Introduction to Technical Report and Research Writing

“Reports are perhaps the most common documents that you will write both as engineering students
and as engineers. Consequently, your success, both in school and in the workplace, will partly depend
on your ability to produce effective reports.” …Susan Stevenson and Steve Whitmore

 As engineering students, you have been writing reports (e.g. on experiments, design projects, field
visits, internship, and soon on final year projects)

 The majority of engineering tasks also include the writing of technical reports, even if the main
objective is much more extensive.

 Technical reports and papers are used to summarize information in a way that is easily
understandable, they should be as concise, accurate and complete as possible, and be aimed at a
specific group of readers.

 The emphasis in this course falls on the general format for a technical report and we’ll deal with
content of the various elements of a report but a few hints on paragraph structure and writing
methods are also given.

Structure of Reports
 Professional technical reports are characterized by a scientific approach, typical structure and formal
style. This course discusses the recommended structure and the way in which the scientific approach
is reflected in this structure.
 A report is like a story: it must have a beginning, a middle and an end, but the middle is the actual
story.
 The introduction must not be too long, and the conclusions should follow from the central chapters
in a justifiable manner. In other words, the central chapters (Discussion) must present a systematic
argument that leads to the conclusions.
 Although there are a number of standard formats, such as those of Beer and McMurrey (1997),
consistency is the main issue in writing report. Students who would like to obtain more information
on the writing of technical reports are advised to go through the listed references.

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 IN COMPILING A TECHNICAL REPORT

1. Know the target reader

 As with any writing, one of the first questions that must be asked in the planning process is "Who is
the target reader?"
 In engineering practice, the reader can be a client, a consultant, a colleague, or a manager.
 In academic writing, the target reader is usually the examiner. The examiner is normally independent
and was not involved in the initiation or executing of the work being reported.

 The author must therefore ensure that sufficient background and detail is given to convince the
examiner. When academic writing is aimed at an examination process, the outcomes or assessment
criteria must be thoroughly accounted for in the planning of the writing. It will be of great benefit to
the author to study the relevant assessment criteria.

2. Plan the work as early as possible

 The process of writing a technical report begins with planning the work on which the report is based.
Even at this early stage, the task can be broken down into elements which are likely to become the
chapters or sections of the report. The final sequence of the chapters and sections will usually not
correspond with the order in which the work was done, but will be determined by the desired
structure of the report.
 The general rule is to begin writing the sections of the report as soon as possible. The table of
contents should be drafted very early in the process of writing the report since the table of contents
provides a good overview of the entire document and, while the report is being written, provides an
indication of which sections still need to be done.
 Regardless of the order of the report, a chapter or an appendix (with tables and figures) should be
written as soon as that part of the work has been completed, for example
when some apparatus has been developed or set up,
a section of theory has been derived,
a computer program has been written, or
a set of readings has been taken.
 It is also a good idea to give the written work to a fellow student or a supervisor as early as possible
to criticize constructively.

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 CHAPTER ONE
TYPES, NATURE AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

1.1. Definition and Purpose of Research

Why do we need research?

"All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention" … Hudson Maxim

Anyone can understand the significance of research from the above quote. Humanity gained
a lot due to research and many of the comforts we have would not have been realized
without research. Increased amounts of research make progress possible for humanity.
Research trains scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.

What is research?
 A search for knowledge
 A scientific and systematic search for significant information on a specific topic
 A careful investigation through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge
 A voyage of discovery – and so on.

Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment; the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the
formulation of a theory is also research.

Broadly speaking, research refers to the systematic method consisting of stating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution to the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and

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which has not been discovered as yet. Research objectives fall into the following broad
groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it;
2. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else;
3. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

1.2. Motivation in Research

What makes people undertake research? This motivation is of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
 Desire to get a research degree along with career benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing a creative work;
 Desire to do research to serve the society (universities additional task);
 Seek to get recognition and respect (specially professors);
 Besides, factors such as directives of government (ASTU), employment conditions, desire to
understand casual relationships & the like may as well motivate/compel people to do research.

Therefore, a Research Topic is fixed based on:

 Personal interest
 Social problem
 Testing theory or to do a case study
 Prior research
 Program evaluation (government programs)
 Human service practice (e.g. comparing scientific and traditional weather forecast)
 Minorities in research
What are some of the Limitations Encountered when doing or Thinking of Doing a Research
Project?
 Time constraints
 Financial consideration
 Anticipating and avoiding problems
 Equipment limitations

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  Human resource limitations
 “Out of the box” thinking (thinking that moves away b/s it involves a variety of aspects)
 “In the box” thinking (confined thinking which will not lead to good ideas)
Where to find Sources of Information (to know problems, get data) for a technical report?
 Books
 Journals
 Internet (Google and YouTube)
 Data bases
 Archives
 Interviews
 Observations
 Reports
 Records

1.3. Types of Research

1. Fundamental Research vs. Applied Research

Fundamental Research
- Basic (Fundamental or pure) research is focused towards formulation of theories that may have a
broad base of applications either at present or for future which adds more materials to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
- It is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to
expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial
value to the discoveries that result from basic research.
- "Gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge” is termed 'Pure' or 'Basic' or ‘Fundamental’
research.
- Examples of fundamental research are: research concerning some natural phenomenon or related
to pure mathematics; research studies aimed at studying and making generalizations about
human behavior.
Basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
 How did the universe begin?
 What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
 How do slime molds reproduce?
 What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

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Applied Research
- The main target of Applied Research is to find a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization.
- Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems.
- It is used to find solutions to everyday problems, such as overcoming drinking water shortage,
reducing risk due to exposure to high fluoride concentration in water, and developing innovative
technologies, rather than acquiring knowledge for knowledge's sake.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

 Improve agricultural crop production
 Treat or cure a specific disease
 Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or
 Modes of transportation

2. Qualitative vs. Quantitative

- While Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of

quantity, qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon.

Qualitative research
- Is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically,
such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-
depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. It
investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.
Advantages
 It enables more complex aspects of a person’s experience to be studied
 Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data to be collected.
 Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily, Individuals can be studied in more
depth
 Good for exploratory research and hypothesis generation
 The participants are able to provide data in their own words and in their own way
Disadvantages
 It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of linguistic data
 There is more subjectivity involved in analysing the data.

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  “Data overload” – open-ended questions can sometimes create lots of data, which can take
a long time to analyse!
 Time consuming

Quantitative research
- Refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
- Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:
 The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
 The development of instruments and methods for measurement
 Experimental control and manipulation of variables
 Collection of empirical data
 Modelling and analysis of data
 Evaluation of results
Advantages
 Quantitative research allows the researcher to measure and analyse data.
 The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.
 Quantitative research can be used to test hypotheses in experiments because of its ability to
measure data using statistics.
Disadvantages
 The context of the study or experiment is ignored.
 Quantitative research does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things
have for different people.
 A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate results

3. Conceptual vs. Experimental

- Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
- Experimental (empirical) research relies on experiment or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment. In such a research it is necessary to get
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information.
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- In experimental research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or
guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or
the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information leading to the hypothesis.

- Experimental research is characterized by the experimenter's control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is
appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
- Therefore, experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the
purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among
selected variables.
- The simplest experimental design includes two variables and two groups of participants
(Independent vs. Dependent variables). One is the predictor variable whereas the other is the
outcome variable. Researchers manipulate and control the predictor to study its effect on the
outcome. (Control and experimental or treatment groups).

Advantages
 Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships

Disadvantages
 Artificiality
 Feasibility
 Unethical

4. Correlational Research

- Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships

among two or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect.
- It seeks to establish a relation/association/correlation between two or more variables that do not
readily lend themselves to experimental manipulation.
- For example, to test the hypothesis “Listening to music lowers blood pressure levels” there are 2
ways of conducting research:

 Experimental – group samples and make one group listen to music and then compare the bp
levels

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  Survey – ask people how they feel? How often they listen? And then compare.

Advantages:
1) Can collect much information from many subjects at one time.
2) Can study a wide range of variables and their interrelations.
3) Study variables that are not easily produced in the laboratory.

Disadvantages:
1) Correlation does not indicate causation (cause and effect).
2) Problems with self-report method.

5. Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

- Descriptive (statistical) research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
- In social science and business research the term Ex post facto research is often used for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
- Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks
to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data..
- These studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the
frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.
For example,
 Finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the
research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy
life.

Advantages:
 It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments;
 Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;
 As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is to start the research with it;

Disadvantages
 Requires more skills.
 Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon
 Results of this research can change over the period of time.

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- In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

6. Exploratory Research

- Research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps
determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects.
- The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but
they can provide significant insight into a given situation.
- Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-
depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

1.4. Research methods

- Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conducting research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers
adopt to carry out their research.
- In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying
his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly
the applied research, is to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the
unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. Concerned with the collection/ acquisition of data; these methods will be used where the
data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. Mathematical/statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between
the data and the unknowns;
3. Used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained (such as r2).

1.5. Ethical Responsibilities

 Researchers are unconditionally responsible for the integrity of the research process.
 The power to produce knowledge requires responsibility for integrity in its production.
 Similarly, the power relation inherent in researcher–researched interactions requires responsibility
to ensure the dignity and well-being of the researched.

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 Ethics is foundational to all research. Carefully examine all aspects of your study for ethical
implications, and address each aspect in a systematic manner. This is required to ensure the
integrity of the knowledge produced and to promote the practice of ethical responsibilities towards
participants.

Responsibility for the production of knowledge

Because the aim of research is to produce new knowledge, it is crucial that the task is approached with
integrity and rigour. Responsibility for knowledge production requires that researchers attempt to:

1. recognize and balance subjectivities;

2. give accurate research accounts;
3. act within the law; and
4. develop required expertise.

1. Recognizing, understanding, and balancing subjectivities:

 Researchers need to: recognize their ‘reality’; consider how this ‘reality’ may affect the researched
and the research process; and attempt to manage, negotiate and balance their research in a manner
that can best ensure the integrity and authenticity of the knowledge produced.
 Unfortunately, managing the influence of a researcher’s reality is not straight forward; there are no
hard-and-fast rules that cover all situations.
 It is the responsibility of the researcher to minimize the possibility that the results they generate are
false or misleading. In order to safeguard against ‘fraud’, researchers are expected to be open and
accountable. In fact, some codes of ethics require that researchers keep their raw data for a period
of five to seven years.
 Researchers are also encouraged to admit any shortcomings and outline any limitations within their
research process, thereby protecting themselves from accusations of fraud or misrepresentation.
 Nevertheless, misrepresentation and fraud are thought to be quite widespread, particularly in
student research. The price, however, is high. Students shown to be acting fraudulently are often
terminated from their degree programmes. Researchers have been known to:
 Blatantly fabricate data or falsify results
 Omit cases or cheat with numbers in order to show ‘significance’ plagiarize passages from
articles or books without crediting the original author(s)
 Misrepresent authorship by:
1) Using a ghost writer;
2) Taking full credit for authorship when more than one author was involved;
3) Naming a co-author who had no involvement with the study.
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 2. Acting within the law
 Clearly the laws of society stand in the world of research. If it is illegal for the general public, then it
is illegal for a researcher or a research participant. All research must abide by common law.

3. Develop appropriate expertise and experience

 Researchers, including student researchers, are responsible for knowing the research landscape
before conducting their study. There is an implicit obligation for researchers to know about: their
topic; previous research; and commonly used methods, including their shortcomings. Researchers
are also expected to have, or be able to draw on, experience in conducting research.

4. Responsibility for the researched

 Responsibility for the dignity, respect, and welfare of respondents, both mentally and physically, is
central to research ethics. Respecting the rights of individuals and cultural groups; researching in an
equitable fashion; and ensuring that no harm will come to participants are prerequisites for any
research study.

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