Principles of Physics

Twelfth Edition
International Adaptation

Halliday/Resnick/Walker

Chapter 7
Kinetic Energy and Work

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Section 7.1 Kinetic Energy

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2

Kinetic Energy Learning Objectives
• Apply the relationship between a particle's kinetic energy,
mass, and speed.
• Identify that kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3

Properties of Energy
• Energy is required for any sort of motion
• Energy:
o Is a scalar quantity assigned to an object or a system of objects
o Can be changed from one form to another
o Is conserved in a closed system, that is the total amount of energy
of all types is always the same
• In this chapter we discuss one type of energy (kinetic energy)
• We also discuss one method of transferring energy (work)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4

Kinetic Energy: Definition and Units
• Kinetic energy:
o The faster an object moves, the greater its kinetic energy
o Kinetic energy is zero for a stationary object
• For an object with v well below the speed of light:
where m = mass, v = velocity, 1
K = mv 2 Equation (7.1.1)
K = kinetic energy 2

• The unit of kinetic energy is a joule (J)

1 joule = 1J =1kg ⋅ m 2 s 2 . Equation (7.1.2)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5

Kinetic Energy: Calculation Example
(part one)
What energy is released by two colliding trains with given weight
and acceleration from rest:
o Find the final velocity of each locomotive:
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x − x0 ) .
v2 0 + 2 ( 0.26 m s ) ( 3.2 ×103 m ) ,
=
=
v =
40.8 m s 147 km h .

o Convert weight to mass:

1.2 ×106 N
=
m =2
1.22 ×105 kg.
9.8 m s

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6

Kinetic Energy: Calculation Example
(part two)
• Find the kinetic energy using mass and velocity:
1 2
=
K 2  mv
2
= 

(1.22 ×105 kg ) ( 40.8 m s ) 2

= 2.0 ×108 J. ( Answer )

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7

Section 7.2 Work and Kinetic Energy

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 8

Work and Kinetic Energy: Learning
Objectives
• Apply the relationship between a force (magnitude and
direction) and the work done on a particle by the force when the
particle undergoes a displacement.
• Calculate work by taking a dot product of the force vector and
the displacement vector, in either magnitude-angle or unit-
vector notation.
• If multiple forces act on a particle, calculate the net work done
by them.
• Apply the work-kinetic energy theorem to relate the work done
by a force (or the net work done by multiple forces) and the
resulting change in kinetic energy.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9

Work-Energy Relationship
• Account for changes in kinetic energy by saying energy
has been transferred to or from the object
• In a transfer of energy via a force, work is:
o Done on the object by the force
Work W is energy transferred to or from an object by means of
a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to the object is
positive work, and energy transferred from the object is
negative work. Displacement MUST take place in order for
work to be done.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 10

Work Requires Energy Transfer
• This is not the common meaning of the word “work”
o To do work on an object, energy must be transferred
o Throwing a baseball does work
o Pushing an immovable wall does not do work

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11

Work vs. Kinetic Energy

• Start from force equation and 1-dimensional velocity:

Fx = max , Equation (7.2.1)

v=
2
v02 + 2ax d . Equation (7.2.2)

• Rearrange into kinetic energies:

1 2 1 2 Equation (7.2.3)
mv − mv0 =
Fx d .
2 2

• The left side is now the change in energy

• Therefore, work is:
W = Fx d . Equation (7.2.4)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12

Work as Force Through a
Displacement
To calculate the work a force does on an object as the object moves
through some displacement, we use only the force component along
the object's displacement. The force component perpendicular to the
displacement does zero work.
• For an angle ϕ between force and displacement:
W = Fd cos φ Equation (7.2.5)

• As vectors we can write:

 
W= F ⋅ d Equation (7.2.6)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13

Work Dot Product Definition:
Assumptions
• Assumptions for equations 7.2.5 and 7.2.6:
o Force is constant
o Object is particle-like (rigid)
o Work can be positive or negative

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 14

Graphical Work-Force Relationship

• Work has the SI unit

of joules (J), the
same as energy
• In the British system,
the unit is foot-pound
(ft lb)
Figure 7.2.1

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 15

Determining Positive vs. Negative
Work
A force does positive work when it has a vector component in the
same direction as the displacement, and it does negative work when
it has a vector component in the opposite direction. It does zero
work when it has no such vector component.
• For two or more forces, the net work is the sum of the works
done by all the individual forces
• Two methods to calculate net work:
o We can find all the works and sum the individual work terms.
o We can take the vector sum of forces (Fnet) and calculate the net
work once

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 16

Conservation of Work & Kinetic
Energy
• The work-kinetic energy theorem states:
∆K = K f − K i = W , Equation (7.2.8)

Where ∆K = change in kinetic energy, W = work, Kf = final

kinetic energy, and Ki = initial kinetic energy
• (change in kinetic energy) = (the net work done)
• Or we can write it as:

K=
f Ki + W , Equation (7.2.9)

• (final KE) = (initial KE) + (net work)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 17

Work-Kinetic Energy Examples
The work-kinetic energy theorem holds for positive and
negative work.
Example: If the kinetic energy of a particle is initially 5 J:
• A net transfer of 2 J to the particle (positive work)
o Final KE = 7 J

• A net transfer of 2 J from the particle (negative work)

o Final KE = 3 J

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 18

Work-Kinetic Energy Checkpoint #1
A particle moves along an x axis. Does the kinetic energy of the
particle increase, decrease, or remain the same if the particle's
velocity changes (a) from −3 m/s to −2 m/s and (b) from −2 m/s to
2 m/s? (c) In each situation, is the work done on the particle
positive, negative, or zero?
Answer:
(a) energy decreases
(b) energy remains the same
(c) work is negative for (a), and work is zero for (b)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19

Section 7.3 Work Done By Gravitational
Force

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 20

Work Done by the Gravitational
Force Learning Objectives
• Calculate the work done by the gravitational force
when an object is lifted or lowered.
• Apply the work-kinetic energy theorem to situations
where an object is lifted or lowered.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 21

Equations for Work Done by the
Gravitational Force
• We calculate the work as we would for any force
• Our equation is:
Wg = mgd cos φ Equation (7.3.1)

• For a rising object:

Wg = mgd cos180° = mgd ( −1) = −mgd . Equation (7.3.2)

• For a falling object:

Wg = mgd cos 0° = mgd ( +1) = + mgd . Equation (7.3.3)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 22

Work vs. Kinetic Energy for
Gravitational Force
• Work done in lifting or lowering an object, applying an
upwards force:
∆K = K f − K i = Wa + Wg , Equation (7.3.4)

• For a stationary object:

o Kinetic energies are zero
o We find:
Wa + Wg =
0
Wa = −Wg . Equation (7.3.5)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 23

Equation for Work of Lifting

• In other words, for an applied lifting force:

Wa = −mgd cos φ Equation (7.3.6)

(work done in lifting and lowering; Kf = Ki),

• Applies regardless of path

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 24

Effect of Force Balance on Work

• Figure 7.3.2 shows the

orientations of applied vs.
gravitational forces and their
Figure
associated works for upward 7.3.2
and downward displacement

• Lifting vs. gravitational works • If the works are unequal,

need not be equal, they are you will need to know the
only equal if the initial and difference between initial
final kinetic energies are equal and final kinetic energy to
solve for the work

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 25

Work vs. Displacement on a Slope

Example: You are a passenger being pulled up a ski-slope.

o Tension does positive work, gravity does negative work

Figure
7.3.3

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 26

Work vs. Vertical Displacement in an
Elevator Shaft
Example: You are a
passenger being
lowered down in an
elevator.
o Tension does Figure
negative work, 7.3.4
gravity does
positive work

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27

Section 7.4 Work Done By A Spring Force

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 28

Work Done by a Spring Force
Learning Objectives
• Apply the relationship (Hooke's law) between spring force, the
stretch or compression of the spring, and the spring constant.
• Identify that a spring force is a variable force.
• Calculate the work done on an object by a spring force by
integrating the force from the initial position to the final
position of the object or by using the known generic result of
the integration.
• Calculate work by graphically integrating on a graph of force
versus position of the object.
• Apply the work-kinetic energy theorem to situations in which
an object is moved by a spring force.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 29

Characteristics of Spring Forces
A spring force is the variable force from
a spring
o A spring force has a particular
mathematical form
o Many forces in nature have this form

• Figure (a) shows the spring in its

relaxed state: since it is neither
compressed nor extended, no force is
applied
• If we stretch or extend the spring it
resists, and exerts a restoring force that
attempts to return the spring to its
relaxed state Figure 7.4.1

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 30

Hooke’s Law
• The spring force is given by Hooke's law:
 
Fs = −kd Equation (7.4.1)

• The negative sign represents that the force always opposes the
displacement
• The spring constant k is a is a measure of the stiffness of the
spring
• This is a variable force (function of position) and it exhibits a
linear relationship between F and d
• For a spring along the x-axis we can write:

Fx = −kx Equation (7.4.2)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 31

Equations for Work Done by Spring
Forces
• We can find the work by integrating:
xf
W=
s ∫ xi
− Fx dx. Equation (7.4.4)

• Plug kx in for Fx and integrate:

1 2 1 2
=
Ws kxi − kx f Equation (7.4.5)
2 2

• The work:
o Can be positive or negative
o Depends on the net energy transfer

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 32

Spring Force Work Positive-Negative
Work Ws is positive if the block ends up closer to the
relaxed position (x = 0) than it was initially. It is negative
if the block ends up farther away from x = 0. It is zero if
the block ends up at the same distance from x = 0.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 33

Spring Work for Zero Initial Position

• For an initial position of x = 0:

1 2
Ws = − kx Equation (7.4.7)
2
• For an applied force where the initial and final kinetic energies
are zero:
Wa = −Ws . Equation (7.4.9)

If a block that is attached to a spring is stationary before and

after a displacement, then the work done on it by the applied
force displacing it is the negative of the work done on it by the
spring force.
Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 34
Work Done by a Spring Force
Checkpoint #2
For three situations, the initial and final positions, respectively,
along the x axis for the block in Fig. 7.4.1 are (a) −3 cm, 2 cm; (b)
2 cm, 3 cm; and (c) −2 cm, 2 cm. In each situation, is the work
done by the spring force on the block positive, negative, or zero?
Answer:
(a) positive
(b) negative
(c) zero

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 35

Section 7.5 Work Done By A General
Variable Force

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 36

Work Done by a General Variable
Force Learning Objectives
• Given a variable force as a function of position, calculate the
work done by it on an object by integrating the function from
the initial to the final position of the object in one or more
dimensions.
• Given a graph of force versus position, calculate the work done
by graphically integrating from the initial position to the final
position of the object.
• Convert a graph of acceleration versus position to a graph of
force versus position.
• Apply the work-kinetic energy theorem to situations where an
object is moved by a variable force.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 37

Integral Definition of Work as Force
vs. Distance
• One-dimensional example
• We need to integrate the
work equation (which
normally applies only for a
constant force) over the
change in position
• We can show this process
by an approximation with
rectangles under the curve

Figure 7.5.1

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 38

Work as Area Under Force vs.
Displacement Curve
• Our sum of rectangles would be:
=W lim ∑ Fj ,avg ∆x. Equation (7.5.3)
∆x → 0

• As an integral this is:

W = ∫ F ( x ) dx
xf
Equation (7.5.4)
xi

• In three dimensions, we integrate each separately:

rf xf yf zf
W =∫ dW =∫ Fx dx + ∫ Fy dy + ∫ Fz dz. Equation (7.5.8)
ri xi yi zi

• The work-kinetic energy theorem still applies!

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 39

Section 7.6 Power

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 40

Power Learning Objectives
• Apply the relationship between average power, the
work done by a force, and the time interval in which
that work is done.
• Given the work as a function of time, find the
instantaneous power.
• Determine the instantaneous power by taking a dot
product of the force vector and an object's velocity
vector, in magnitude-angle and unit-vector notations.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 41

Definition of Power
• Power is the time rate at which a force does work or
changes energy.
• A force does W work in a time Δt; the average power due
to the force is:
W
Pavg = Equation (7.6.1)
∆t
• The instantaneous power at a particular time is:

dW
P= Equation (7.6.2)
dt

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 42

Units of Power
• The SI unit for power is the watt (W): 1 W = 1 J/s
• Therefore work-energy can be written as (power) ×
(time) e.g. kWh, the kilowatt-hour

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 43

Power as Time Derivative of Work

• Solve for the instantaneous power using the definition of

work:
dW F cos φ dx  dx 
=
P = = F cos φ   ,
dt dt  dt 

P = Fv cos φ . Equation (7.6.6)

 
• Vector Form: P = F ⋅v Equation (7.6.7)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 44

Power Checkpoint #3

A block moves with uniform circular motion because a cord

tied to the block is anchored at the center of a circle. Is the
power due to the force on the block from the cord positive,
negative, or zero?
Answer:
Zero ( consider P= Fv cos φ , and note that φ= 90° )

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 45

Chapter 7 Summary: Kinetic Energy
and Work
Kinetic Energy
• The energy associated with motion

1 2
K = mv Equation (7.1.1)
2

Work
• Energy transferred to or from an object via a force
• Can be positive or negative

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 46

Chapter 7 Summary: Work-Energy
Conservation
Work Done by a Constant Force:
 
W= Fd cos φ= F ⋅ d Equation (7.2.5 and 7.2.6)

The net work is the sum of individual works

Work and Kinetic Energy Conservation:
∆K = K f − K i = W , Equation (7.2.8)

K=
f Ki + W , Equation (7.2.9)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 47

Chapter 7 Summary: Gravitational
Work and Lifting
Work Done by the Gravitational Force

Wg = mgd cos φ Equation (7.3.1)

Work Done in Lifting and Lowering an Object

Wa + Wg =
0
Equation (7.3.5)
Wa = −Wg .

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 48

Chapter 7 Summary: Spring Force

Spring Force
• Relaxed state: applies no force
• Spring constant k measures stiffness
 
Fs = −kd Equation (7.4.1)

Spring Force
• For an initial position x = 0:

1 2
Ws = − kx Equation (7.4.7)
2

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 49

Chapter 7 Summary: Power and
Work by Variable Force
Work Done by a Variable Force
• Found by integrating the constant-force work equation

W = ∫ F ( x ) dx
xf
Equation (7.5.4)
xi

Power
• The rate at which a force does work on an object
• Average power:

W
Pavg = Equation (7.6.1)
∆t

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 50

Chapter 7 Summary: Instantaneous
Power
• Instantaneous power:

dW
P= Equation (7.6.2)
dt

• For a force acting on a moving object:

 
P= Fv cos φ= F ⋅ v Equation (7.6.6 and 7.6.7)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 51

Biomedical Applications: Problem 18
Part A: In 1975 the roof of Montreal’s Velodrome, with a weight of
360 kN, was lifted by 10 cm so that it could be centered. How
much work was done on the roof by the forces making the lift?
Part B: In 1960 a Tampa, Florida mother reportedly raised one end
of a car that had fallen on her son when a jack failed. If her panic
lift effectively raised 4000 N (about ¼ of the car’s weight) by 5.0
cm, how much work did her force do on the car?

Answer: part A 36 kJ, part B 2.0 x 102 J

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 52

Biomedical Applications: Problem 55
A horse pulls a cart with a force of 40 lb at an angle of
30° above the horizontal and moves along at a speed of
6.0 mi/h. (a) How much work does the force do in 10
min? (b) What is the average power (in horsepower) of
the force?

Answer: (a) 1.8 x 105 ft*lb, (b) 305 ft*lb/s

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53

Copyright
Copyright © 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in
Section 117 of the 1976 United States Act without the express written permission of the
copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the
Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up
copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher assumes
no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages, caused by the use of these programs or
from the use of the information contained herein.

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 54