1 Introduction

1
 Highlights

 Uses of Computer Networks

 Network Hardware
 Network Software
 Reference Models
 Example Networks
 Network Standardization

2
 Computer Networks
 Computer Networks
 A collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology
 Users are exposed to the actual machines
 If the machines have different hardware and
different operating systems, that is fully visible
to the users

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 Distributed system
 Distributed system
 A collection of independent computers appears
to its users as a single coherent system
 A layer of software on top of the operating
system, called middleware, is responsible for
implementing this model
 A well-known example of a distributed system is
the World Wide Web, in which everything looks
like a document (Web page)

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 Definition of Computer Networks
 Components of CN
 Computers/Hosts/End Systems
 Communication Links
 Switches/Routers

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1.1 Uses of Computer
Networks

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Business Applications

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 Resource Sharing
 Sharing physical resources
 Printers
 Scanners
 CD burners
 Sharing computerized information
 Database
 Documents

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 Client-Server Model
 A network with two clients and one server

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 Communication Medium
 E-mail
 Makes cooperation among far-flung groups
of people easy
 Videoconferencing

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 Electronic Commerce
 Doing business electronically with other
companies, especially suppliers and
customers
 Reduces the need for large inventories and
enhances efficiency
 Doing business with consumers over the
Internet
 Airlines, bookstores, and music vendors …

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Home Network Applications

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 Access to remote information
 Surfing the World Wide Web for information
 Newspapers, magazines, scientific journals
 On-line digital library

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 Person-to-person communication
 Instant messaging
 Chat room
 Newsgroups
 Peer-to-peer system
 Carry telephone calls, video phone, radio

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 Interactive entertainment
 Video on demand
 Game playing

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 E-commerce
 Some forms of e-commerce

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Mobile Network Users

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 Mobile Network Users
 Combinations of wireless networks and
mobile computing.

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 Mobile Network Users
 Portable office
 Trucks, taxis, …, keeping in contact with
home
 Meter reading
 RFID

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Social Issues

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1.2 Network Hardware

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Transmission technology and
scale

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 Transmission technology
 Broadcast networks
 Sending a packet to all destinations, each
machine checks the address field
 If the packet is intended for the receiving
machine, that machine processes the packet
 If the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored.
 Broadcasting
 Multicasting (subscribe)
 Point-to-point networks
 To go from the source to the destination, a
packet may visit one or more intermediate
machines (Often multiple routes are possible,
finding good ones is important) 23
Broadcast vs. Point-to-point

A broadcast network

A point-to-point network

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Classification by scale

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PAN

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Local Area Networks

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 Topology

Two broadcast networks

(a) Bus
(b) Ring

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802.11/Switched LAN

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 Channel allocation
 Static & Dynamic
 A typical static allocation
 Divide time into discrete intervals and use a
round-robin algorithm, allowing each machine to
broadcast only when its time slot comes up
 Dynamic allocation methods
 Centralized
 Decentralized

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MAN and WAN

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 Metropolitan Area Networks
 A metropolitan area network based on cable
TV

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 WAN
 WAN: telecommunication network that
covers a broad area
 Providing connections from a LAN to the
Internet

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 Communication subnet
 Transmission lines
 Switching elements (Router)
 Store-and-forward (packet-switched)
 reassembled
 Routing decisions: Routing algorithm

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Wireless Networks

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 Categories of wireless networks
 System interconnection
 Bluetooth
 In the simplest form, system interconnection
networks use the master-slave paradigm
 Wireless LANs(802.11-WiFi)
 Wireless MANs(802.16 WiMax)
 Wireless WANs

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Internetworks

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 Internet & internet
 A collection of
interconnected
networks is called an
internetwork or internet
 Gateway: provide the
necessary translation,
both in terms of
hardware and software

 The worldwide Internet

(which is one specific
internet)
[J. Kurose]

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 Subnet, Network, internet

 Subnet
 The collection of routers and communication
lines
 Network
 The combination of a subnet and its hosts
forms a network
 internetwork
 An internetwork is formed when distinct
networks are interconnected

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1.3 Network Software

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Protocol Hierarchies

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 Network architecture
 Networks are organized as a stack of layers
 Reduce design complexity
 The purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to the higher layers, shielding those
layers from the details of how the offered
services are actually implemented
 Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering
certain services to the layer above it
 Object-oriented programming
 A particular piece of software (or hardware)
provides a service to its users but keeps the
details of its internal state and algorithms
hidden from them
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Layers, Peers, Protocols, and Interfaces

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 Layers, Peers, protocols, and interfaces
 Protocol
 An agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed
 Peers
 The entities comprising the corresponding layers on
different machines are called peers
 The peers may be processes, hardware devices
 Interface
 Defines which primitive operations and services the lower
layer makes available to the upper one
 Physical medium
 Network architecture
 A set of layers and protocols
 Neither the details of the implementation nor the
specification of the interfaces is part of the architecture
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 Philosopher-Translator-Secretary

 Interfaces
 Protocols
 Translator: A neutral language known to both of them
 Secretary: communication method 45
 Information flow
Example information flow supporting virtual
communication in layer 5.

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 Virtual Communication of Layer 5 Peers(1)
 Layer 5
 A message, M, is produced by an application
process and given to layer 4 for transmission
 Layer 4
 Puts a header in front of the message to identify
the message and passes the result to layer 3
 Header: control information, such as sequence
numbers (In some layers, headers can also
contain sizes, times, and other control fields)

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 Virtual Communication of Layer 5 Peers(2)
 Layer 3
 There is limit to the size of messages
transmitted in the layer 3 protocol
 Break up the incoming messages into smaller
units (packets)
 Prepend a layer 3 header to each packet
 Decides which of the outgoing lines to use and
passes the packets to layer 2
 Layer 2
 Adds a header & trailer to each piece
 Gives the resulting unit to layer 1
 Layer 1
 Physical transmission

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 source
A Practical Case
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
Hl Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network Hn Ht M
Hl Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M
M application
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
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Design Issues for the Layers

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 Design Issues for the Layers
 Reliability
 Error detection and error correction
 Routing: find a path through a netwrok
 Network evolution
 Protocol layering
 Addressing or naming: identifying senders and receivers
 Internetworking（⽹络互通性）
 Scalability(可扩展性)
 Resource allocation
 Statistical multiplexing（统计复⽤：按需分配）
 Flow Control(流量控制)
 QoS（服务质量）
 Security

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 Error Control
 Physical lines are not perfect
 Error-detecting & Error-correcting codes
 How the receiver tells the sender which messages
have been correctly received and which have not
 Messages may be out of sequence
 How the sender numbers the messages
 How the receiver deals with the messages arriving
out of order

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 Addressing

 Each layer needs a mechanism for identifying

senders and receivers
 Sender: a process on a machine
 Receiver: a process on another machine

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 Flow Control
 A fast sender may swamp a slow
receiver with data
 Method 1: some kind of feedback from the
receiver to announce it’s current situation
 Method 2: limit the sender’s transmission
rate

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 Routing
 When multiple paths exist, a route
must be chosen

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Service Primitives

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 Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Services
Connection-oriented: telephone system
Connection-less: postal system

Six different types of service

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 Interfaces and services
 Service provider and service user
 The entities in layer n implement a service used
by layer n+1, layer n is called the services
provider, layer n+1 is called service user
 SAP: Service Access Point
 Layer n SAPs are the places where layer n+1 can
access the services offered
 PDU: Protocol Data Unit
 Information exchanged between two peers

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 Service Primitives
 A service is formally specified by a set of primitives
(operations) available to a user process to access
the service
 Example
 CONNECT.request - request a connection to be established
 CONNECT.indication - signal the called party
 CONNECT.response - used by the called to accept/reject
calls
 CONNECT.confirm – tell the caller whether the call was
accepted
 DATA.request – request that data be sent
 DATA.indication – signal the arrival of data
 DISCONNECT.request – request that a connection be
released
 DISCONNECT.indication – signal the peer about the request
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 Service Primitives: Example

 1. CONNECT.request 7. DATA.request

 2. CONNECT.indication
 8. DATA.indication
 3. CONNECT.response
 9. DISCONNECT.request
 4. CONNECT.confirm
 10.DISCONNECT.indication
 5. DATA.request
 6. DATA.indication

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 A Simple Connection-oriented Service
 If the protocol stack is located in the operating
system, the primitives are normally system calls

Five service primitives for implementing a simple

connection-oriented service.

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 A Simple Connection-oriented Service

 Packets sent in a simple client-server

interaction on a connection-oriented
network.

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 The Relationship of Services to Protocols
 Service
 Defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform
on behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about how
these operations are implemented
 Relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower
layer being the service provider and the upper layer being
the service user
 Protocol
 A set of rules governing the format and meaning of the
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities
 Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions
 Service and protocol are completely decoupled
 They are free to change their protocols provided they do
not change the service

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The Relationship of Services to Protocols

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1.4 Reference Models

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The OSI Reference Model

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The OSI reference model

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 Physical layer
 Transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel
 how many volts should be used to represent a 1
and how many for a 0
 how many nanoseconds a bit lasts
 whether transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions
 how the initial connection is established and how
it is torn down when both sides are finished

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 Data link layer
 Transform a raw transmission facility into a
logic channel (Point-to-Point: the protocols
are between each machine and its
immediate neighbors)
 Sender break up the input data into data frames
and transmit the frames
 If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms
correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
acknowledgement frame
 Flow control: Keep a fast transmitter from
drowning a slow receiver in data
 Broadcast networks: how to control access to
the shared channel

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 Network layer
 Controls operation of subnet
 Forwarding
 Routing: How packets are routed from source to
destination (route table)
 Static
 Be determined at start of each conversation
 Highly dynamic
 Congestion
 QoS (Quality of service)
 delay, transit time, jitter, etc.
 Heterogeneous networks interconnection
 Broadcast networks, routing is simple

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 Transport Layer
 Transport Layer: end-to-end layer
 Accept data from above, split it up into smaller
units if need be, pass these to the network layer,
and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end
 Determines what type of service to provide to
the session layer
 an error-free end-to-end channel
 transporting of isolated messages, with no
guarantee about the order of delivery
 broadcasting of messages to multiple
destinations

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 Session Layer
 The session layer allows users on different
machines to establish sessions
 Dialog control
 keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
 Token management
 preventing two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time
 Synchronization
 checkpointing long transmissions to allow them
to continue from where they were after a crash

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 Presentation Layer
 The syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted
 the data structures to be exchanged can be
defined in an abstract way

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 Application Layer
 Application layer contains a variety of
protocols that are commonly needed by
users.
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
 File transfer
 Electronic mail
 Network news
 …….

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The TCP/IP Reference Model

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The TCP/IP Reference Model

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 The Internet Layer
 A packet-switching network based on a
connectionless internetwork layer
 Defines an official packet format and
protocol called IP (Internet Protocol)
 The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP
packets where they are supposed to go
 Packet routing
 Avoiding congestion

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 The Transport Layer: TCP
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 Reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows
a byte stream originating on one machine to be
delivered without error on any other machine in
the internet
 Fragments incoming byte stream into discrete
messages
 Reassembles the received messages into the
output stream
 Flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot
swamp a slow receiver with more messages than
it can handle

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 The Transport Layer: UDP
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 Unreliable, connectionless protocol
 For applications that do not want TCP's
sequencing or flow control and wish to provide
their own (i.e. NFS)
 For applications in which prompt delivery is more
important than accurate delivery, such as
transmitting speech or video, DNS

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TCP/IP Model: in Details

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 Protocols & networks in the TCP/IP
 Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model
initially.

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Comparing OSI and TCP/IP
Models

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 3 Concepts are Central to OSI Model
 Services
 What the layer does, not how entities above it
access it or how the layer works. It
 Interfaces
 Tells the processes above it how to access it.
 Protocols

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A Critique of the OSI Model & Protocols
 Why OSI did not take over the
world
 Bad timing
 Bad technology
 Bad implementations
 Bad politics

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 Bad Timing
 The apocalypse of the two elephants.

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 Bad Technology
 The choice of seven layers was more
political than technical, and two of the
layers (session and presentation) are
nearly empty, whereas two other ones
(data link and network) are overfull
 Service definitions and protocols are
extraordinarily complex and difficult to
implement and inefficient in operation
 Some functions, such as addressing, flow
control, and error control, reappear again
and again in each layer

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A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model
 Problems
 Service, interface, and protocol not
distinguished
 Not a general model
 Host-to-network “layer” not really a
layer
 No mention of physical and data link
layers
 Minor protocols deeply entrenched,
hard to replace

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 Hybrid Model
 The hybrid reference model to be used in
this book.

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1.5 Example Networks

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 Example Networks

 The Internet
 The mobile phone network
 Wireless LANs: 802.11
 RFID/ Sensor networks

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 The ARPANET
(a) Structure of the telephone system
(b) Baran’s proposed distributed
switching system

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The Original ARPANET Design

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 Growth of the ARPANET

(a) December 1969 (b) July 1970 (c) March 1971

(d) April 1972. (e) September 1972.
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 NSFNET
 The NSFNET backbone in 1988.

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 Internet Usage
 Traditional applications (1970 – 1990)
 E-mail
 News
 Remote login
 File transfer
 1990-
 WWW (World Wide Web) brought millions of
new, nonacademic users to the net

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 Architecture of the Internet
 Overview of the Internet.

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The mobile phone network

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 Wireless LANs

(a) Wireless networking with a base station.

(b) Ad hoc networking.
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 Wireless LANs (2)
 The range of a single radio may not cover
the entire system.

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RFID / Sensor network

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 Connection-Oriented Networks
 X.25 (2.4K~64K)
 a computer first established a connection to
the remote computer (Virtual Circuit)
 Data packet consists of a 3-byte header
(VC#/seq#/ACK#) and up to 128 bytes of
data.
 Frame Relay (9.6K~2M)
 a connection-oriented network with no error
control and no flow control
 ATM (155M/622M)
 Transmit information in fixed-size packets
called cells
 The cells are 53 bytes long, of which 5 bytes
are header and 48 bytes are payload
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1.6 Network Standardization

102
 Network Standardization
 Telecommunications World
 ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
 Main sectors
 Radio communications(ITU-R)
 Telecommunications Standardization(ITU-T)
CCITT, Comité Consultatif International Télégraphique et Téléphonique
(1956-1993)
 Development(ITU-D)
 International Standards World
 ISO (International Standards Organization)
 ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

103
 Internet Standards World
 Internet协会（ISOC，Internet Society）
 推动、⽀持和促进Internet不断增⻓和发展的专业组织
 它把Internet作为全球研究通信的基础设施
 体系结构委员会（IAB，Internet Architecture Board）
 技术监督和协调的机构。它由国际上来⾃不同专业的1 5个志愿者组成，
其职能是负责Internet标准的最后编辑和技术审核
 ⼯程任务组（IETF，Internet Engineering Task Force）
 ⾯向近期标准的组织，它分为9个领域（应⽤、寻径和寻址、安全等
等）。IETF开发成为Internet标准的规范
 研究任务组（IRTF，Internet Research Task Force）
 主要对⻓远的项⽬进⾏研究
 IRTF和IETF⾪属于IAB， IAB⾪属于ISOC
 所有关于Internet的标准都以RFC(Request for Comment)⽂档出版
 Proposed Standard->Draft Standard->Internet Standard
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 IEEE 802 Standards

The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked

with *. The ones marked with are hibernating. The one
marked with † gave up. 105
 Metric Units

The principal metric prefixes

milli and micro both begin with the letter ''m', Normally, ''m'' is for
milli and ''µ'' (the Greek letter mu) is for micro

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 Highlights
 purpose
 subnet
 classification
 layer
 protocol architecture
 ISO OSI/rm
 service primitive
 connect 、connectless
 famous architecture/Organization

107