Information security

Information security is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information risks. It is

part of information risk management.[1] It typically involves preventing or reducing the probability
of unauthorized or inappropriate access to data or the unlawful use, disclosure, disruption,
deletion, corruption, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information. It also
involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents. Protected
information may take any form, e.g., electronic or physical, tangible (e.g., paperwork), or
intangible (e.g., knowledge).[2][3] Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection
of data confidentiality, integrity, and availability (also known as the "CIA" triad) while maintaining
a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without hampering organization productivity.[4]
This is largely achieved through a structured risk management process.[5]

To standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance,

policies, and industry standards on passwords, antivirus software, firewalls, encryption software,
legal liability, security awareness and training, and so forth.[6] This standardization may be further
driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed,
stored, transferred, and destroyed.[7]
Definition

Information Security Attributes: or

qualities, i.e., Confidentiality, Integrity
and Availability (CIA). Information
Systems are composed in three main
portions, hardware, software and
communications with the purpose to
help identify and apply information
security industry standards, as
mechanisms of protection and
prevention, at three levels or layers:
physical, personal and organizational.
Essentially, procedures or policies are
implemented to tell administrators,
users and operators how to use
products to ensure information
security within the organizations.[8]

Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different
sources:

1. "Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition,

other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also
be involved." (ISO/IEC 27000:2018)[9]

2. "The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use,
disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality,
integrity, and availability." (CNSS, 2010)[10]

3. "Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete
information (integrity) when required (availability)." (ISACA, 2008)[11]

4. "Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an

organisation." (Pipkin, 2000)[12]

5. "...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of
information risk to the business." (McDermott and Geer, 2001)[13]
 6. "A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance."
(Anderson, J., 2003)[14]

7. "Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing
information to unauthorized parties." (Venter and Eloff, 2003)[15]

8. "Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is

concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all
available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep
information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and,
consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored,
transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.[16]

9. Information and information resource security using telecommunication system or devices

means protecting information, information systems or books from unauthorized access,
damage, theft, or destruction (Kurose and Ross, 2010).[17]

Overview

At the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that information is not
compromised in any way when critical issues arise.[18] These issues include but are not limited to
natural disasters, computer/server malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business
operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise
digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized,[19][20] with information assurance now
typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists. These specialists
apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system). It is
worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home desktop.[21] A computer
is any device with a processor and some memory. Such devices can range from non-networked
standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as
smartphones and tablet computers.[22] IT security specialists are almost always found in any
major enterprise/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger
businesses.[23] They are responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure
from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain
control of the internal systems.[24][25]

There are many specialist roles in Information Security including securing networks and allied
infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems
auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics.[26]
Information security professionals are very stable in their employment.[27]
Threats

Information security threats come in many different forms.[28] Some of the most common
threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of
equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion.[29][30] Viruses,[31] worms,
phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft
of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses.[32] Identity theft is
the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to
take advantage of their access to vital information through social engineering.[33][34] Theft of
equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices
today are mobile,[35] are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount
of data capacity increases. Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization's
website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers.[36] Information
extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a
payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with
ransomware.[37] One of the most functional precautions against these attacks is to conduct
periodical user awareness.[38]

Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organisations, and

private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees,
customers, products, research, and financial status.[39] Should confidential information about a
business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a
black hat hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial
loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation.[40] From a business perspective,
information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a
mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.[41]

For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very
differently in various cultures.[42]

History

Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it
was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and
to have some means of detecting tampering.[43] Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of
the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from
being read should a message fall into the wrong hands.[44] However, for the most part protection
was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.[45][46] Sensitive
information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted
persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box.[47] As postal services
expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal
letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653[48]).

In the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow
governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.[49] For example,
the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets
Act in 1889.[50] Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of
information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust.[51] A public interest defense was
soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the state.[52] A similar law was passed in
India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era
and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.[53] A newer version was
passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for
governance.[54] By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to
communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code
making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters.[55] Encoding became
more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble
information.[56]

The establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security. The
need for such appeared during World War II.[57] The volume of information shared by the Allied
countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems
and procedural controls.[58] An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle
documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as
increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.[59] The Enigma Machine, which
was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by
Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.[60]
Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to
follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the
capture of U-570[60]).

Various mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more
sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and
forth by computer centers. As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the
United States Department of Defense, started researching the feasibility of a networked system
of communication to trade information within the United States Armed Forces. In 1968, the
ARPANET project was formulated by Larry Roberts, which would later evolve into what is known
as the internet.[61]

In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert
Metcalfe to have many flaws such as the: "vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack
of safety procedures for dial-up connections; and nonexistent user identification and
authorizations", aside from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from
unauthorized access. Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were
known by the public.[62] Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer
security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system,
"network security" was often alluded to as "network insecurity".[62]

Poster promoting information security

by the Russian Ministry of Defence

The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid
advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data
encryption.[63] The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing
equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and home
users.[64] The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP) in the
early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate.[65] These computers quickly
became interconnected through the internet.[66]

The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business
conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism,
fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store,
process, and transmit.[67] The academic disciplines of computer security and information
assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common
goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.[68]
Basic principles

The CIA triad

The "CIA triad" of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security[69]
and was first mentioned in a NIST publication in 1977. (The members of the classic "CIA triad"
are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals,
fundamental aspects, information criteria, or critical information characteristics.)[70]

Debate continues about whether or not this triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing
technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the
intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security
and privacy.[18] Other principles such as "accountability" have sometimes been proposed; it has
been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core
concepts.[71]

Confidentiality

In information security, confidentiality "is the property, that information is not made available or
disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes."[72] While similar to "privacy," the two
words are not interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements
to protect our data from unauthorized viewers.[73] Examples of confidentiality of electronic data
being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the
incorrect individuals.[74]

Integrity

In IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of
data over its entire lifecycle.[75] This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or
undetected manner.[76] This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it
can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of
transaction processing.[77] Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure
their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate
and accidental threats.[78] Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to
compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact
another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware
infections, hacks, data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.[79]

More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human/social, process,
and commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as
credibility, consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.[80]
Availability

For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is
needed.[81] This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the
security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be
functioning correctly.[82] High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing
service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.[83] Ensuring
availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming
messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.[84]

In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most
important parts of a successful information security program. Ultimately end-users need to be
able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the
standards that an organization's stakeholders expect.[85] This can involve topics such as proxy
configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send
emails.[86] Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security
and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different
organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response,
and policy/change management.[87] A successful information security team involves many
different key roles to mesh and align for the "CIA" triad to be provided effectively.[88]

Additional Security Goals

In addition to the classic CIA triad of security goals, some organisations may want to include
security goals like authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation, and reliability.

Non-repudiation

In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also
implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the
other party deny having sent a transaction.[89]

It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-
repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of
technology.[90] It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital
signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the
message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity).[91] The alleged sender
could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege
or prove that his signing key has been compromised.[92] The fault for these violations may or may
not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the
assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and
integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are
pre-requisites for non-repudiation).[93]

Other Models

In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and
Networks[94] proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility,
response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security
management, and reassessment.[95] Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering
Principles for Information Technology Security[71] proposed 33 principles.

In 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic "CIA" triad that he called the
six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity,
authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate
amongst security professionals.[96]

In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.[97]
This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements
called "security objectives", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1),
compliance, and technical (4).

Risk management

Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset
(or the loss of the asset).[98] A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or
cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has
the potential to cause harm.[99] The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm
creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.[100] In the
context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality,
and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).[101]

The Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 defines risk management
as "the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an
organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures,[102] if any, to
take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the
organization."[103]

There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk
management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business
environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day.[104]
Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance
between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the
informational asset being protected.[105] Furthermore, these processes have limitations as
security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily
duplicated.[106] Thus, any process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for
vulnerabilities.[107] It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The
remaining risk is called "residual risk".[108]

A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of
the business.[109] Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business
are assessed.[110] The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed
opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may
use quantitative analysis.

Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human
user, operator, designer, or other human.[111] The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for
information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk
assessment:

security policy,

organization of information security,

asset management,

human resources security,

physical and environmental security,

communications and operations management,

access control,

information systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,

information security incident management,

business continuity management

regulatory compliance.

In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:[112][113]

1. Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware,
software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.[114]

2. Conduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts
originating from inside or outside the organization.[115]
 3. Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that
it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security,
quality control, technical security.[116]

4. Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or
quantitative analysis.[117]

5. Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response.

Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.[118]

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required
cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.[119]

For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value
of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the
business.[120] Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing
appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to
another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.[121] The reality of
some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.[122]

Security controls

Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down
risk to acceptable levels.[123] Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk
assessment.[124] Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the
confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. ISO/IEC 27001 has defined controls in
different areas.[125] Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of
the organization.[126] ISO/IEC 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security
standards.[127]

Defense in depth

The onion model of defense in depth

Information security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of
the information on through to the final disposal of the information.[128] The information must be
protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through
many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information
processing systems.[129] There are many different ways the information and information systems
can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the
information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms.[130] The building up,
layering on, and overlapping of security measures is called "defense in depth."[131] In contrast to a
metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy
aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to
provide protection.[132]

Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical
controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense
in depth strategy.[133] With this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three
distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other.[134] Additional insight into defense in depth
can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the
onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and network security, host-based security, and
application security forming the outermost layers of the onion.[135] Both perspectives are equally
valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth
strategy.[136]

Classification

An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of
information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the
information.[137] Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree
of protection.[138] This requires information to be assigned a security classification.[139] The first
step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of
the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy.[140] The policy
should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be
assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.[141]

Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how
much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or
not the information has become obsolete.[142] Laws and other regulatory requirements are also
important considerations when classifying information.[143] The Information Systems Audit and
Control Association (ISACA) and its Business Model for Information Security also serves as a tool
for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an
environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be
addressed.[144]

The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature
of the organization, with examples being:[141]

In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.

In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential,
Secret, Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.[145]

In cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber,
and Red.

In the personal sector, one label such as Financial. This includes activities related to managing
money, such as online banking.[146]

All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the
classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for
each classification.[147] The classification of a particular information asset that has been
assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the
information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are
followed in their right procedures.[148]

Access control

Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the
information.[149] The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the
information, must also be authorized.[150] This requires that mechanisms be in place to control
the access to protected information.[150] The sophistication of the access control mechanisms
should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or
valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be.[151] The foundation on
which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.[152]

Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and

authorization.[153][74]

Identification

Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the
statement "Hello, my name is John Doe" they are making a claim of who they are.[154] However,
their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected
information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John
Doe.[155] Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are
claiming "I am the person the username belongs to".[156]

Authentication

Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to
make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity.[157] The bank teller
asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license.[158] The bank teller checks the
license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license
against the person claiming to be John Doe.[159] If the photo and name match the person, then
the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the
correct password, the user is providing evidence that he/she is the person the username belongs
to.[160]

There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:[161][162]

Something you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name[163][164]

Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card[165][166]

Something you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints, and retina (eye)
scans[167]

Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-
factor authentication).[168] The username is the most common form of identification on
computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication.[169]
Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.[170]
Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated
authentication mechanisms such as time-based one-time password algorithms.[171]

Authorization

After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it
must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions
they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).[172] This is called
authorization. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with
administrative policies and procedures.[173] The policies prescribe what information and
computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control
mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies.[174] Different computing systems are
equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of
different access control mechanisms.[175] The access control mechanism a system offers will be
based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination
of the three approaches.[74]

The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized

administration.[176] The access to information and other resources is usually based on the
individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform.[177][178]
The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to
control access to those resources.[176] In the mandatory access control approach, access is
granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information
resource.[149]

Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access
control, available in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions
provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems;[179] Group Policy Objects provided in
Windows network systems; and Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in
many firewalls and routers.[180]

To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective
policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.[181] The U.S. Treasury's
guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that
all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to
information must leave some type of audit trail.[182]

Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This
principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.[183] This principle is used
in the government when dealing with difference clearances.[184] Even though two employees in
different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for
information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant
the employee the least amount of privilege to prevent employees from accessing more than what
they are supposed to.[185] Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability
triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.[186]

Cryptography

Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders
it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption.[187]
Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its
original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key, through the
process of decryption.[188] Cryptography is used in information security to protect information
from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either
electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.[74]

Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including
improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and
encrypted network communications.[189] Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure
Shell (SSH) that use encrypted network communications.[190] Wireless communications can be
encrypted using protocols such as WPA/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired
communications (such as ITU‑T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for
authentication and key exchange.[191] Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used
to encrypt data files and email.[192]

Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.[193]

Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have
undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography.[194] The length and
strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration.[195] A key that is weak or too
short will produce weak encryption.[195] The keys used for encryption and decryption must be
protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information.[196] They must be
protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and they must be available when
needed. Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround
key management.[74]

Process

The terms "reasonable and prudent person", "due care", and "due diligence" have been used in the
fields of finance, securities, and law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their
way into the fields of computing and information security.[113] U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines
now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due
diligence in the management of their information systems.[197]

In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners, and governments have the
expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business
practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described
as the "reasonable and prudent person" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that
everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal,
ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of
the business.

In the field of information security, Harris[198] offers the following definitions of due care and due
diligence:

"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken
responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and
has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources,
and employees[199]." And, [Due diligence are the] "continual activities
that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained
and operational."[200]

Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions.[201][202] First, in due care,
steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce
tangible artifacts.[203][204] Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that
people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these
activities are ongoing.[205]

Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information
security. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)[206] provides principles and practices
for evaluating risk.[207] It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.[208] DoCRA
helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while
presenting a reasonable burden.[209] With increased data breach litigation, companies must
balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.[210]

Security governance

The Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled Governing
for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide, defines characteristics of effective security
governance. These include:[211]

An enterprise-wide issue

Leaders are accountable

Viewed as a business requirement

Risk-based

Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined

Addressed and enforced in policy

Adequate resources committed

Staff aware and trained

 A development life cycle requirement

Planned, managed, measurable, and measured

Reviewed and audited

Incident response plans

An incident response plan (IRP) is a group of policies that dictate an organizations reaction to a
cyber attack. Once an security breach has been identified, for example by network intrusion
detection system (NIDS) or host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) (if configured to do
so), the plan is initiated.[212] It is important to note that there can be legal implications to a data
breach. Knowing local and federal laws is critical.[213] Every plan is unique to the needs of the
organization, and it can involve skill sets that are not part of an IT team.[214] For example, a
lawyer may be included in the response plan to help navigate legal implications to a data breach.

As mentioned above every plan is unique but most plans will include the following:[215]

Preparation

Good preparation includes the development of an incident response team (IRT).[216] Skills need
to be used by this team would be, penetration testing, computer forensics, network security,
etc.[217] This team should also keep track of trends in cybersecurity and modern attack
strategies.[218] A training program for end users is important as well as most modern attack
strategies target users on the network.[215]

Identification

This part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event.[219] When an end
user reports information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched. An
incident log is a crucial part of this step. All of the members of the team should be updating this
log to ensure that information flows as fast as possible.[220] If it has been identified that a
security breach has occurred the next step should be activated.[221]

Containment

In this phase, the IRT works to isolate the areas that the breach took place to limit the scope of
the security event.[222] During this phase it is important to preserve information forensically so it
can be analyzed later in the process.[223] Containment could be as simple as physically
containing a server room or as complex as segmenting a network to not allow the spread of a
virus.[224]

Eradication

This is where the threat that was identified is removed from the affected systems.[225] This could
include deleting malicious files, terminating compromised accounts, or deleting other
components.[226][227] Some events do not require this step, however it is important to fully
understand the event before moving to this step.[228] This will help to ensure that the threat is
completely removed.[224]

Recovery

This stage is where the systems are restored back to original operation.[229] This stage could
include the recovery of data, changing user access information, or updating firewall rules or
policies to prevent a breach in the future.[230][231] Without executing this step, the system could
still be vulnerable to future security threats.[224]

Lessons learned

In this step information that has been gathered during this process is used to make future
decisions on security.[232] This step is crucial to the ensure that future events are prevented.
Using this information to further train admins is critical to the process.[233] This step can also be
used to process information that is distributed from other entities who have experienced a
security event.[234]

Change management

Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the
information processing environment.[235][236] This includes alterations to desktop computers, the
network, servers, and software.[237] The objectives of change management are to reduce the
risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and
reliability of the processing environment as changes are made.[238] It is not the objective of
change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.[239][240]

Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.[241] Even
apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects.[242] One of management's many
responsibilities is the management of risk.[243][244] Change management is a tool for managing
the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment.[245] Part of the
change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times
when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being
implemented.[246]

Not every change needs to be managed.[247][248] Some kinds of changes are a part of the
everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces
the overall level of risk to the processing environment.[249] Creating a new user account or
deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require
change management.[250] However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server
pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday
activity.[251] The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and
communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.[252]

Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives

from key business areas,[253] security, networking, systems administrators, database
administration, application developers, desktop support, and the help desk.[254] The tasks of the
change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application.[255] The
responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change
management procedures are followed.[256] The change management process is as follows[257]

Request: Anyone can request a change.[258][259] The person making the change request may or
may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change.[260][261]
When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the
requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to
determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.[262]

Approve: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore,
management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.[263]
Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the
business model, industry standards or best practices.[264][265] Management might also choose
to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the
change.[266]

Plan: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change;
analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing, and
documenting both implementation and back-out plans.[267] Need to define the criteria on which
a decision to back out will be made.[268]

Test: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual
production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment.[269] The
backout plan must also be tested.[270]

Schedule: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of
changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other
scheduled changes or critical business activities.[271]

Communicate: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.[272] The

communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about
other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling
the change.[273] The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a
change is about to occur.[274] Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure
 that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by
the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.[275][276]

Implement: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.[277][278] Part of
the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out
plan.[279][280] If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation
testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be
implemented.[281]

Document: All changes must be documented.[282][283] The documentation includes the initial
request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation,[284] testing and
back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was
implemented,[285] who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully,
failed or postponed.[286][287]

Post-change review: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of
changes.[288] It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review
board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for
improvement.[288]

Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce
the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.[289]
Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as
they are implemented.[290] This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation,
and communication.[291]

ISO/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable
Steps[292] (Full book summary),[293] and ITIL all provide valuable guidance on implementing an
efficient and effective change management program information security.[294]

Business continuity

Business continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an

organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize
the effects.[295][296] BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line
with current threats to the continuation of business as usual.[297] The BCM should be included in
an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have
what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.[298]

It encompasses:

Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and

potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the
 organization;[299][300]

Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum
acceptable periods of data loss);[301]

Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience

(e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability,[302] avoiding or preventing
situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g.,
evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage/situation[303] assessment and
invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic
capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are
available);[304]

Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and
strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;

Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;[305]

Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the
work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities;
team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions
and activities[306] (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and
security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when
things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and
appropriate investment;

Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting
key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the
arrangements will go to plan if invoked.[307]

Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the
probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on
resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.[308] A disaster recovery
plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical
information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure.[309] Disaster recovery planning
includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities,
developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing
verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.[310]
Laws and regulations

Privacy International 2007 privacy

ranking
green: Protections and safeguards
red: Endemic surveillance societies

Below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that
have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security.[311][312]
Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant
impact on information security.[311]

The UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of
information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such
information.[313][314] The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all
E.U. members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for
citizens throughout the E.U.[315][316]

The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime (e.g.,
hacking) a criminal offense.[317] The act has become a model upon which several other
countries,[318] including Canada and Ireland, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently
drafting their own information security laws.[319][320]

The E.U.'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone
companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between
six months and two years.[321]

The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. § 1232 (https://www.law.cor
nell.edu/uscode/text/20/1232) g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the
privacy of student education records.[322] The law applies to all schools that receive funds
under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education.[323] Generally, schools must
have written permission from the parent or eligible student[323][324] in order to release any
information from a student's education record.[325]

The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for
auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.[326]

The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption
of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for
providers, health insurance plans, and employers.[327] Additionally, it requires health care
providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health
data.[328]

The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services
Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information
that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.[329]

Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to
assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they
submit at the end of each fiscal year.[330] Chief information officers are responsible for the
security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial
data.[331] The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors
who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.[332]

The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive
requirements for enhancing payment account data security.[333] It was developed by the
founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council — including American
Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide,[334] and Visa International —
to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global
basis.[335] The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for
security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design, and other
critical protective measures.[336]

State security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses,
nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted "personal
information" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.[337]

The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada
supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is
collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances,[338][339] by providing for the use of
electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the
Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.[340][341][342]

Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165/2011)
establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed
by every company which provides electronic communication networks and/or services in
Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality.[343] These include both managerial and
technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).[344]

Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205/2013)
concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data
offered by Greek telecommunication companies.[345] The law forces these and other related
companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant
infrastructures.[346]
The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD
Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in
information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information
Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network
infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and
abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's
A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.[347]

Culture

Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is
the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in
both positive and negative ways.[348] Cultural concepts can help different segments of the
organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within
an organization. The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can
have a big impact on information security in organizations. Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven
core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:[349]

Attitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the
organizational security of information.[350]

Behaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or
indirect impact on information security.

Cognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices,

activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.

Communication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support
for security issues, and incident reporting.

Compliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such

policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.

Norms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are

informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden
expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-
communication technologies.

Responsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a

critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the
organization.

Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the
organization Information Security "effort" and often take actions that ignore organizational
information security best interests.[351] Research shows information security culture needs to be
improved continuously. In Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change, authors
commented, "It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To
manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic
planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.[352]

Pre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to

analyze current security policy

Strategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets.

Clustering people is helpful to achieve it

Operative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication,

management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs

Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with

organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the
employees[352]

Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous
improvement

Information Security Standards

Information security standards (also cyber security standards[353]) are techniques generally
outlined in published materials that attempt to protect the cyber environment of a user or
organization.[354] This environment includes users themselves, networks, devices, all software,
processes, information in storage or transit, applications, services, and systems that can be
connected directly or indirectly to networks.

The principal objective is to reduce the risks, including preventing or mitigating cyber-attacks.
These published materials consist of tools, policies, security concepts, security safeguards,
guidelines, risk management approaches, actions, training, best practices, assurance and
technologies.

The primary standards used in Information Security are ISO/IEC 27001 and the NIST
Cybersecurity Framework.

See also

Backup

Capability-based security

Computer security (cybersecurity)

Data breach

Data-centric security

Enterprise information security architecture

Identity-based security

Information privacy

Information infrastructure

Information security audit

Information security indicators

Information security management

Information security standards

Information technology

Information technology security audit

IT risk

ITIL security management

Kill chain

List of computer security certifications

Mobile security

Network Security Services

Privacy engineering

Privacy software

Privacy-enhancing technologies

Security bug

Security convergence

Security information management

Security level management

Security of Information Act

Security service (telecommunication)

Single sign-on

Verification and validation

 Gordon–Loeb model for cyber security investments

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for effective information security management. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications.
ISBN 978-0-8493-1137-6.

White, Gregory (2003). All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide. Emeryville, CA: McGraw-
Hill/Osborne. ISBN 978-0-07-222633-1.

Dhillon, Gurpreet (2007). Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases (https://arc
hive.org/details/principlesofinfo0000dhil) . NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-45056-6.

Whitman, Michael; Mattord, Herbert (2017). Principles of Information Security. Cengage.

ISBN 978-1337102063.

Further reading

Anderson, K., "IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market (https://web.archive.
org/web/20080402234040/http://www.scmagazineus.com/IT-security-professionals-must-evo
lve-for-changing-market/article/33990/) ", SC Magazine, October 12, 2006.

Aceituno, V., "On Information Security Paradigms", ISSA Journal, September 2005.

Easttom, C., Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition) Pearson Education, 2011.

Lambo, T., "ISO/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification", ISSA Journal, November 2006.

Dustin, D., " Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It (http://blog.bri
sbanedatarecovery.com.au/2017/05/awareness-of-how-your-data-is-being.html) ", "CDR
Blog", May 2017.

Dhillon, G., "The intellectual core of Information Systems Security (https://www.jissec.org/Cont

ents/V19/N2/V19N2-Dhillon-p91.pdf) ", Journal of Information Systems Security, Vol. 19, No 2.

External links

DoD IA Policy Chart (http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/ia_policychart.html) Archived (https://web.archi

ve.org/web/20110906012808/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/ia_policychart.html) 2011-09-06 at the
Wayback Machine on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.

patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained (http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/librar

y/ms998382.aspx)

Open Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems

IWS – Information Security Chapter (http://www.iwar.org.uk/comsec/) Archived (https://web.

archive.org/web/20191108164220/http://www.iwar.org.uk/comsec/) 2019-11-08 at the
Wayback Machine
Ross Anderson's book "Security Engineering" (http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/book.html)

teciza.in (https://teciza.in/)

Free ISO 27001 Annex A 5.1 Guidance (https://cyberzoni.com/standards/iso-27001/5-1-policie

s-for-information-security/)