The Biology of Mind

Chapter 2 3
 History of Mind
Phrenology

In 1800, Franz Gall

suggested that bumps of
the skull represented
mental abilities. His theory
(phrenology), though
incorrect, nevertheless
proposed that different
mental abilities were B

associated with different e

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parts of the brain.

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 The Structure of a Neuron

The body’s information system is built from billions of

interconnected cells called neurons (nerve cells).
Action potential
A neural impulse is a brief
electrical charge that travels
down an axon like a wave and
is generated by the movement
of positively charged atoms in
and out of channels in the
axon’s membrane.
 Threshold
Each neuron receives
excitatory and inhibitory
signals from many
neurons. When the
excitatory signals minus
the inhibitory signals
exceed a minimum
intensity (threshold) the
neuron fires an action
potential.
 Action Potential Properties

All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can

trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more
often, but it does not affect the action potential’s
strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the same
throughout the length of the axon.
 The Synapse
The synapse is a
junction between the
axon tip of the
sending neuron and
the dendrite or cell
body of the receiving
neuron.

The synapse is
also known as the
“synaptic junction”
or “synaptic gap.”
 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are
chemicals used to send a
signal across the synaptic
gap.
 Reuptake:
Recycling Neurotransmitters [NTs]

Reuptake:
After the neurotransmitters
stimulate the receptors on the
receiving neuron, the
chemicals are taken back up
into the sending neuron to be
used again.
Ecstasy
Neurons

20
Neurons
Neurons
Neurons
 Lock & Key Mechanism
Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the
receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism.
Agonists
Antagonists
The Nervous Kid

2
 Nervous System

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System System
(CNS) (PNS)
 The Nerves
Nerves consist of neural
“cables” containing many
axons. They are part of
the peripheral nervous
system and connect
muscles, glands, and
sense organs to the
central nervous system.
 Nervous System

Nervous System:
Consists of all the
Centra nerve cells. It is Periphera
l the body’s speedy, l
Nervo electrochemical Nervous
us communication System
Syste system. (PNS)
m
(CNS)
Nervous System
Central Nervous
System (CNS): the
brain and spinal
cord.
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS): the
sensory and motor
neurons that connect
the central nervous
system (CNS) to the
rest of the body.
The Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic NS
“Arouses”
(fight-or-flight)
Parasympathetic NS
“Calms”
(rest and digest)
The Nervous System
 Interneurons in the Spine
Decisions made without the brain

Your spine’s
interneurons trigger your
hand to pull away from a
fire before you can say
OUCH!

This is an example
of a reflex action.

The brain finds out

about the reflex after it
happens.
 Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons carry
messages IN from the
body’s tissues and
sensory receptors to
the CNS for Motor neurons carry
processing. instructions OUT
from the CNS out to
the body’s tissues. Interneurons (in the
brain and spinal cord)
process information
between the sensory
input and motor output.
13
 Neural Networks

These complex webs of interconnected

neurons form networks in the brain with
experience.
The Endocrine System

The
endocrine
system:
a set of
glands that
produce
chemical
messengers
called
hormones.
The Body’s “Slow but Sure”
Endocrine Message System

Pituitary
Sends messages through gland
the bloodstream.
The chemical
messengers, called
hormones, are produced
in various glands around
the body.
The pituitary gland is the “master gland” of the
endocrine system.
The pituitary gland is controlled through the
nervous system by the nearby brain area--the
hypothalamus.
The pituitary gland produces hormones that
regulate other glands.
The Brain:
 The Brain
Techniques to Study the
Brain
A brain lesion
experimentally destroys
brain tissue to study
animal behaviors after
such destruction.

Hubel
(1990)
 Brain Injury
Phineas Gage

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Clinical Observation
D
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 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the electrical waves
sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by
electrodes placed on the scalp.

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 Neuroimaging - CT Scan

www.crash.lshtm.ac.uk/ctscanlarge.htm
 Neuroimaging - CT Scan

www.crash.lshtm.ac.uk/ctscanlarge.htm
 Neuroimaging - MRI Scan

MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging)
uses magnetic fields
and radio waves to
produce computer-
Both photos from Daniel Weinberger, M.D., CBDB,
generated images that NIMH

distinguish among
different types of brain
tissue.
 Neuroimaging - PET Scan
PET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual
display of brain activity that detects a radioactive
isotope while the brain performs a given task.
Neuroimaging - SPECT Scan
 Neuroimaging - fMRI Scan
fMRI Scan of a brain while a research participant
is lying about the cards being held.

James Salzano/ Salzano Lucy Reading/ Lucy

Photo Illustrations
The Brain
The Brainstem begins where the spinal cord swells
and enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic
survival functions.
Brainstem

It includes the Medulla,

the Reticular
Formation, and the
Thalamus.
 Cerebellum
The cerebellum
helps coordinate
balance and
voluntary
movement, such
as playing a sport.

The cerebellum “little brain” is

attached to the rear of the
brainstem.
The Limbic System
The Limbic System is a
doughnut-shaped
system of neural
structures at the border
of the brainstem and
cerebrum, associated
with emotions such as
fear, aggression and
drives for food and sex.
The Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that
covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s
ultimate control and information processing center.
Structure of the Cortex
Each brain hemisphere
is divided into four
lobes that are
separated by prominent
fissures. These lobes
are the frontal lobe
(forehead), parietal lobe
(top to rear head),
occipital lobe (back
head) and temporal
lobe (side of head).
Homunculus
Functions of the Cortex
The Sensory Cortex (parietal cortex) receives
information from skin surface and sense organs.
The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the
frontal lobes that control voluntary movements.
Visual Function

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(The functional MRI scan on the right shows the visual C

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cortex is active as the subject looks at faces.) a
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Auditory Function
Language
Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually
caused by left hemisphere damage either to
Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke’s
area (impaired understanding).
Plasticity: The Brain’s Ability to Adapt

If the brain is damaged:

It does not repair

damaged neurons, BUT
it can restore some
functions
it can form new
connections,
reorganize, and
reassign brain areas to This 6-year-old had a
new functions. hemispherectomy to end life-
Some neurogenesis, threatening seizures; her
remaining hemisphere
production of new brain compensated for the damage.
cells, helps rebuild.
Contralateral Control
Our brain is divided into
two hemispheres.
The right hemisphere
controls functioning and
sensation on the left
side of the body and
vice versa.
The intact but lateralized brain
Right-Left Hemisphere Differences
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Thought Feelings
s and and
logic intuition
Languag Languag
e: words e: tone,
inflectio
and n,
definition context
s Wholes,
Pieces includin
and g the
details self
Corpus Callosum
The Corpus Callosum is a wide band of axon fibers
that connects the two brain hemispheres.

Corpus Callosum
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Split visual field
Each hemisphere
perceives the half of the
view in front of you that
goes with the half of the
body that is controlled by
that hemisphere.
With the corpus
callosum severed,
objects (apple)
presented in the right
visual field can be
named. Objects (pencil)
in the left visual field
cannot.
Exercise

Try drawing one shape with your left hand and one
with your right hand, simultaneously.
Case Study
Anne, the fine arts major, is standing at
her easel in her dorm room in Pattie
Cobb, painting with her right hand as she
looks out the window toward the front
lawn. She is listening to Phillip Phillips.