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Software testing
Interview Question

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Q 1. What is Software testing?

Ans: Software testing involves evaluating and verifying a software product's

functionality. Basically, it checks whether the software product matches
anticipated requirements and makes sure it is defect-free. It can be said that
testing enhances the quality of the product by preventing bugs, reducing
development costs, and reducing performance issues.

Q 2. What are the different types of testing?

Ans: You can test the software in many different ways. Some types of testing are
conducted by software developers and some by specialized quality assurance
staff.

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Type Description
Unit Testing A programmatic test that tests the internal working
of a unit of code, such as a method or a function.
Integration Testing Ensures that multiple components of systems work
as expected when they are combined to produce a
result.
Regression Testing Ensures that existing features/functionality that used
to work are not broken due to new code changes.
System Testing Complete end-to-end testing is done on the
complete software to make sure the whole system
works as expected.
Smoke Testing A quick test performed to ensure that the software
works at the most basic level and doesn’t crash
when it’s started. Its name originates from the
hardware testing where you just plug the device and
see if smoke comes out.
Performance Testing Ensures that the software performs according to the
user’s expectations by checking the response time
and throughput under specific load and
environment.
User- Acceptance Ensures the software meets the requirements of the
Testing clients or users. This is typically the last step before
the software is live, i.e. it goes to production.
Stress Testing Ensures that the performance of the software
doesn’t degrade when the load increases. In stress
testing, the tester subjects the software under heavy
loads, such as a high number of requests or
stringent memory conditions to verify if it works well.
Usability Testing Measures how usable the software is. This is typically
performed with a sample set of end-users, who use
the software and provide feedback on how easy or
complicated it is to use the software.
Security Testing Now more important than ever. Security testing tries
to break a software’s security checks, to gain access
to confidential data. Security testing is crucial for
web-based applications or any applications that
involve money.

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Q 3. What are the principles of software testing?

Ans: Software testing is governed by seven principles:

➢ Absence of errors fallacy: Even if the software is 99% bug-free, it is

unusable if it does not conform to the user's requirements. Software needs
to be bug-free 99% of the time, and it must also meet all customer
requirements.
➢ Testing shows the presence of errors: Testing can verify the presence of
defects in software, but it cannot guarantee that the software is defect-
free. Testing can minimize the number of defects, but it can't remove them
all.
➢ Exhaustive testing is not possible: The software cannot be tested
exhaustively, which means all possible test cases cannot be covered.
Testing can only be done with a select few test cases, and it's assumed that
the software will produce the right output in all cases. Taking the software
through every test case will cost more, take more effort, etc., which makes it
impractical.
➢ Defect clustering: The majority of defects are typically found in a small
number of modules in a project. According to the Pareto Principle, 80% of
software defects arise from 20% of modules.
➢ Pesticide Paradox: It is impossible to find new bugs by re-running the
same test cases over and over again. Thus, updating or adding new test
cases is necessary in order to find new bugs.
➢ Early testing: Early testing is crucial to finding the defect in the software. In
the early stages of SDLC, defects will be detected more easily and at a
lower cost. Software testing should start at the initial phase of software
development, which is the requirement analysis phase.
➢ Testing is context-dependent: The testing approach varies depending on
the software development context. Software needs to be tested differently
depending on its type. For instance, an ed-tech site is tested differently
than an Android app.

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Q 4. What is regression testing in software testing?

Ans: The dictionary definition of regression is the act of going back to a previous
place or state. In software, regression implies that a feature that used to work
suddenly stopped working after a developer added a new code or functionality to
the software.

Regression problems are pervasive in the software industry, as new features are
getting added all the time. Developers don't build these features in isolation,
separate from the existing code. Instead, the new code interacts with the legacy
code and modifies it in various ways, introducing side effects, whether intended or
not.

As a result, there is always a chance that introducing new changes may

negatively impact a working feature. It's important to keep in mind that even a
small change has the potential to cause regression.

Regression testing helps ensure that the new code or modifications to the existing
code don't break the present behaviour. It allows the tester to verify that the new
code plays well with the legacy code.

Q 5. What is exploratory testing?

Ans: Imagine a tourist in a foreign city. There are two ways in which they can
explore the city.

1. Follow a map, itinerary, or a list of places they should visit

2. Explore randomly, following the streets as they lead them to new places

With the first approach, the tourist follows a predetermined plan and executes it.
Though they may visit famous spots, they might miss out on hidden, more exciting
places in the city. With the second approach, the tourist wanders around the city
and might encounter strange and exotic places that the itinerary would have
missed.

Both approaches have their pros and cons.

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A tester is similar to a tourist when they are testing software. They can follow a
strict set of test cases and test the software according to them, with the provided
inputs and outputs, or they can explore the software.

When a tester doesn't use the test scripts or a predefined test plan and randomly
tests the software, it is called exploratory testing. As the name suggests, the tester
is exploring the software as an end-user would. It's a form of black-box testing.

In exploratory testing, the tester interacts with the software in whatever manner
they want and follows the software's instructions to navigate various paths and
functionality. They don't have a strict plan at hand.

Exploratory testing primarily focuses on behavioural testing. It is effective for

getting familiar with new software features. It also provides a high-level overview
of the system that helps evaluate and quickly learn the software.

Though it seems random, exploratory testing can be powerful in an experienced

and skilled tester's hands. As it's performed without any preconceived notions of
what software should and shouldn't do, it allows greater flexibility for the tester to
discover hidden paths and problems along those paths.

Q 6. What is end-to-end testing?

Ans: End to End testing is the process of testing a software system from start to
finish. The tester tests the software just like an end-user would. For example, to
test a desktop software, the tester would install the software as the user would,
open it, use the application as intended, and verify the behavior. Same for a web
application.

There is an important difference between end-to-end testing vs. other forms of

testing that are more isolated, such as unit testing. In end-to-end testing, the
software is tested along with all its dependencies and integrations, such as
databases, networks, file systems, and other external services.

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Q 7. What is unit testing?

Ans: Unit testing is the process of testing a single unit of code in an isolated
manner. The unit of code can be a method, a class, or a module. Unit testing aims
to focus on the smallest building blocks of code to get confidence to combine
them later to produce fully functioning software.

A unit test invokes the code and verifies the result with the expected result. If the
expected and actual outcomes match, then the unit test passes. Otherwise, it
fails.

A good unit test has the following characteristics:

1. It should test a single piece of functionality.

2. It is fully automated and repeatable.
3. It should run quickly and provide immediate feedback.
4. It should be isolated and shouldn ’ t interact with external dependencies
such as network, database, or file system unless needed. You can use the
mocking technique to simulate the external dependencies and isolate the
code under test.

Q 8. What is an API?

Ans: API stands for Application Programming Interface. It is a means of

communication between two software components.

An API abstracts the internal workings and complexity of a software program and
allows the user of that API to solely focus on the inputs and outputs required to
use it.

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When building software, developers rarely write software from scratch and make
use of other third-party libraries. An API allows two software components to talk to
each other by providing an interface that they can understand.

Another use of an API is to provide data required by an application. Let's say you
are building a weather application that displays the temperature. Instead of
building the technology to collect the temperature yourself, you'd access the API
provided by the meteorological institute.

Q 9. What is a test environment?

Ans: A test environment consists of a server/computer on which a tester runs

their tests. It is different from a development machine and tries to represent the
actual hardware on which the software will run; once it’s in production.

Whenever a new build of the software is released, the tester updates the test
environment with the latest build and runs the regression tests suite. Once it
passes, the tester moves on to testing new functionality.

Q 10. Explain how does a test coverage tool work?

Ans: When software is being tested, the code coverage measures how much of
the program's source code is covered by the test plan. Code coverage testing
runs in parallel with actual product testing.

Using the code coverage tool, you can monitor the execution of statements in
your source code. A complete report of the pending statements, along with the
coverage percentage, is provided at the end of the final testing.

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Q 11. Can you describe the different types of test coverage techniques?

Ans: Among the different types of test coverage techniques are:

1) Statement/Block Coverage: Measures how many statements in the source

code have been successfully executed and tested.
2) Decision/Branch Coverage: This metric measures how many decision
control structures were successfully executed and tested.
3) Path Coverage: This ensures that the tests are conducted on every possible
route through a section of the code.
4) Function coverage: It measures how many functions in the source code
have been executed and tested at least once.

Q 12. Explain black-box testing, white-box testing, and grey-box testing.

Ans:

➢ Black-box testing in software testing: In black-box testing, the system is

tested only in terms of its external behaviour; it does not consider how the
software functions on the inside. This is the only limitation of the black-box
test. It is used in Acceptance Testing and System Testing.
➢ White-box testing in software testing: A white-box test is a method of
testing a program that takes into account its internal workings as part of its
review. It is used in integration testing and unit testing.
➢ Grey-box testing in software testing: A Gray Box Testing technique can be
characterized as a combination of a black box as well as a white box
testing technique used in the software testing process. Using this
technique, you can test a software product or application with a partial
understanding of its internal structure.

Q 13. Is Automation testing in agile methodology useful?

Ans: It is extremely beneficial to use automation testing when using the agile
model in software testing. It helps in achieving maximum test coverage in a lesser
time of the sprint.

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Q 14. Explain test scenarios, test scripts, and test cases in software testing.

➢ Test Case: Test Cases are a series of actions executed during software
development to verify a particular feature or function. A test case consists
of test steps, test data, preconditions, and postconditions designed to verify
a specific requirement.
➢ Test Scenario: Usually, a test scenario consists of a set of test cases
covering the end-to-end functionality of a software application. A test
scenario provides a high-level overview of what needs to be tested.
➢ Test Scripts: When it comes to software testing, a test script refers to the
set of instructions that will be followed in order to verify that the system
under test performs as expected. The document outlines each step to be
taken and the expected results.

Q 15. What is a bug in software testing?

Ans: A software bug is an error in the software that produces wrong results. A
software tester tests the software to find bugs in it.

There are many causes for the bugs—for example, poor design, sloppy
programming, lack of version control, or miscommunication. Throughout
development, developers introduce hundreds or thousands of bugs in the system.
The goal of the tester is to uncover those bugs.

You can find a bug in many different ways, regardless of your role. When building
the software, the software developer might notice the bug in another module,
written by another developer or by themselves. The tester actively tries to find the
bugs as part of a routine testing process. Finally, the users could see the bugs
when the software is in production.

All bugs, no matter how they are found, are recorded into a bug-tracking system.
A triage team triages the bugs and assigns a priority to the bug, and assigns the
bug to a software developer to fix it. Once the developer resolves the problem,
they check in the code and mark that bug as ready for testing. Once a bug is
ready for testing, it goes to the tester, who tests the software to verify if it’s indeed
fixed. If it is, then it’s closed. If not, they assign it to the same developer with a

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description of the exact steps to reproduce the bug. Some examples of popular
bug-tracking systems include BugZilla, FogBugz, etc.

Q 16. State the difference between bugs and errors

Ans: Bugs and errors differ in the following ways:

Bugs Errors
Software bugs are defects, which Errors in code are caused by problems
occur when the software or an with the code, which means that the
application does not work as intended. developer could have misunderstood
A bug occurs when there is a coding the requirement or the requirement
error, which causes the program to was not defined correctly, leading to a
malfunction. mistake.
The bug is submitted by the testers. Errors are raised by test engineers and
developers.
Logic bugs, resource bugs, and Syntactic error, error handling error,
algorithmic bugs are types of bugs. error handling error, user interface
error, flow control error, calculation
error, and testing error are types of
errors.
The software is detected before it is The error occurs when the code is
deployed in production. unable to be compiled.

Q 17. What is a Test Plan? What does it include?

Ans: A test plan is basically a dynamic document monitored and controlled by

the testing manager.

The success of a testing project totally depends upon a well-written test plan
document that describes software testing scope and activities. It basically serves
as a blueprint that outlines the what, when, how, and more of the entire test
process.

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Q 18. What is a Test Report? What does it include?

Ans: Test report is basically a document that includes a total summary of testing
objectives, activities, and results. It is very much required to reflect testing results
and gives an opportunity to estimate testing results quickly.

It helps us to decide whether the product is ready for release or not. It also helps
us determine the current status of the project and the quality of the product. A
test report must include the following details:

• Test Objective
• Project Information
• Defect
• Test Summary

Q 19. What do you mean by Test Deliverables?

Ans: Test deliverables, also known as test artifacts, are basically a list of all of the
documents, tools, and other components that are given to the stakeholders of a
software project during the SDLC. Test deliverables are maintained and
developed in support of the test. At every phase of SDLC, there are different
deliverables as given below:

➢ Before Testing Phase

• Test plans document.
• Test cases documents
• Test Design specifications.

➢ During Testing Phase

• Test Scripts
• Simulators.
• Test Data
• Test Traceability Matrix
• Error logs and execution logs

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➢ After testing Phase

• Test Results/reports
• Defect Report
• Installation/ Test procedures guidelines
• Release notes

Q 20. What are different categories of debugging?

Ans: Different categories of debugging include:

• Brute force debugging

• Backtracking
• Cause elimination
• Program slicing
• Fault tree analysis

Q 21. Write some common mistakes that lead to major issues.

Some common mistakes include:

• Poor Scheduling
• Underestimating
• Ignoring small issues
• Not following the exact process
• Improper resource allocation

Q 22. What is a user story?

Ans: All software has a target user. A user story describes the user's motivations
and what they are trying to accomplish by using the software.

Finally, it shows how the user uses the application. It ignores the design and
implementation details.

A user story aims to focus on the value provided to the end-user instead of the
exact inputs they might enter and the expected output.

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In a user story, the tester creates user personas with real names and
characteristics and tries to simulate a real-life interaction with the software. A
user story often helps fish out hidden problems that are often not revealed by
more formal testing processes.

Q 23. List some of the popular software testing tools/frameworks, providing a

brief description of each.

Ans:

1) Selenium: a web browser automation tool that automates the test suites
you need to run on a web browser.
2) Protractor: An end-to-end test framework for Angular and AngularJS
applications. Protractor runs tests against your application running in a real
browser, interacting with it as a user would.
3) Cypress: A modern front-end testing tool built for the modern web. Though
it’s similar to Selenium and Protractor, it’s architecturally different from
them.
4) Jasmine: This is an open-source JavaScript testing framework that allows
you to write behaviour-driven tests.
5) JUnit and NUnit: These are unit testing frameworks for Java and C#
programming languages, respectively.

Q 24. What is A/B testing?

Ans: A/B testing is the process of testing two or more different versions of your
software with users to assess which performs better. It is a low-risk way of testing
variations of a new or existing functionality.

You can choose a part of your users to use feature A. The other group uses feature
B. Then user feedback and response are evaluated using statistical testing to
decide the final version of the feature.

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Typically, A/B testing is used to test the user experience of different interfaces. This
allows the team to quickly gather feedback and test their initial hypothesis.

Q 25. What is defects in software testing?

Ans: The term defect refers to a system error that prevents the intended action
from being accomplished. Testing is most important when it comes to finding
defects. Testing needs to begin early in the development process since defects
can be found throughout. As shown in the following figure, defects are divided into
three main categories:

➢ Wrong: It implies incorrect implementation of requirements. There is a

variance between the specifications and what was expected, resulting in
this defect.
➢ Missing: This indicates that a specification has not been implemented, or a
requirement of the customer has not been properly noted.
➢ Extra: In this case, the defect is caused by a requirement incorporated into
the product that was not provided by the end-user.

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Q 26. What is spice in software testing?

Ans: SPICE stands for Software Process Improvement and Capability

Determination. In the field of software development processes, SPICE is a standard
framework for assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of the development
process. IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) and ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) jointly developed SPICE.

Q 27. What do you mean by latent defect and masked defect?

Ans:

➢ Latent Defect: Latent defects are defects that exist but have not yet been
invoked because the conditions required to invoke them have not been
met. As a systematic flaw, it encompasses the entire production process of
the software, including all pre-production testing and extended testing.
When users perform a particular task in an unusual or rare situation or
without the presence of usual scenarios, latent defects are revealed.
➢ Masked Defect: These are the defects that have not yet resulted in a failure
since another defect hides that portion of the code from being executed. It
can only be discovered when the defect hiding it is exposed by the user
through a specific operation. There are defects that are hidden or marked
by another defect and remain hidden until the other defect is detected.

Q 28. Can you explain sanity testing in software testing?

Ans: The term 'sanity testing' refers to a subset of regression testing. The sanity
testing ensures that the changes made to the code do not adversely affect the
system's performance. After the software build is received, a sanity test is
conducted to ensure that the changes made to the code are working correctly. As
a checkpoint, this testing is used to determine whether the build can proceed with
further testing. Sanity testing focuses on validating the functionality of the
application rather than detailed testing.

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Features

1. It focuses on a smaller section of the application and is a subset of

regression testing.
2. The process is undocumented.
3. Sanity testing is often unscripted.
4. In this approach, limited functionalities are deeply tested.
5. A tester is usually responsible for performing this task.

Q 29. What is the purpose of TestNG?

Ans: The TestNG framework for Java is an open-source advanced test

automation framework that is designed to benefit both testers and developers.

The purpose of TestNG is to provide an easy-to-use, readable, structured,

maintainable, and user-friendly environment for automated tests. NG stands for
'Next Generation' in TestNG.

The high-end annotations, such as data providers, make cross-browser testing

easier since you can test across multiple devices and browsers.

Furthermore, the framework has an inbuilt mechanism for handling exceptions

that prevent the program from terminating unexpectedly.

Q 30. Is it possible to skip a method or a code block in TestNG?

Ans: Yes, you can skip a particular test method or code by setting the 'enabled'
parameter to ‘false’ in test annotations.

@Test(enabled = false).

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Q 31. Explain boundary value analysis in software testing.

Ans: BVA (Boundary Value Analysis) is a black box software testing technique that
uses boundary values to create test cases. Input values near the boundary have
a higher probability of error, so BVA is used to test boundary values.

BVA includes values at the boundaries in the test cases. If the input falls within the
boundary range, then the test is positive; if it falls outside, then it is negative. There
are several types of values, including maximum or minimum, inside or outside
edge, and typical or error values.

Q 32. Explain the role of testing in software development?

Ans: Software testing comes into play at different times in different software
development methodologies.

There are two main methodologies in software development, namely Waterfall

and Agile.

➢ Waterfall Software Development Model

In a traditional waterfall software development model, requirements are

gathered first. Then a specification document is created based on the
document, which drives the design and development of the software.

Finally, the testers conduct the testing at the end of the software development
life cycle once the complete software system is built.

➢ Agile Software Development Model

An agile software development model works in small iterations. You test the
software in parallel as it is getting built.

The developers build a small functionality according to the requirements.

The testers test it and get customer feedback, which drives future
development.

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Q 33. How much testing is sufficient? Or, is it possible to do exhaustive testing of

the software?

Ans: It is impossible to exhaustively test software or prove the absence of errors,

no matter how specific your test strategy is.

An extensive test that finds hundreds of errors doesn’t imply that it has discovered
them all. There could be many more errors that the test might have missed. The
absence of errors doesn’t mean there are no errors, and the software is perfect. It
could easily mean ineffective or incomplete tests. To prove that a program works,
you’d have to test all possible inputs and their combinations.

Consider a simple program that takes a string as an input that is ten characters
long. To test it with each possible input, you’d have to enter 2610 names, which is
impossible. Since exhaustive testing is not practical,

your best strategy as a tester is to pick the test cases that are most likely to find
errors. Testing is sufficient when you have enough confidence to release the
software and assume it will work as expected.

Q 34. Why developers shouldn’t test the software they wrote?

Ans: Developers make poor testers. Here are some reasons why:

• They try to test the code to make sure that it works, rather than testing all
the ways in which it doesn't work.
• Since they wrote it themselves, developers tend to be very optimistic about
the software and don't have the correct attitude needed for testing: to
break software.
• Developers skip the more sophisticated tests that an experienced tester
would perform to break the software. They follow the happy path to
execute the code from start to finish with proper inputs, often not enough to
get the confidence to ship software in production.

However, it doesn't mean that developers shouldn't test the software before
sending it to the tester. Developer testing helps find many bugs that are caused
by programming errors. These are hard to find for a tester because they don't
always have access to the source code.

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Q 35. What is SDLC in software testing?

Ans: In short, SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) enables the development
of high-quality, low-cost software with the shortest possible development time.A
major objective of the SDLC is to produce high-quality software that meets and
exceeds the expectations of customers. SDLC provides a detailed plan with a
series of stages, or phases, that encompass their own processes and deliverables.
By adhering to the SDLC, developers can enhance the speed of their projects and
minimize risks and costs.

Q 36. What is the software testing life cycle?

Ans: Similar to software development, testing has its life cycle. During the testing,
a tester goes through the following activities.

1) Understand the requirements: Before testing software or a feature, the

tester must first understand what it is supposed to do. If they don’t know
how the software is supposed to work, they can’ t test it effectively.
2) Test Planning and Case Development: Once the tester has a clear
understanding of the requirements, they can create a test plan. It includes
the scope of testing, i.e., part of software under test and objectives for
testing. Various activities are involved in planning the test, such as creating
documentation, estimating the time and efforts involved, deciding the tools
and platforms, and the individuals who will be conducting the tests.
3) Prepare a test environment: The development happens in a development
environment, i.e., on a developer’s computer that might not represent the
actual environment that the software will run in production. A tester
prepares an environment with the test data that mimics the end user’s
environment. It assists with realistic testing of the software.
4) Generate the test data: Though it is impossible to do exhaustive testing of
the software, the tester tries to use realistic test data to give them the
confidence that the software will survive the real world if it passes the tests.
5) Test Execution: Once the tester has a complete understanding of the
software and has a test environment set up with the test data, they execute
the test. Here, execution means that the tester runs the software or the
feature under test and verifies the output with the expected outcome.

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6) Test Closure: At the end of the test execution, there can be two possible
outcomes. First, the tester finds a bug in the part of the software under test.
In this case, they create a test record/bug report. Second, the software
works as expected. Both these events indicate the end of the test cycle.

Q 37. What is functional testing?

Ans: Functional testing is a form of black-box testing. As the name suggests, it

focuses on the software's functional requirements rather than its internal
implementation. A functional requirement refers to required behavior in the
system, in terms of its input and output.

It validates the software against the functional requirements or the specification,

ignoring the non-functional attributes such as performance, usability, and
reliability.

Functional testing aims to answer the following questions, in particular:

• Does the software fulfil its functional requirements?

• Does it solve its intended users' problems?

Q 38. What is non-functional testing?

Ans: Non-functional testing tests the system's non-functional requirements,

which refer to an attribute or quality of the system explicitly requested by the
client. These include performance, security, scalability, and usability.

Non-functional testing comes after functional testing. It tests the general

characteristics unrelated to the functional requirements of the software. Non-
functional testing ensures that the software is secure, scalable, high-
performance, and won't crash under heavy load.

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Q 39. What is a bug report?

Ans: During testing, a tester records their observations, findings, and other
information useful to the developers or the management. All this data belongs to
a test record, also called a bug report.

A detailed bug report is an important artifact produced during testing. It helps the
team members with:

• Understand the problem,

• Steps to reproduce the problem,
• The environment and the specific conditions under which it happens, and
• The resolution if/when the developers fix the problem.

Here are a few bits of information that a good bug report should contain.

Field Description
Title A short headline that summarizes the
problem. It shouldn’t be too long but
just to give just the right information to
the reader. It should be specific and
accurate.
Description The description should answer all the
questions that are not explained by
the title. It contains a detailed
summary of the bug, its severity, and
impact, steps to reproduce, expected
results vs. the actual output.
Version A lot of time can be wasted in trying to
reproduce a bug in the wrong version
of the product. Knowing the exact
product version or the build number
on which this bug was found is very
useful to the developer in reproducing
the bug.

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Status At any point, a bug can be either

‘Active’, ‘Ready for Testing’, or ‘Closed’.
A bug becomes active when it is
found, is ready for testing once the
developer fixes it. A tester can mark it
closed if the developer fixed it, or
active if not.

Steps to Reproduce Though the steps to reproduce the

problem can be provided in the
description, sometimes having a
distinct field force the tester to think
about them. They include each step
one must take to successfully
reproduce the problem.
Assigned To Name of the developer or the tester to
whom this bug is assigned.
Resolution When a developer fixes the bug, they
should include the cause for the bug
and its resolution. It helps the team in
the future when a similar bug
resurfaces.

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Q 40. What are some important testing metrics?

Ans: Testing metrics provide a high-level overview to the management or the

developers on how the project is going and the next action steps.

Here are some of the metrics derived from a record of the tests and failures:

• Total number of defects found, ordered by their severity

• Total number of bugs fixed
• Total number of problems caused by an error in the source code vs.
configuration or external environmental factors
• Bug find and fix rate over time
• Bugs by produce/feature area
• The average time is taken by a bug since it’s found and fixed.
• Total time spent on new feature development vs. time spent on resolving
bugs and failures
• Number of outstanding bugs before a release
• Bugs/failures reported by the customers vs. those found by the testers

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