POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric Potential Electric Potential due to a Dipole at any Point:

Electric potential at a field point is defined as Consider a dipole of dipole moment 𝑝 given
the work done to bring a unit positive test charge by 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎. We are determining the potential at
from infinity to that point, without acceleration a point P which is at a distance r from the centre of
against electrostatic force. the dipole and the position vector r makes an angle 𝜃
If W is the work done to bring 𝑞𝑜 charge from with respect to dipole moment 𝑝 .
infinity to a point, then the potential at that point is
given by, 𝑉 = 𝑊 𝑞𝑜
Hence unit of potential is J/C or Volt (V).
 Electric potential difference between two
points is defined as the work done to bring a unit +ve
charge from one point to the other, without
acceleration against electrostatic force.
VAB = VA- VB
Superposition Principle of Potential:
Hence the point P is at a distance 𝑟1 from +q and
 Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
𝑟2 from –q. According to super position principle, the
The resultant potential at a point due to a number
resultant potential at P, VP is the algebraic sum of
of charges is the algebraic sum of potentials due
potentials due to +q and –q
to each charge.
ie, 𝑽𝑷 = 𝑽+ + 𝑽−
ie, V= V1+V2+V3 +……….
1 𝑞 1 (−𝑞)
Electrical Potential due to a Point Charge: But 𝑉+ = 4𝜋𝜀 and 𝑉− = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟1 0 𝑟2
Consider a charge Q at origin O. To determine 𝑞 1 1
𝑉𝑃 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 − 𝑟 )
the electrical potential at a point P at a distance r from 0 1 2
𝑞 𝑟2 −𝑟1
the origin, bring a unit positive charge from ∞ rto the 𝑉𝑃 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟1 𝑟2
point p and calculate the work done. Approximating, at very large distance,
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ≃ 2a cos 𝜃
𝑟1 𝑟2 ≃ r 2
𝑞 2𝑎 cos 𝜃
∴ 𝑉𝑃 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
0
𝒑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑟 𝑽𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟐
[since 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎]
𝟎𝒓
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑝.𝑟
In vector form, 𝑉𝑃 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
[since 𝑝. 𝑟 =p cos𝜃]
∞ 0
𝒑.𝒓
But, force 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 = 𝐸 , [since q = +1] 𝑽𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺
𝟎 𝒓𝟑
∴ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝐸𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 180 = − 𝐸𝑑𝑥 This is the potential due to a dipole having dipole
1 𝑄
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑𝑥 moment p at a distance r from it.
0 𝑥2
𝑟 −1 𝑄
𝑊 = ∞ 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Cases:
−𝑄 𝑟 1 1 −1
= ∞ 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =  Potential at an axial point ,
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑝
−𝑄 −1 𝑟 1 𝑄 Vaxial = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 [since 𝜃= 0°]
=4𝜋𝜀 𝑥 ∞
= 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
0
0 0
 Potential at an equatorial point ,
Vequit = 0 [since 𝜃= 90°]
𝟏 𝑸
𝑽=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
This is the potential due to a charge Q at a distance r.
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 Equipotential Surface Electric Potential Energy (U)
It is the surface at which all the surface points Electric potential energy of a charge is defined
having the same potential. as the work done to bring that charge from infinity to
 The work done to move a charge through an that point, without acceleration against electrostatic
equipotential surface is zero. force.
 The direction of electric field lines are always 𝑈 = 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉
⊥𝑟 to the equipotential surface.  Potential Energy of a charge q at potential V,
 Two equipotential surfaces will never intersect 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉
each other.  Potential Energy of a two charge system in a field
 In strong electric field, equipotential surfaces free space ,
lie very near to each other and in weak electric 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
U=4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟12
field they lie far apart.
where r12 is the distance between q1 and q2 .
The equipotential surfaces due to point charge,
 Potential Energy of a three charge system in a
uniform electric field, like charges and unlike
field free space,
charges are sketched below. 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
𝑈 = 4𝜋𝜀 ( + + )
0 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
 Potential Energy of a two charge system in an
external field ,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈 = 𝑞1 𝑉1 + 𝑞2 𝑉2 +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
Potential Energy of a Dipole in an External Field
We know that the torque experienced by a
dipole with dipole moment is 𝑝 placed in an external
field 𝐸 is given by 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Relation between 𝑬 and V
The work done can be calculated as
Consider an electric field with electric field
𝑊 = 𝜏𝑑𝜃
intensity 𝐸 through which a charge 𝑞𝑜 is moving a
= 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
distance dx from A to B. The potential difference
= −𝑝𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 [since sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]
between those points is dV
This work done is stored in the system as its
potential energy given by
𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = −𝑝. 𝐸
Electrostatics of conductors
1. Electric field inside a conductor is zero.
The work done to move the charge q0 through dx is
If the field is not zero, the field will drift electrons
given by ,
in the conductor. Then it is not the static
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑞𝑜 E dx [where 𝜃=180°] condition.
The same work done can be written as, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑉 2. Charge inside a conductor is zero.
Equating two equations, Since the electric field inside conductor is zero, by
𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑞𝑜 E dx guass’ law, charge enclosed is also zero.
−𝒅𝑽
or, 𝑬= or 𝑬 = −𝛁𝑽 3. Potential inside is constant.
𝒅𝒙 𝑑𝑉
 Electric field is the negative gradient of We know that 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑥
potential. Since 𝐸inside = 0, dV= 0, V = constant
 Direction of electric field is in the direction of 4. Electric field on the surface is always ⊥𝑟 to the
decreasing potential surface.
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 If E is not normal to the surface, it would have 2. Polar Dielectrics:
some non zero component along the surface, The centres of +ve and –ve charges are separated
which will drift the electrons in the conductor. and having a permanent dipole moment.
This is also not a static condition. eg: H2O, HCl
𝜎
5. Electric field on the surface is always equal to 𝜀
0
In an external electric field polar molecules realign
Consider the Gaussian pillbox partly inside and
in the direction of external electric field and non polar
partly outside the surface of the conductor and
molecules stretches to produce a net dipole moment.
having area of cross section ds. By Guass’ law,
𝜎𝑆 This process of producing dipole moment is known as
𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀0
[ Qene =𝜎𝑆] polarization.
𝜎
or 𝐸 = 𝑛 The induced dipole moment per unit volume is known
𝜀 0
as polarization density P.
6. Electrostatic shielding:
𝑷∝𝐸
Whatever be the charge and field outside, any
𝑷 = 𝝌𝒆 𝑬
metallic cavity remains shielded from outside
where 𝜒𝑒 is known as the electric susceptibility.
electric influence. This is known as electrostatic
𝜒𝑒 = 𝐾 − 1 (K→ dielectric constant)
shielding.In an external field charge resides on the
surface. It causes electrostatic shielding. Dielectric Strength:
It is the maximum electric field that a
Dielectrics
dielectric medium can withstand without losing its
Dielectrics are basically insulators. They do
insulating property.
not allow the passage of free electrons through them.
But they allow the field lines to pass through them.
Capacitors
 If a conductor is placed inside an external
Capacitance is the ability of a conductor to
electric field , the total electric field inside is
store electric charge. Such a system with two
zero[since external electric field and induced
conductors separated by an insulator is known as
electric field are equal and opposite]
capacitor. If Q is the charge on one of the
conductor and V is the potential difference across it,
then Q∝V Q= CV
𝑄
That constant is known as capacitance 𝐶 = 𝑉
C is independent on Q and V, but it depends on the
 But if a dielectric is placed in an external shape, size and separation of a capacitor.
electric field, inside field will be not equal to
SI unit → Farad(F) or 𝐶/𝑉 Symbol → ⊣⊢
zero.[since the lesser number of charge
carriers Eext≠ Einduced ]. Parallel Plate Capacitor:
It consists of two large
plane parallel conducting plates
separated by small distance.
Consider a parallel plate
capacitor consisting of two
Dielectrics are of two types conductors each having area ‘A’,
1. Non-polar Dielectrics: charge density 𝜎, seperated at a
The centres of +ve and -ve charges coincide in distance ‘d’ with insulating
polar dielectrics and hence no permanent dipole medium as air having permittivity 𝜀0 .
moment.
eg: O2, H2, CO2
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 To determine the capacitance of the capacitor, using 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
∴𝐶 = +𝐶
𝑄 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶1 2
the equation, C= 𝑉 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑪 𝑪
=𝒄 +𝑪 or Cseries = 𝑪 𝟏+𝑪𝟐
𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
Where Q is the charge on one of the plates and V is
the p.d. across the plates has to be measured. Parallel:
𝑄 Consider two capacitors of capacitance C1 and
𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴 [since 𝜎 = 𝐴 ]
C2 are connected in parallel. Charge on each
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
and 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 [since E= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 ] capacitors be Q1 and Q2 at potential difference V
𝜎 (same V, since parallel
Also, E=𝜀 electric field between two parallel plates.
0
𝜎
combination)
∴𝑉=𝜀 𝑑 The total charge on the
0
𝑄 𝜎𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 combination of
∴𝐶= = =
𝑉 𝜎𝑑 𝑑 capacitors is given by, Q = Q1 + Q2
𝜀0 Q = C 1 V + C2 V
The capacitance of this capacitor is given by These two capacitors can be treated as a single
𝜺𝟎 𝑨 capacitor having effective capacitance Cparallel storing
𝑪=
𝒅 Q charge at potential V.
Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance: ie Q = Cparallel V
If the gap between the two plates of a ∴ Cparallel V = C1V +C2V
capacitor is filled with a dielectric medium of
Or Cparallel = C1 + C2
dielectric constant K, capacitance of the capacitor
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
increases K times.
𝜎
Consider a capacitor having capacitance C
Because, 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝜀 𝑑 storing charge Q at potential V. The energy stored in
𝜎
=𝐾𝜀 𝑑 since[𝜀 = K𝜀0 ] the capacitor can be calculated as the work done to
0
𝑄 𝜎𝐴 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 move charges from one plate to another against
∴ 𝑪𝒎 = = =𝑲 electrostatic force.
𝑉 𝜎𝑑 𝒅
𝐾𝜀0 1 2
𝑊 = 𝑄 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉
or 𝑪𝒎 = 𝑲𝑪𝒐 2
𝜀0 𝐴 This work is stored in the system as its potential
where 𝐶𝑜 = is the capacitance with air medium. energy,
𝑑
Combination of Capacitors 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
Series: 𝑬 = 𝑪𝑽𝟐 = 𝑸𝑽 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝑪
Consider two capacitors of capacitance C1 and
C2 are connected in series. Each of them stores equal Energy Density:
charge Q (since it is series combination) and the 1 𝑄2 1 𝜎𝐴 2 1
Energy = = = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 𝐴𝑑
potential drop across each of them be V1 2 𝐶 2 (𝜀 0 𝐴 ) 2
𝑑
𝜎
and V2. [since E=𝜀 and Ad = volume]
0
The total potential difference across the 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝟏
combination is the sum of V1 and V2. or Energy Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =𝟐 𝜺𝟎 𝑬𝟐
ie V = V1+ V2
𝑄 𝑄
V = 𝐶 +𝐶
1 2
We can consider this combination as an effective
capacitor having capacitance Cseries with charge Q and
𝑄
potential difference V, then V = 𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

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 Van De Graaff Generator increases on the shell which produces large value of
This is a machine to produce high voltages by potential
accumulating charges. This high potential can be used Uses:
to accelerate charged particles to high energies. High potential produced is used to accelerate
charged particles which can be used in research,
nuclear reactions, medical field etc.

Construction:
 A large spherical conducting shell is
supported at a height several meters above the
ground on an insulating column.
 A long narrow insulating belt running over
two pulleys – one motor driven one at ground
level and other at the centre of the shell
 Two brushes—one at ground level sprays +ve
charges to the belt and the other connected to
the spherical shell.
Principle:
1. Collecting action of sphere :
The potential at the centre of the shell is
always greater than that at the surface. Hence
all the charges inside the shell will be
collected on the surface if it is connected by a
wire. This property is known as collecting
action of sphere.
2. Action of points(corona discharge)
A charged pointed conductor starts to spray
the charge . Because of the large electric field
on the pointed end due to the accumulation of
charges.
Working:
The brush at the ground level sprays charge to
the motor driven belt which is transferred to the
topper brush connected to the shell. Hence charge

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