shape, freedom and decay and blemishes and uniformity
of size.

c. Inspection – process of measuring, examining and testing samples to determine whether the grade standards
have been interpreted or enforced properly.

Basic Parts of a Standard

a. Scope – specifies the commodity covered by the standard, its specific names and family and use (ex. for fresh
consumption)
b. Definition of Terms – clarifies what is meant by the terms used which are sometimes accompanied by drawings
or illustrations.
c. Minimum requirements – indicates the minimum quality criteria that should be met by all the grades.
d. Grade Designations – the names designated for the groups to which the produce are classified, e.g. Grade 1,2,3
or Extra Class, Class I, Class II and Choice, Regular or Plain
e. Criteria and specification for each grade – basis of quality and description for each grouping. Ex. if the criterion
is “uniformity as to variety”, the specification for a grade is “shall consist of pineapple of similar varietal
characteristics.”
f. Size classes and limits – specifies the range of sizes that falls under each size classification. Depending on the
commodity, size maybe based on weight, diameter, and length or by count.
Example of commodities classified by size according to:
f.1. Weight – avocado, mango, papaya, pumelo
f.2.Diameter – litchi, onion, potato, asparagus, guava, longan, mangosteen
f.3. Length – banana, baby corn, long beans, asparagus, cutflowers
f.4. By count – longan
g. Tolerance – allowance for human error in classifying commodities and for changes in the nature and severity of
the defects during subsequent handling and transfortation
h. Instruction for sampling for inspection – determines the conformance to the grading procedures is specified.
The Philippine National Standards use the ISO874-1980€; Fresh fruits and vegetables – Sampling
i. Requirements for Packing and Labelling – describes the packing container and the markings on the packages.
The name of the product, grade, size, net contents, volume, weight or number of pieces and name and addresses of
the producer, distributor or consignee are indicated.
 Example: “Bananas shall be packed in cartons or similar protective containers. Each container shall be
properly labelled in bif letters with the following information: “Product of the Philippines, Variety A, Net Mass (in kgs)”
(Philippine National Standards 1987).
j. Provisions on Contaminants – indicates the allowable residue level for heavy metals and specific pesticides.
Example: The maximum residue level in mango for carbendazin and prochloraz is 2.0 mg kg-1 (PNS/BAFPS
13:2004).
k. Provisions on Hygiene – specifically indicates that the handling and preparation of the produce should follow the
relevant Codex document on hygiene.

Agencies involved in Standardization

a. Codex Alimentarius Commission – Codex for short, an international body composed of member nations of the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) that is responsible for the
compilation, preparation and publication of food standards, codes of practice, guidelines and recommendations that
make up a reference called the Codex Alimentarius. The WTO uses the Codex as reference in cases of disputes
over non-tariff barriers.
b. The International Organization for Standardization – a worldwide non-governmental federation of national
standards institute (ISO member bodies
c. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) Working Party Standardization of Perishable
Produce and Quality Development

Characteristics of a Good Standard:

a. Uniform
b. Acceptable – producers, traders and consumers (standard needs to be reviewed periodically and revised to suit
the changing needs)
c. Understandable – translated in dialect if necessary
d. Appropriate – applicable to all varieties sold

Benefits of Grading

 For consumers – provides assurance of quality; permits them to buy the quality they want and willing to
pay for
 For farmers – provides a sound basis for pricing of produce
 For cooperatives – ensures fairness in the sale of the pooled/grouped produce. Without grading, marketing
cooperatives will fail even if other conditions are favourable.
 For processor – eliminates sorting by processor therefore work is facilitated.
 For Traders – establishes business confidence, produce reputation
 For Buyers and Sellers – provides the common language for buying and selling and makes possible long
distance transaction
 For Trucker – Buyers – incurs lesser damage. More damage is incurred in mixed loads of graded
ungraded produce; minimizes handling, re-sorting and repacking.
 For Courts – facilitates settlements of disputes between contracting parties.
 For Banks –establishes loan value for the produce and helps establish the paying capacity of the farmer
asking for loan.
 For the general public – makes price information and advertisement through mass media meaningful and
provides good basis for comparison of prices.

5. Waxing and Packaging

Waxing – application of a thin film of surface coating to fruits and vegetables. Coatings are intended to replace the
commodity’s natural was removed during handling or supplement it. The coating may or may not be a wax as defined
chemically but usually any material to coat the produce. The commercially available coatings must be duly approved
by a regulator body as food additives.

Appropriate Coating should be:

a. Transparent
b. Glossy
c. Odourless
d. Tasteless
e. Biodegradable
f. Safe (edible films are usually prepared from proteins, polysaccharides, resins, waxes or oils)
g. Sufficient permeability to gasses and impermeable or barely permeable to water.
Commodities that are usually waxed are those for export like citrus, apples, cucumber, pepper, squash,
avocado, sweet potato, passion fruit, muskmelon and limited to extent in tomato, eggplant, carrot and papaya, and
some cutflowers like Anthurium.
In the Philippines, pineapple, Satsuma mandarins and pumelo exported by some private companies are
also waxed.

Materials for Wax Formulations

a. Lipids

 Carnauba – from palm (Copernica cerifera) native to Brazil

 Paraffin – petroleum-based wax used mainly for making candles.
 Beeswax
 Candelilla – an exudate of candelilla plant (Euphorbia cerefira and E. antisphylitica) mostly found in Mexico
 Vegetable Oils – from palms, corn and soybean, etc.
 Mineral Oil – a mixture of paraffinic and napthenic hydrocarbons

b. Resins

 Shellac – from exudates of an insect (Laticiffer lacca)

 Polyvinyl acetate – made from thermoplastic synthetic polymer
 Polyethelene wax – permitted in perishables that are eaten without the peel ex.: avocado, banana,
pineapple, mango, melon, etc.

c. Polysaccharides –based Coatings

 Carboxymethyl cellulose
 Chitosan (2 amino-2-deoxy-β, D-glucan). Used in carabao mango

d. Proteins

Effects of Waxing
1. Reduces water loss
2. Maintains or enhances the natural gloss and increases visual appeal
3. Slows down respiration rate and ripening process
4. Acts as carrier for inhibitors of senescence
5. Seals tiny scratches and injuries on the surface of commodities
6. Reduces chilling injuries in some crops

6. Packaging – art, science and technology of bringing goods from its source to the place of consumption at the
minimum cost possible.
Primary Functions of Packaging – ensures adequate protection and safe delivery produce throughout the supply
chain.

Package – refers to a container designed to keep the produce

Packing – the act of putting the products into a package and preparing the packaged produce for shipment or
transport.

Functions of Package:
a. Facilitates easy handling
b. Protects produce
c. Sells the produce
d. Informs the consumer

Kinds of Packages:

According to Material:
1. Burlap also called Hessian cloth – made of jute, flax or hemp
2. Wood (wooden crates, plywood)
3. Paper sheets (Cardboard, paperboard, fibreboard)
4. Plastics (Polyethylene, polypropylene, Polystyrene)

According to Protective Capacity

1. Flexible – allows easy movement
2. Semi –rigid and Rigid Containers – semi-rigid ones offer lesser protection than rigid ones which are stronger.

According to Design
1. Bags and Sacks – traditional containers
2. Baskets
3. Crates and Boxes

According to Storability
1. Stackable – have straight walls
2. Nestable – have sloping walls that makes possible for each to be inserted inside each other
3. Collapsible – sides can be folded to collapse (ex. collapsible plastic or wooden crates

According to Returnability
1. One-trip container – designed for one time use; non-rigid and cheap materials
2. Returnable – designed for return ability or multiple-trip use
7. Pre-Cooling
Generally refers to the rapid cooling of a commodity to a desired temperature soon after harvest before it is
stored or transported. It is completed within few hours or a fraction of an hour and it is the start of a cold chain that
brings the produce to a temperature at optimum level. Once it is reached then it should be maintained until produce is
sold.

Cold Chain System – series of steps needed to keep the produce at low temperature from the time they are
harvested until they are purchased by the final consumer

Field heat – heat load represented by warm produce and containers when loaded into a refrigerated space.

Objective of Pre-Cooling
 Bring down the temperature of a commodity to the optimum level as rapidly as possible without inducing
physiological disorders or physical damage.

Benefits of Pre-cooling
1. The excellent quality of a commodity is maximized
2. Refrigeration load is minimized
3. Allows ripe fruit to be transported or stored

Drawbacks
1. Needs high- capacity system which implies a need for large amounts of capital for investing and installing the
equipment hence is adopted in developed countries.
The Philippines in recent years: used by multinationals (mango in Guimaras Island, asparagus and
pineapple industries in Bukidnon, Cavendish banana in Davao, cutflower in Tagaytay)

Methods of Pre- Cooling

1. Room Cooling – entails placing stacks of produce in a refrigerated space. Cold air coming the evaporator of the
refrigeration system is blown over and around the stacks before running to the evaporator. This method can be used
on most commodities although results may sometimes become unsatisfactory due to extend cooling times, especially
for highly perishable crops like cutflowers.

2. Forced Air Cooling- involves forcing cool air to move through containers of produce thereby providing a more
intimate contact between the cooling medium and the harvested commodity. This is achieved by inducing a pressure
difference between opposite side of a stack of ventilated containers. Cooling using this method is faster than the
room cooling. It is used in produce with high metabolic rates like cutflowers, herbs, okra, pepper, beans, cutflower,
mushrooms, cabbage, strawberry, etc.

3. Hydrocooling – requires contact with cold water as the name implies and is very effective method. Specific heat
water is much greater than that of air, therefore, water can absorb a larger amount of heat than air. Heat transfer
from an object to a liquid medium is also transfer than heat air. Heat transfer from an object to a liquid medium is also
faster heat transfer to a gas hence, hydrocooling can be 2-3 time faster than forced air cooling. And since the cooling
environment is very moist, weight loss is also minimized or even reversed.

4. Hydro- air cooling – a method combining forced-air cooling and hydro cooling and which merge the advantages
of both methods and attempts to minimize their drawbacks. Hydro-air coolers are designed to produce fine mist of
chilled water mixed with cold air as the cooling medium. A high-capacity fan is used to force the air- water mix
through a stack of containers
5. Vacuum Cooling – This cooling method is based on the principle that under vacuum or conditions of reduced
pressure, water boils and evaporates at a lower temperature. The boiling point of water is 100◦C at atmospheric
pressure (760 mm Hg). The heat absorbed by the evaporating water is taken from the commodity. Since evaporation
occurs at the surface of the produce, vacuum cooling is best suited for crops with high surface are to volume ratio like
leafy commodities like pechay, lettuce, Chinese cabbage, etc.
6. Icing – operates on the principle of heat absorption during phase change of a substance like water from a frozen
state of liquid from when water in form of ice melts into liquid, 334kj kg -1 of heat is absorbed to achieve the
transformation. This heat is taken away from the commodity, thereby producing the cooling effect.

3 Kinds of Icing Methods

a. Package Icing – utilizes crushed ice packed together with the commodity in water resistant containers.
b. Slush icing or liquid icing – a variation of package icing where a mixture of chilled water and crushed ice is
pumped into containers. The water force ice particles into every available space in the container, achieving better
contact with the commodity.
c. Top Icing – practice of adding a 5 to 10 cm layer of crushed ice on top of pallet loads of precooled produce hence,
only useful for produce already cooled to optimum temperatures.
Note: The above describe pre-cooling methods are used in the Philippines mostly by multinationals. Hydro-cooling is
used in asparagus spears, forced –air cooling is being employed in pineapples by Del Monte and Dole, vacuum
cooling is used in lettuce and forced-air cooling is used in sweet corn.
Read pages 87 to 107 of the Postharvest Technology for Southeast Asian Perishable Crops, 2007.

LEARNING ACTIVITY NO. 5

MATURITY INDICES AND HARVESTING

Answer the following questions.

1. Discuss why maturity indices are important in harvesting crops. Cite at least five instances where these
indices prevail prior to harvesting.
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2. Identify and explain the different postharvest handling operations applied to commodities. Be able to give
disadvantages if these operations will be failed or improperly done.
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3. Observe rice and vegetable growers in your respective community. Make a Reaction Paper about their
application on the various methods, processes or operations of harvesting and postharvest handling of the
abovementioned commodities. Identify necessary recommendations/measures if there is/are improper
operations applied. Use separate sheets.
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