INTERNET OF THINGS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

UNIT-1

Definition of IoT

IoT is dynamic global network infrastructure of physical and virtual objects having unique
identities which are embedded with software, sensors, and actuators electronic and network
connectivity to facilitate intelligent applications by collecting and exchanging data.

The term Internet of Things is relatively new in the field of technology and dates back to just
16 years ago. Kevin Ashton fabricated the word, “Internet of Things” while working on his
project under Procter & Gamble. Although the thought of connecting objects has always been
an option since the 70s, Iot has gained momentum just recently. Iot guarantees a promising
future and we can expect IoT to take over every giant industry.

Functional requirements of IoT:

Connectivity: IoT devices must be able to connect to the internet or other devices to
exchange data. This can involve various communication protocols such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
Zigbee, MQTT, CoAP, etc.

Data Collection: IoT devices should be capable of collecting data from their environment
using sensors. The types of sensors may include temperature sensors, humidity sensors,
motion sensors, cameras, and more, depending on the application.

Data Processing: The ability to process and analyze the collected data either locally on the
device or through cloud-based services. This involves computing capabilities to derive
meaningful insights from the raw data.

Interoperability: IoT devices should be designed to work seamlessly with other devices and
systems, promoting interoperability. Standardization of communication protocols and data
formats helps achieve this.

Security: Robust security measures are essential to protect IoT devices and the data they
handle. This includes secure communication channels, data encryption, access control, and
device authentication.
Remote Monitoring and Control: Many IoT applications require the ability to remotely
monitor and control devices. This can involve adjusting settings, receiving real-time updates,
or remotely activating/deactivating devices.

Scalability: IoT systems should be scalable to accommodate a growing number of devices

and users. This is crucial for applications that may experience an increase in the number of
connected devices over time.

Energy Efficiency: IoT devices are often deployed in resource-constrained environments, so

they need to be energy-efficient. This involves optimizing power consumption and possibly
implementing low-power modes when devices are not actively transmitting or receiving data.

Fault Tolerance and Reliability: IoT systems should be resilient to failures or disruptions.
This may involve redundancy in communication paths, data storage, and the ability to recover
from unexpected errors.

Integration with Existing Systems: In many cases, IoT solutions need to integrate with
existing IT infrastructure, databases, and enterprise systems. Compatibility with legacy
systems is an important consideration.

M2M Architecture:

M2M systems use point-to-point communications between

machines, sensors and hardware over cellular or wired networks,
while IoT systems rely on IP-based networks to send data
collected from IoT-connected devices to gateways, the cloud
or middleware platforms.
 asis of IoT M2M

Abbreviation Internet of Things Machine to Machine

Devices have objects that Some degree of

Intelligence are responsible for decision intelligence is observed
making in this.

The connection is via

Connection type The connection is a
Network and using various
used point to point
communication types.

Traditional protocols
Internet protocols are used
Communication and communication
such as HTTP, FTP,
protocol used technology techniques
and Telnet.
are used

Data is shared between

Data is shared with only
other applications that are
Data Sharing the communicating
used to improve the end-
parties.
user experience.

Devices are not

Internet connection is
Internet dependent on the
required for communication
Internet.

Type of It supports cloud It supports point-to-point

Communication communication communication.

Computer Involves the usage of both Mostly hardware-based

System Hardware and Software. technology

A large number of devices Limited Scope for

Scope
yet scope is large. devices.

Business 2 Business(B2B)
Business Type Business 2 Business
and Business 2
used (B2B)
Consumer(B2C)
 asis of IoT M2M

Open API Supports Open API There is no support for

support integrations. Open APIs

Specialized device
It requires Generic commodity devices.
solutions.

Information and service Communication and

Centric
centric device centric.

Horizontal enabler Vertical system solution

Approach used
approach approach.

Devices/sensors, Device, area networks,

Components connectivity, data gateway, Application
processing, user interface server.

Smart wearables, Big Data Sensors, Data and

Examples
and Cloud, etc. Information, e

Sensors and actuators

What's the Difference Between Sensors and Actuators in IoT?

Essentially, an actuator creates movement, whereas a sensor monitors environmental

conditions. These conditions may include fluid levels, temperatures, vibrations, or voltage.
Sensors play an important role in creating solutions using IoT. Sensors are devices that detect
external information, replacing it with a signal that humans and machines can distinguish.

Conversion direction – An actuator converts an electrical signal to a physical action. A sensor

converts a physical attribute into an electrical signal that informs the system of external
conditions.

The main characteristics between sensors and actuators can be broken down further into the
following:

Electrical signaling – Actuators rely on heat (in the case of thermal actuators) or motion
energy (in the case of hydraulic and pneumatic actuators, among others) in order to determine
the resulting action. On the flipside, sensors work through electrical signaling to read and
record the environmental conditions.

Conversion direction – An actuator converts an electrical signal to a physical action. A

sensor converts a physical attribute into an electrical signal that informs the system of
external conditions.

Inputs and outputs – Actuators track the outputs of machines and systems, whereas sensors
receive inputs from the environment.

If you want to learn more about the different types of sensors used in IoT, take a look at The
Top 10 Sensor Types in IoT and their Applications

Different Actuator Types in IoT

Now that we’ve looked at what separates actuators from sensors, we’re going to go deeper
into the different actuators on the market and the function they serve.

Hydraulic Actuators

The sole function of an actuator in a hydraulic control system is to convert the hydraulic
energy supplied by the pump and processed by the control elements into useful work.

Pneumatic Actuators

A pneumatic actuator is a device that converts energy – typically in the form of compressed
air – into mechanical motion.

Pneumatic actuators are notable in their use in opening and closing valves. They are
particularly useful in applications where there’s an ignition or fire risk because pneumatic
actuators won’t cause sparks.

Pneumatic actuators are also known in the industry by several different monikers, including:

Pneumatic cylinders

Air cylinders

Air actuators
Electrical Actuators

An electric actuator converts electricity into kinetic energy in either a linear (along a straight
line), or rotary (in a circle) motion.

The motor of an electric actuator can operate at any voltage, however, the most common
voltages used are:

230 VDC

208 VDC

115 VAC

24 VAC

24 VDC

12 VDC

They’re typically used in industrial applications associated with manufacturing valves,

pumps, and motors.

Thermal Actuators

A thermal actuator is a type of non-electric motor. It’s equipped with thermal-sensitive

material that’s capable of producing linear motion in response to temperature changes.
Temperature changes can give rise to such tasks as releasing latches, operating switches, and
opening or closing valves.

When used alongside other devices, a thermal actuator doesn’t require an outside power
source to produce motion. Thermal actuators can be used for many applications and in many
industries, including aerospace, automotive, agriculture, solar, construction, and
manufacturing.

Magnetic Actuators

A magnetic actuator is a device that uses microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to

convert an electric current into a mechanical output.
They operate in either a rotary or linear direction and can have continuous or limited motion.
Magnetic actuators are used within the aerospace, automotive industry, health care,
computers, and many other industries.

Relay Actuators

A relay is an electrically operated switch. The majority of relays use electromagnets to

mechanically operate a switch. However, other operating principles can also be used: for
example, solid-state relays, which have no moving parts and rely purely on optical signals to
trigger a change rather than a mechanical switch.

It takes a relatively small amount of power to operate a relay coil. However, it can still be
used to control motors, heaters, lamps, or AC circuits.

Sensors

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.

A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.

The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device
or material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.

The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable

form like changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance,
impedance, etc.
IOT HARDWARE

A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

It converts one type of energy into another type.

It might be used as actuator in various systems.

Sensors characteristics:

Static

Dynamic

1. Static characteristics:

It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change

after steady state condition.

Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result

close to the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is
measured by absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output
compared to a higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value – True
value

Relative error = Measured value/True value

Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within
which the sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or
no kind of response.

e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.

Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors.

The higher the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it
is called the threshold.

Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.

Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading

when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed
conditions.

It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true

value.

It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.

It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response

of the system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be
found from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the
smallest amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s
reading.

Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight
line. Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration
curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static
conditions.

A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.

Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading
when kept at that value for a long period of time.

Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the

same conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time
duration so as not to allow significant long-term drift.
Dynamic Characteristics :

Properties of the systems

Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no
delay. It does not include energy-storing elements.

Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.

First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.

Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.

Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the

sensor oscillates before steady state.

Sensor Classification :

Passive & Active

Analog & digital

Scalar & vector

Passive Sensor –

Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water
level and temperature sensors.

Active Sensor –

Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter
sensors.

Analog Sensor –

The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input
parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog
hall effect.

Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog
sensors. Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit
conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature
sensor(DS1620).

Scalar sensor –

Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the
sensor is a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the
direction of input parameters.

Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.

Vector sensor –

The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and
orientation of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic
field and motion detector sensors.

Types of sensors –

Electrical sensor :

Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.

Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component
complete an electrical circuit.

Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of

either induction for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as
well.

Light sensor:

Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.

Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.

The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the
intensity of the ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s
resistance decreases and vise versa.

Touch sensor:

Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch

sensor.

It’s name suggests that detection of something.

They are classified into two types:

Resistive type

Capacitive type

Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.

Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

Range sensing:

Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the
sensing position, although they can also be used as proximity sensors.

Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range

sensing, between a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out
using electrical capacitance, inductance and magnetic technique.
 Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various
types eg radio waves, sound waves and lasers.

Mechanical sensor:

Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a

certain amount of force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common
to use micro-switches.

Pneumatic sensor:

These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.

The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These

cannot be used where light components may be blown away.

Optical sensor:

In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light

beam which falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are
examples of non contact sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting
environment of these sensors for example optical sensors can be blinded by
flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and smoke clouds may
impede light transmission etc.

Speed Sensor:

Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion
is known as speed sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors,
Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .
Temperature Sensor:

Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s
measurement as an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These
electrical signals will be in the form of voltage and is directly proportional to
the temperature measurement .

PIR Sensor:

PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used
for the tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in
its field of view and is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for
detecting human motion and movement detection .

Ultrasonic Sensor:

The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR

or RADAR in which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to
evaluate the attributes of a target by generating the high frequency sound
waves .

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 The 3 tiers of IoT logical
reference architecture
The following diagram depicts the IoT logical
reference architecture as three tiers: 1. Edge; 2.
Platform; and 3. Enterprise. These tiers process
the data flows and control flows based on usage
activities across the enterprise systems. They
Span three networks, as shown in Figure 1 below:

Fig 1: IoT Logical Reference Architecture

1) Edge

Consists of IoT devices and the IoT gateway. The

architectural characteristics of this tier, including
its breadth of distribution and location, depend on
the specific use cases of the enterprise. It is
common for IoT devices to communicate using a
relatively short range and specialised proximity
network, due to power and processing limitations.
The IoT gateway contains a data store for IoT
device data, one or more services to analyse data
streaming from the IoT devices or from the data
store, and control applications. The IoT gateway
provides endpoints for device connectivity,
facilitating bidirectional communication with the
enterprise systems. It also implements edge
intelligence with different levels of processing
capabilities.

2) Platform

Receives, processes and forwards control

commands from the Enterprise tier to the Edge
tier. The Platform tier consolidates, processes and
analyses data flows from the Edge tier, and
provides management functions for devices and
assets. It also offers non-domain-specific services
such as data operations and analytics.

3) Enterprise
Receives data flows from the Edge and Platform
tiers, and issues control commands to these tiers.
The Enterprise tier implements enterprise
domain-specific applications and decision support
systems, and provides interfaces to end users,
including operations.

The different networks used to connect these

three tiers are:

 The proximity network connects the sensors,

actuators, devices, control systems and
assets, collectively called edge nodes. It
typically connects these edge nodes in one or
more clusters to a gateway that bridges to
other networks.

 The access network enables data and control

flows between the Edge and the Platform
tiers. It may be a corporate network, or a
private network overlaid over the public
Internet or a 4G/5G network.

 The service network enables connectivity

between the services in the platform tier and
the enterprise tier, and the services within
 each tier. It may be an overlay private
network over the public Internet, or the
Internet itself, allowing enterprise-grade
security between end-users and various
services.

Users of the IoT system include both humans and

digital users. Humans typically interact with the
IoT system using one or more kinds of user
devices — smartphones, personal computers,
tablets or specialised devices. In all cases, the IoT
system provides some form of application that
connects the human user with the rest of the IoT
system.

The 11 layers within the connected enterprise

The following diagram illustrates where IoT fits in
an enterprise ecosystem:
Fig 2: IoT in Connected Enterprise

1) Access Layer

End users — both internal and external to the

enterprise — interact with channel(s) and play a
role in the overall customer journey.

2) Channel Layer
End users use media to interact with the
enterprise over multiple channels, both physical
and digital.

3) Customer Experience Layer

A collection of presentation components and

services — the critical systems the enterprise uses
to engage with end users.

4) Consumer Layer

Acts as a gateway for channels, and aggregates

functionalities through composition and
orchestration, mediation, and routing. Its key
capabilities are:

 API Gateway: a single point of entry giving

consumers access to backend services, as
provided by API Management platforms. The
composition and orchestration of these
services are based on customer journey and
context.

 State Management: manages state and

transition. Control logic is decoupled from
 the user interface and managed at the
customer experience layer.

5) Business and Information Services Layer

Provides cross-channel capabilities. Its design is

based on micro-services architecture principles. A
business service system is responsible for
realising traditional or new Internet-specific
business functions, including: Enterprise Resource
Management (ERP), Customer Relationship
Management (CRM), asset management, service
lifecycle management, payment processing,
human resource activities, work planning and
scheduling systems.

6) Information Management and Analytics

Services Layer

Focuses on data ingestion, processing, complex

event processing and real-time analytics and
insights. A basic service system provides
fundamental data services, including (but not
limited to): data access, data processing, data
fusion, data storage, identity resolution,
geographic information services, user
management and inventory management.

7) Enterprise Integration Layer

This layer is a key enabler: it provides mediation,

transformation, protocol and routing capabilities,
and acts as a gateway to integrate with core
enterprise systems. It also provides aggregation
and broker communications.

The Enterprise Integration layer is responsible for

integrating the IoT environment into the
enterprise’s business processes. The IoT solution
ties into existing line-of-business applications and
standard software solutions through adapters or
Enterprise Application Integration (EAI) and
business-to-business (B2B) gateway capabilities.

8) Enterprise Systems Layer

This layer is a collection of enterprise back-office

core systems and applications that house business
logic and data.
9) IoT Layer

This layer consists of the following:

 IoT Operations: A collection of capabilities and

systems for provisioning, management and
monitoring

 Platform Layer: A collection of information

management / analytics and enterprise
integration capabilities which can capture
and process events and generate insights

 Network Layer: Connects sensors, actuators,

controllers, and gateways with Platform
Layer capabilities

 Control and Sensing Layer: A collection of

capabilities to read sensor data, apply
necessary rules/logic and deliver data and
control signals to actuators

 Physical Devices Layer: A collection of

physical systems such as smart sensors,
devices and machines.

10) Security
This layer handles single sign-in, authentication,
encryption and authorisation capabilities

11) Collaboration & Management

This layer leverages infrastructure-as-a-service

and platform-as-service technologies, as it
requires large computing capabilities.

Opportunities
There are many opportunities for enterprises to
use IoT to make business services more efficient
and customer-centric. IoT can help enterprises
achieve their most important goals:

 Create significant impact on customer

experience and deliver unified product and
service experience

 Huge cost savings/revenue

 Improving employee productivity

 Improving customer requests and service

delivery

 Improving innovation
The effectiveness of IoT cannot be realised
without the collaboration of Industry, Enterprise
and Agencies. Enterprises and Agencies work
together to build a consistent set of standards that
everyone must follow. This Enterprise Reference
Architecture can guide the development of
systems that can manage the large number of IoT
devices and the volume of data they emit. This
large volume of new information allows a new
collaboration of enterprise, industry and
customer. It enables the rapid development of IoT-
focused preventive and predictive analytics.

What is monolithic architecture?

In plain English, when you say something is monolithic, it means it has a unit
that is interwoven together, with large parts making up a single form.

Monolithic architecture in software development is a pattern of building a

program as a unit. It has only one code base, which contains all the codes in a
program.

Every part of the program is in the code base. Hence, refactoring code or even
making minor updates is tedious and could break the entire application.
Applications using this type of architecture could easily shut down when a
developer makes an update containing a bug.

How it works
The monolithic architecture combines all the parts of the program into a single
code base. These parts comprise features (packages) coined together. In a
monolithic application, all the parts interact with a single database.

During updates, you could stop the system and afterwards deploy the entire
stack. But this happens to applications that are big. New applications are
relatively easier until they keep growing up to that point.

Image source

What is Microservices architecture?

Microservices architecture is a pattern of software development where software

splits into separate services. They connect these services with APIs and operate
independently from the code base.

Developers work in teams, and each team is in charge of a service. They can
deploy their updates without affecting the code base or other microservices in
the network. Microservices architecture is ideal for companies building large,
complex applications.

How it works

In a microservices architecture, each service runs independently with its own

memory space. APIs connect these services. The connection is in a light
structure to allow each service to deploy and scale according to demand.

Microservices are small-sized and meant to handle certain operations. If any of

them goes down, it will not have much effect on the entire system.

Also, teams work on each service, focusing on their specific areas without being
overwhelmed.

Microservices architecture is a modern pattern in system design. Some startups

begin with a monolithic design, and as the software grows, they move to
microservices. However, there are fast-paced start-ups that start with
microservices right away. This is a good decision, as refactoring monolithic
applications to microservices is difficult. It would require skilled expertise,
leading to higher costs.

Pros of monolithic architecture

Simplicity

Monolithic architecture has a simple design as it is a single structure. It is

simple to code and run, especially when building a new application.

It is not overly complex like microservices, and it does not require complex
processes for security.
Low cost of operations

Monolithic applications do not require extra funding for maintenance. A small

team can manage the simple processes involved with little cost. There is no
need for an excess workforce.

Easier testing

Their applications do not require complex tests. Because of their design, they
have an easy mode of development. This applies to testing too; they involve
simple series of tests, unlike microservices.

Cons of monolithic architecture

It is too rigid and does not have a flexible structure

Monolithic architecture does not support the use of different technologies.

Making tweaks or changes to it would involve the entire application. This can
cause it to shut down easily if there are harmful bugs.

Difficult updates

It does not have singular deployments. Because of the design, it cannot

accommodate multiple deployments. It can also have slower build generation,
making the deployment stage tedious.

Bugs in production

In monolithic architecture, bugs in production could affect the entire

application. These bugs are usually noticeable even by users. If they are severe,
it will cause the entire application to shut down.

Pros of microservices architecture

Easy to deploy updates

The microservices architecture has an easy mode of deployment. Companies
using microservices can make up to 500 deployments in a day. This makes the
applications fast and easier to implement changes regarding market trends.

Scalable

The applications are scalable. This means they can handle complex demands
without slowing down when such applications have a large volume of demands
to handle. They can attend to these requests quickly while maintaining their run
time.

Reliable

This is another benefit of microservices. They are reliable as they can continue
running even when there are bugs that could shut down the application. Because
of the microservices nature of the applications, a particular service could be
down if there are bugs in it, but the entire architecture would still be running.

Cons of microservices architecture

Making APIs compatible

Microservices require the use of APIs to connect the services. In most cases,
using APIs that are compatible with these services could be an issue.
Sometimes, developers would need to design new APIs for services since the
APIs were not compatible with the service infrastructure.

Complex series of tests

Microservices require a long series of tests because of their complex structure.

Each service would need to undergo all kinds of tests, including security ones,
because of the potential security hazards it could cause.

Security vulnerabilities
Microservices use APIs, and these APIs could be a vulnerable point for hackers.
Since APIs have always been an easy target for attackers, potential attacks
could endanger the entire system. Hence, the need for optimal security in
microservice systems.

Key points to note about monolithic and microservices

Monolithic architecture is ideal for small businesses building simple

applications. As they have a single codebase, they do not require multiple
resources. They have low-security concerns, unlike microservices.

Microservices are ideal for large, complex applications. APIs connect

microservices, and these APIs could be a security concern. Hence, it requires
security experts on the ground. It also requires teams across the board to work
on a particular feature.

Both architectures are great for building, but microservices appear to be the full
switch for companies.

Most of the companies that are using microservices architecture began with a
monolithic architecture. As their business grew, they had to look for other
options to contain their workload, which made them opt for microservices.

Netflix started with a monolithic structure and moved to microservices as their

product grew into a large, complex structure.

Some companies use both architectures. For instance, appwrite uses both
monolithic and microservices architectures.
 UNIT -2
Design methodology of IoT:-

Step: 1 - Purpose & Requirements

• Purpose : A system that allows controlling of the lights in a home remotely

using a web
application

• Behaviour : The home automation system should have auto and manual
modes.

Auto mode - the system measures the light level in the room, switches light
when dark.

Manual mode - the system provides the option of manually and remotely
switching on/off the

light.

• System Management Requirement: The system should provide remote

monitoring and control

functions.

• Data Analysis Requirement : system should perform local analysis of data

• Application Deployment Requirement : The application should be deployed

locally on the device,

but should be accessible remotely.

• Security Requirement : The system should have basic user authentication

capability

Step: 2 - Process Specificatio

 Domain Model Specification
The domain model describes the main concepts, entities and objects in
the domain of the IoT system to be designed. Domain model defines the
attributes of the objects and relationships between objects. The domain
model is independent of any specific technology or platform.

Using domain model, system designers can get an understanding of the

IoT domain for which the system is to be designed. The entities, objects
and concepts defined in the domain model of home automation system
include the following:

Physical • The physical identifiable objects in the environment

Entity
 • IoT system provides information about the physical entity
(using sensors) or performs actuation upon the physical
entity

• Virtual entity is a representation of the physical entity in the

Virtual digital world
Entity
• For every physical entity there is a virtual entity

• Devices provide a medium for interaction between physical

and virtual entities
Device
• Devices are used to gather information from or perform
actuation on physical entities

• Resources are software components which can be either

on-device or network-resources
Resourc • On-device resources are hosted on the device and provide
e sensing or actuation (eg: operating system)
• Network-resources include software components that are
available on the network (eg: database)

• Services provide an interface for interacting with the

physical entity
Service
• Services access resources to perform operations on
physical entities

The domain model specification diagram for home automation system is

as shown in the below figure.
4. Information Model Specification
Information model defines the structure of all the information in the IoT
system. Does not describe how the information is stored and
represented. To define the information model, we first list the virtual
entities. Later more details like attributes and relationships are added.
The information model specification for home automation system is as
shown below:

Watch the below video to learn about the rest of the steps in IoT design
methodology:

5. Service Specifications
The service specification defines the following:

 Services in the system

 Service types
 Service inputs/output
 Service endpoints
 Service schedules
 Service preconditions
 Service effects

For each state and attribute in the process specification and information
model, we define a service. Services either change the state of attributes
or retrieve their current values. The service specification for each state in
home automation systems are as shown below:
6. IoT Level Specification
Based on the requirements we will choose the IoT application
deployment level. The deployment level for home automation system is
shown in the below figure.
7. Functional View Specification
The functional view defines the functions of the IoT systems grouped
into various functional groups. Each functional group provides
functionalities for interacting with concepts in the domain model and
information related to the concepts.

The functional groups in a functional view include: Device,

Communication, Services, Management, Security, and Application. The
functional view specification for home automation system is shown in the
below figure:

The mapping between the IoT level and the functional groups is as
shown in the below figure.
8. Operational View Specification
In this step, various options related to the IoT system deployment and
operation are defined, such as:

 Service hosting options

 Storage options

 Device options

 Application hosting options

The options chosen for home automation system are as shown in the
below figure.

9. Device and Component

Integration
In this step the devices like sensors, computing devices and other
components are integrated together. The interconnection of different
components in our home automation system are as shown in the figure
given below.
10. Application Development
Using all the information from previous steps, we will develop the
application (code) for the IoT system. The application interface for home
automation system is shown below.

Embedded Devices (System) in (IoT)

It is essential to know about the embedded devices while
learning the IoT or building the projects on IoT. The embedded
devices are the objects that build the unique computing
system. These systems may or may not connect to the Internet.

An embedded device system generally runs as a single

application. However, these devices can connect through the
internet connection, and able communicate through other
network devices.

Embedded System Hardware

The embedded system can be of type microcontroller or type
microprocessor. Both of these types contain an integrated
circuit (IC).

The essential component of the embedded system is a RISC

family microcontroller like Motorola 68HC11, PIC 16F84, Atmel
8051 and many more. The most important factor that
differentiates these microcontrollers with the microprocessor
like 8085 is their internal read and writable memory. The
essential embedded device components and system
architecture are specified below.
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Fig: Basic Embedded System

Embedded System Software

The embedded system that uses the devices for the operating
system is based on the language platform, mainly where the
real-time operation would be performed. Manufacturers build
embedded software in electronics, e.g., cars, telephones,
modems, appliances, etc. The embedded system software can
be as simple as lighting controls running using an 8-bit
microcontroller. It can also be complicated software for
missiles, process control systems, airplanes etc.

System on Chip (SoC) is a newer term with many interpretations

& definitions, and its meaning can change over time, but
the micro-controller unit (MCU) term has a clear definition and
scope, refined from decades of use. Documentation frequently
uses these two terms interchangeably, but most industry veterans
believe the two terms are not synonymous with one another. They
are part of the larger embedded system market with many
similarities, but it is important to understand the scopes and
purposes of SoCs and MCUs.
1. Micro-controller unit (MCU): A Micro-controller is a small
computer on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) that contains a
processor core, memory, programmable input/output
(I/O) peripherals, timers, counters, etc. It provides only minimal
memory, interfaces, and processing power. The peripherals
included on the micro-controller are less specific
than SoC packages. MCUs are typically used for small embedded
control systems or control applications and is sometimes
abbreviated as µC, uC or MCU.
2. System on Chip (SoC): SoC is a less well-defined term. It is a
single chip package that does everything that previously required
multiple chips. A SoC is typically an encapsulation of one or more
of CPUs, memory, micro-controllers, DSPs, accelerators, and
supporting hardware; however, it does not adhere to any
standards regarding its containing circuitry. An SoC is intended for
applications with requirements that are too complex for a
single MCU to handle. There might be a number of micro-
controllers in a SoC. It is more like a complete computer system
on a single chip, capable of performing complex tasks with higher
resource requirements. It is sometimes abbreviated
as SoC or SOC. includeDifferences between MCU and SoC are
as follows:
MCU SOC

Contains a single chip with nonspecific Contains a single chip with more
peripherals specific peripherals

Encapsulation of fewer and limited

Encapsulation of many peripherals
peripherals

Intended for small control applications with Intended for applications with more
low complexity requirements and higher complexity

Costs less than a System on Chip More expensive than Micro-

 MCU SOC

controllers

No Operating System (OS) Operating System (OS) included

Higher power consumption and varies

Low power consumption
widely between applications

Provides value by maximizing

Provides value by minimizing cost
functionality

More memory is included, can be MB

Memory is minimal, often measured in KB
or GB

External storage varies from KB to MB via External storage varies from MB to TB

Flash or EEPROM via Flash, SSD, or HDD

Computing width is 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, and Computing width is 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-
32-bit bit

Applications include programmable Applications includes smartphones,

thermostats, household appliances, and network routers, and game console
industrial instruments emulators

Products include Microchip Technology PIC, Products include Cypress PSoC,

8051, Atmel MCUs Qualcomm Snapdragon
 Building blocks of IoT
Five basic building blocks of the IoT system –sensors, processors,
gateways, applications, and database.

1.Sensors & Actuators:

 The front end of the IoT devices. These are the so-called “Things” of
the system.
 The main purpose is to collect data from its surroundings (sensors)
or give out data to its surrounding (actuators).
 Uniquely identifiable devices with a unique IP address so that they
can be easily identifiable over a large network.
 Able to collect real-time data. These can either be autonomous in
nature or user-controlled.
 Examples of sensors are gas sensors, water quality sensors,
moisture sensors, etc.

Actuators

  Both sensors and actuators are transducers, which means they’re responsible
for converting signals from one form to another.
  Actuators are responsible for performing actions.
 Sensors and actuators work together to remotely monitor and
control physical processes
 or systems.
 Sensors and actuators are only endpoints that connect
physically to the environment, whereas analysis of the information
they collect actions in a control layer, is referred to as an IoT
gateway.

2. Processors:
  Processors are the brain of the IoT system.
  Processors are primarily real-time devices that can be readily manipulated by
software.
  These are also in charge of data security, which includes data encryption and
decryption.
  the Main function is to process the data captured by the sensors.
  Extract the valuable data from the huge amount of raw data collected
(intelligence to the data).
  Processors mostly work on a real-time basis and are easily controlled by
applications.
  Also responsible for securing the data – perform encryption and decryption of
data.
  Embedded hardware devices, microcontrollers, etc process the data

Electronic Conversion:

o An analog to digital converter (ADC) on a printed circuit board

(PCB) translates information from the pressure sensor into a
format that can be digitally transmitted.
o Without diving into the details, in this example the pressure
sensor has a signal output of 4 volts which the ADC recognizes
as the integer number 40, which corresponds to a value of 40
psi, which is then represented in binary form as 101000
(machine language).

Transmission:

o The binary value captured from the sensor is encrypted for

security reasons (or should be) and is sent from the on-site
computer network via the Internet to a remote cloud
computing or data center.
o Data transmission most often takes place at regular time
intervals based on the application needs, or sometimes only
when there is a significant change in the sensor’s value.
3. Gateways:
 Gateway is a device that’s used for the basic analysis of data coming
from connected sensors.

 Gateways are responsible for routing the processed data and sending
it to proper locations for its (data) proper utilization.

 Work as decision points, sending certain control commands to

actuators which, in turn, perform appropriate actions.

 Gateway helps in to and from the communication of the data.

 It provides network connectivity to the data.

 Network connectivity is essential for any IoT system to communicate.

 Lan, wan, pan, etc are examples of network gateways.

 Both microcomputers and microprocessors can be used as gateways

for IoT applications.

4. Applications:
 Applications are essential for proper utilization of all the
collected data.
 These are cloud-based.
 Responsible for rendering the effective meaning to the data
collected. Applications are controlled by users and are a delivery
point of particular services.
 Examples of applications are home automation apps, security
systems, industrial control hubs, etc.

5. Data Storage:
 After reaching its final destination, the sensor value is typically
stored in a computer database that can easily serve other
systems (hence the name “server”).
 Datastore on the server which may be either local or cloud and
both.
In this chapter, we will learn about the different components on
the Arduino board. We will study the Arduino UNO board because
it is the most popular board in the Arduino board family. In
addition, it is the best board to get started with electronics and
coding. Some boards look a bit different from the one given
below, but most Arduinos have majority of these components in
common.

Power USB
Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer. All you need
to do is connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).

Power (Barrel Jack)

Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by connecting
it to the Barrel Jack (2).
Voltage Regulator
The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino board
and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino
calculate time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed on top
of the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000 Hertz or
16 MHz.

Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You can
reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the board.
Second, you can connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled RESET (5).

Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)

 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt
 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt
 Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5
volt.
 GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which
can be used to ground your circuit.
 Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external
power source, like AC mains power supply.

Analog pins
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can read
the signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor and
convert it into a digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.

Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain of
your board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from
board to board. The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You must
know what IC your board has before loading up a new program from the Arduino IDE.
This information is available on the top of the IC. For more details about the IC
construction and functions, you can refer to the data sheet.

ICSP pin
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of
MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial
Peripheral Interface), which could be considered as an "expansion" of the output.
Actually, you are slaving the output device to the master of the SPI bus.

Power LED indicator

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate
that your board is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then there is
something wrong with the connection.
 TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear in
two places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the
pins responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led
flashes with different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends
on the baud rate used by the board. RX flashes during the receiving process.

Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse
Width Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input digital pins to
read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs,
relays, etc. The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.

AREF
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an external reference
voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins

After learning about the main parts of the Arduino UNO board, we
are ready to learn how to set up the Arduino IDE. Once we learn
this, we will be ready to upload our program on the Arduino
board.

In this section, we will learn in easy steps, how to set up the

Arduino IDE on our computer and prepare the board to receive
the program via USB cable.

Step 1 − First you must have your Arduino board (you can
choose your favorite board) and a USB cable. In case you use
Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino Mega 2560, or
Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable (A plug to B plug),
the kind you would connect to a USB printer as shown in the
following image.

In case you use Arduino Nano, you will need an A to Mini-B cable
instead as shown in the following image.
Step 2 − Download Arduino IDE Software.
You can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Download
page on the Arduino Official website. You must select your
software, which is compatible with your operating system
(Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your file download is complete,
unzip the file.

Step 3 − Power up your board.

The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano

automatically draw power from either, the USB connection to the
computer or an external power supply. If you are using an Arduino
Diecimila, you have to make sure that the board is configured to
draw power from the USB connection. The power source is
selected with a jumper, a small piece of plastic that fits onto two
of the three pins between the USB and power jacks. Check that it
is on the two pins closest to the USB port.
Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB cable.
The green power LED (labeled PWR) should glow.

Step 4 − Launch Arduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip

the folder. Inside the folder, you can find the application icon with
an infinity label (application.exe). Double-click the icon to start
the IDE.

Step 5 − Open your first project.

Once the software starts, you have two options −

 Create a new project.

 Open an existing project example.
To create a new project, select File → New.
To open an existing project example, select File → Example →
Basics → Blink.
Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the
name Blink. It turns the LED on and off with some time delay.
You can select any other example from the list.
Step 6 − Select your Arduino board.

To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board,

you must select the correct Arduino board name, which matches
with the board connected to your computer.

Go to Tools → Board and select your board.

Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board according to our
tutorial, but you must select the name matching the board that
you are using.

Step 7 − Select your serial port.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools →
Serial Port menu. This is likely to be COM3 or higher (COM1 and
COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports). To find out,
you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-open the menu,
the entry that disappears should be of the Arduino board.
Reconnect the board and select that serial port.

Step 8 − Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board,
we must demonstrate the function of each symbol appearing in
the Arduino IDE toolbar.

A − Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B − Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.
C − Shortcut used to create a new sketch.
D − Used to directly open one of the example sketch.
E − Used to save your sketch.
F − Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and
send the serial data to the board.

Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a

few seconds; you will see the RX and TX LEDs on the board,
flashing. If the upload is successful, the message "Done
uploading" will appear in the status bar.

Note − If you have an Arduino Mini, NG, or other board, you need
to press the reset button physically on the board, immediately
before clicking the upload button on the Arduino Software.

What is Raspberry PI?

It is a cheap, credit-card-sized device that uses a daily
keyboard and mouse and joins to a TV or computer monitor. It
is a thin weighable computer that let every person of all ages to
discover programming and gain how to programme in variant
languages like Python and Scratch. From exploring the internet
and watching high-definition video, word-processing, to
creating spreadsheets, and it can do every possible thing we'd
expect a desktop computer to do and playing sports.
Including, the device has the potential to link with the outer
world and has been used in a large variety of communicative
developer ventures, including music machines and infra-red
cameras tweeting birdhouses and parent detectors to weather
stations.

Raspberry Pi (/pa ⁇ /) is a span of slight single-board computers

created in the United Kingdom in partnership with Broadcom by
the Raspberry Pi Foundation. Earlier, the Raspberry Pi device
stress on supporting basic computer science instructing in
schools and in progressing countries. The real type later
became much more popular than targeted, selling for works
such as robotics the target outside market.

Because of its low cost, modularity, and open architecture, it is

now commonly used in many fields, such as for weather
forecasting.

ny controller or processor used in embedded applications

interface and interact with the embedded electronics in five
ways:

1. Digital output
2. Digital input
3. Analog input
4. Analog output
5. Serial communication

We have already covered using digital output from Raspberry in

this series. Remember, RPi’s general-purpose input/output
(GPIO) are 3.3V-compatible.
In this tutorial, we will discuss how to use digital input
on Raspberry Pi. To do so, we’ll interface a push button to
RPi’s GPIO and detect the digital input from it. We’ll also
monitor this digital input on Python’s integrated development
and learning environment (IDLE) console.

Digital input & RPi

Digital or logical input is required on controllers/processors to:

 Input data from peripherals

 Interact with interfaced external devices
 Design human-computer interfaces

After all, from an electronics perspective, any computer (be it a

general-purpose processor, a dedicated processor, or a
controller) is a digital electronic circuit that can input data,
process inputs, and output data or electronic signals —
according to the input. Given the “input-process-output,” the
computer is able to accomplish designated tasks or operations.

Raspberry Pi, as a single-board computer, is also capable of

output and input. Its GPIO pins are 3.3V TTL voltage-tolerant,
meaning they can output and input logical signals, accordingly.
The input signals on RPi’s GPIO can be used for data input via
the momentary type switches (as we discussed when
covering how to interface push buttons using Arduino).

RPi’s GPIO
As mentioned in the previous tutorial, Raspberry Pi comes with
a 40-pin header, which is what makes it an embedded
computer. This is because it’s capable of interfacing with
embedded electronics and communicating through digital
input/output, PWM, and various serial communication protocols
(including UART/USART, I2C, and SPI).
In the 40-pin header, there are 26 pins that can output digital
signals and accept digital input. These digital input/output pins
(GPIO) are 3.3V TTL logic signal compatible.

The pins can be configured to use built-in pull-up or pull-down

resistors, except GPIO2 (board pin number 3) and GPIO3 (board
pin number 5), which have fixed pull-up resistors. The GPIO
pins output 3.3 V for logical HIGH and 0V for logical LOW. They
read 3.3V as logical HIGH and 0V as logical LOW.
Pull-up/pull-down resistors
If the GPIO pins are not configured to use built-in pull-up or pull-
down resistors (in the user-program), this must be done
externally or they will remain in a floating condition. The GPIO
is extremely sensitive and may be affected by slight changes.
For example, it can pick up a stray capacitance from a user’s
finger, the air, or the breadboard connection. Therefore, it must
be permanently tied to the VCC (or 3.3V in the case of RPi) or
to the ground.

If a pin has to be configured to detect a LOW signal as the

digital/logical input, it must be pulled to HIGH. To do so, one
end of the switch must be connected to the ground while the
other end must be hard-wired to the VCC (3.3V) via a pull-up
resistor. In this configuration, the pin (by default) will receive a
HIGH logical signal. When the button or switch is pressed, it will
receive a logical LOW.

If the pin has to be configured to detect a HIGH signal as the

digital/logical input, it must be pulled to LOW. To do so, one end
of the switch must be connected to the VCC (3.3V) while its
other end must be hard-wired to the ground via a pull-down
resistor. In this configuration, the pin (by default) receives a
LOW logical signal. When the button or switch is pressed, it
receives a logical HIGH.

In both of these cases, the pull-up or pull-down resistor protects

the channel (GPIO pin) from any voltage surge or stray
capacitance that could potentially damage the pin.
Push buttons
Push buttons are the simplest momentary type of switches.
These can be two or four-terminal switches.

In four-terminal switches, the terminals on each side are short.

This means two circuit branches can be switched
simultaneously. A two-terminal push button, however, can only
switch a single branch of the circuit.
Interfacing push buttons
Push buttons can be easily interfaced with the GPIO pins
of Raspberry Pi. All of the GPIO pins can be configured to use
the internal pull-up or pull-down, with the exceptions of GPIO2
(board pin number 3) and GPIO3 (board pin number 5)

As mentioned above, if this is not the case, the pins must be

configured with external pull-up or pull-down resistors. A
current-limiting resistor can also be connected with a switch in
the series for additional safety.

If the user-program is designed to read logical HIGH, the

internal or external pull-down must occur. If the user-program
is designed to read logical LOW, then an external pull-up must
be done. The “read logical level” can be interpreted as a data
value or a control signal, according to the user-program.

Sensing the digital input

There are several ways controllers/processors sense digital
input. These ways are implemented in the user-programs.
The most basic method of sensing logical input is to check the
input value at a point in time. This is called “polling.” However,
in this method, the controller/processor can miss reading the
input if the user program reads the value at the wrong time. For
polling, the state of the switch is checked by “if conditional”
and checked in a loop. But note, this is a processor-intensive
operation.

Another way to do so is simply to sense the input using

interrupts or edge-detection. In this method, the user-program
waits for the HIGH-to-LOW transition (falling edge) or the LOW-
to-HIGH transition (rising edge) on the GPIO pin.

Using Python to set up the GPIO pin as input

It’s fairly simple to set up a GPIO pin as input using Python.
However, to control Raspberry Pi’s GPIO pins from Python,
you’ll first need to import the RPi.GPIO module as follows:

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

The module references the IO pins in two ways: as board

numbers and as BCM numbers. The board numbers are the pin
numbers that are on the RPI’s P1 header. These numbers
remain the same for all RPi models.

The BCM numbers refer to the channel numbers on the

Broadcom SoC. RPi models may have channel numbers wired to
the RPi board numbers in different ways. So, if you use BCM
numbers, you’ll need to work with the schematic of your
particular board. If the BCM numbers are used, your script may
work on one model and break on another.

The numbering system of the pins can be set using the

setmode() method of the GPIO module. These are valid
examples of setting the numbering system of the IO pins in the
Python script:
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD)
or
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)

To detect the numbering system of the IO pins, the getmode()

method of the GPIO module can be called upon as follows:

mode = GPIO.getmode()
or
print(GPIO.getmode())

The method returns GPIO.BOARD, GPIO.BCM, or NONE (if the

numbering system is not set) as a string. So it’s recommended
to use the board numbering system to ensure your Python
script can run on all models without breaking.

Additionally, it’s possible to run more than one script in a

session. If one script is already using an IO pin and another
script is run that also uses the same IO pin, a warning will
prompt the user that the channel is already in use.

To ignore this warnings and continue using the IO pin from the
current script, the warnings can be set to “False.” To do so, use
the setwarnings() method of the GPIO module like this:

GPIO.setwarnings(False)

To configure the pin as digital input, use this code:

GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.IN)

However, if the pin has to be configured to use the internal pull-

up, it must be set up as follows:

GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.IN,
pull_up_down=GPIO.PUD_UP)
If the pin has to be configured to use internal pull-down, it must
be set up like this:

GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.IN,
pull_up_down=GPIO.PUD_DOWN)

Using Python to sense digital input by polling

The state of a switch can be tested at a GPIO pin by using the
“if conditional” as follows:

if (GPIO.input(channel)):
print(“HIGH”)
else:
print(“LOW”)

A while loop can also be used to test the status of a switch at

RPi’s GPIO:

while(GPIO.input(channel) == GPIO.LOW): print(“LOW”)

or
while(GPIO.input(channel) == GPIO.HIGH):
print(“HIGH”)

The “if conditional” executes a block of code once when the

state of the switch is read and while the loop keeps executing a
block of code (at least until the state of the switch is changed).
If the state of the switch has to be monitored throughout the
life cycle of the user-program, the user-program must iterate
itself.

In the previous tutorial, we used multi-threading to iterate the

user program since we were using a GUI to control the LED
driver. We also devised a trick to kill the threads. In this
tutorial, we will iterate the user program using the try-
exception method since we are not using a GUI.

Event-driven GPIO input

A more efficient way of sensing the digital input at a GPIO pin is
known as edge detection. The change of a logical signal from
LOW-to-HIGH (rising edge) or HIGH-to-LOW (falling edge) is
considered an event (hardware interrupt) at the channel (pin).

Python provides a function, wait_for_edge(), which blocks the

execution of the code until a rising or falling edge is detected.

The function has this syntax:

GPIO.wait_for_edge(channel, GPIO.RISING)
<Code to execute after detection of rising edge>
or
GPIO.wait_for_edge(channel, GPIO.FALLING)}
<Code to execute after detection of falling edge>
or
GPIO.wait_for_edge(channel, GPIO.BOTH)
<Code to execute after detection of rising or falling
edge>

The function also accepts a timeout argument so the CPU can

be forced to wait for a certain period of time to detect the edge
at the GPIO pin. The timeout is specified in milliseconds.

Here’s an example:

channel = GPIO.wait_for_edge(channel, GPIO_RISING,

timeout=5000)
if channel is None:}
<Code to execute if no edge is detected>
else:
<Code to execute if edge is detected>

The advantage of using the wait_for_edge() function is that the

CPU will not miss the detection of the logical signal at the GPIO
pin. However, the function temporarily interrupts the normal
flow of program and stops the user-program. To avoid this, the
event-driven edge detection can be done at the GPIO.
Python allows the addition of hardware events when using the
function, add_event_detect(), which has this syntax:

GPIO.add_event_detect(channel, GPIO.RISING)
<Code to execute normally in the user-program>
if GPIO.event_detected(channel):
<Code to execute after detection of edge at GPIO>

Again, the edge can be GPIO.RISING, GPIO.FALLING, or

GPIO.BOTH. Adding the event listener allows the execution of a
follow-up action on detection of the logical signal (edge) of
RPi’s channel — and without interrupting the normal flow of
user-program.

The event of the edge detection can also be bind with one or
more callback functions by using the add_event_callback()
function. It has this syntax:

GPIO.add_event_detect(channel, GPIO.RISING)
GPIO.add_event_callback(channel,
callback_function_one)
GPIO.add_event_callback(channel,
callback_function_two)

If more than one callback function binds to the edge detection,

these functions are executed sequentially, not concurrently.
The callback functions are executed in the order that they’re
called in the user-program. This is because, only one callback
function can be called in using the add_event_callback()
function. But the use of the callback functions will make your
code (the user-program) more modular and manageable.

At times, the callback functions are executed more than once

due to a switch bounce. This can be corrected by connecting a
capacitor of 0.1uF across the switch or using software
debouncing. For software debouncing, bouncetime parameter
can be included as an argument in the add_event_callback()
function.
The bouncetime is specified in milliseconds. Here’s an example:

GPIO.add_event_detect(channel, GPIO.RISING,
callback=callback_func, bouncetime=250)

Both methods — connecting the capacitor across the switch

and software debouncing — can also be applied for better
results.

Iterating user-code infinitely using try-exception

In the previous tutorial, we executed a user-program as an
infinite loop by using multi-threading. We also used a trick to
kill threads whenever needed.

Multi-threading was necessary because that application was

using GUI. Without applying multi-threading, the GUI would
have froze.

If your Python application does not include a GUI to manage

embedded electronics and it runs as a background script,
controlling electronics, there’s a solution, A microcontroller-like
infinite code execution can be implemented by a simple try-
exception statement.

For example:

if __name__ == ‘__main__’:
setup()
try:
loop()
except KeyboardInterrupt:
endprogram()

In this example, the setup() is a user-defined function that

executes once (like the setup() function in the Arduino
programming). The loop() is a function that’s executed by a try
statement and keeps iterating until a keyboard interrupt is
received.
The endprogram() is a function for exception handling that’s
called when a keyboard interrupt is received by RPi. This
function can be used for the clean-up of resources and to
securely close the Python script when the user-program
terminates.

Recipe: Interfacing push button with RPi

In this recipe, we will interface a push button to Raspberry Pi’s
GPIO and detect the press of a button on Python IIDLE’s
console.

Components required
1. Raspberry Pi 3/4 Model B x1
2. Push button x1
3. 10K Ohms resistor x1
4. Breadboard x1
5. Male-to-female jumper wires

Circuit connections

 First connect the GPIO21 (board pin number 40) of RPi

with one terminal of the push button.
 Then, connect a resistor of 10K on that same terminal and
attach the resistor’s other end to the 3.3V.
 Connect the other terminal of the push button to ground.
The push button should now be connected in a pull-high
configuration.
 The DC supply voltage and the ground can be supplied to
the circuit assembled on the breadboard, from pin number
1 and pin number 6 of the RPi board, respectively.
Python script

Wor
king the project
A push button is interfaced at the GPIO21 (board pin number
40) with an external pull-up. By default, pin 40 will receive a
HIGH logic (3.3V). When the push button is pressed, a LOW
logic signal (ground) is applied to the pin.

The user-program is designed to detect the logical LOW at pin

40 and print this message to the console: “Button Pressed….”
The user-program is written on Python IDLE and the message
received when pressing the button is monitored on the console
of the IDLE.
 Programming guide
The script starts by importing the GPIO and the time libraries. A
global variable is defined to denote pin 40, where the push
button is connected with external pull-up.

Unit -3

Introduction of ZigBee




ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate

task group 4. It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee
is a technological standard created for controlling and
sensing the network. As we know that ZigBee is the
Personal Area Network of task group 4 so it is based on
IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol designed
to provide an easy-to-use architecture for secure, reliable,
low power wireless networks. Flow or process control
equipment can be place anywhere and still communicate
with the rest of the system. It can also be moved, since the
network doesn’t care about the physical location of a
sensor, pump or valve.
IEEE802.15.4 developed the PHY and MAC layer whereas,
the ZigBee takes care of upper higher layers.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-
cost implementation of Low power devices with Low data
rates for short-range wireless communications.
IEEE 802.15.4 supports star and peer-to-peer topologies.
The ZigBee specification supports star and two kinds of
peer-to-peer topologies, mesh and cluster tree. ZigBee-
compliant devices are sometimes specified as supporting
point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies.
Why another short-range communication standard??
Types of ZigBee Devices:

 Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with

routers. This device is used for connecting the devices.
 Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between
devices.
 Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be
controlled.

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

 Low Power Consumption

 Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
 Short-Range (75-100 meters)
 Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
 Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices
(Theory); 240 devices (Practically))
 Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open
Source Protocol)
 Extremely low-duty cycle.
 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be
selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)

Features of Zigbee:

1. Stochastic addressing: A device is assigned a random

address and announced. Mechanism for address conflict
resolution. Parents node don’t need to maintain assigned
address table.
2. Link Management: Each node maintains quality of
links to neighbors. Link quality is used as link cost in
routing.
3. Frequency Agility: Nodes experience interference
report to channel manager, which then selects another
channel
4. Asymmetric Link: Each node has different transmit
power and sensitivity. Paths may be asymmetric.
5. Power Management: Routers and Coordinators use
main power. End Devices use batteries.
Advantages of Zigbee:
1. Designed for low power consumption.
2. Provides network security and application support
services operating on the top of IEEE.
3. Zigbee makes possible completely networks homes
where all devices are able to communicate and be
4. Use in smart home
5. Easy implementation
6. Adequate security features.
7. Low cost: Zigbee chips and modules are relatively
inexpensive, which makes it a cost-effective solution for
IoT applications.
8. Mesh networking: Zigbee uses a mesh network
topology, which allows for devices to communicate with
each other without the need for a central hub or router.
This makes it ideal for use in smart home applications
 where devices need to communicate with each other
and with a central control hub.
9. Reliability: Zigbee protocol is designed to be highly
reliable, with robust mechanisms in place to ensure that
data is delivered reliably even in adverse conditions.
Disadvantages of Zigbee :
1. Limited range: Zigbee has a relatively short range
compared to other wireless communications protocols,
which can make it less suitable for certain types of
applications or for use in large buildings.
2. Limited data rate: Zigbee is designed for low-data-
rate applications, which can make it less suitable for
applications that require high-speed data transfer.
3. Interoperability: Zigbee is not as widely adopted as
other IoT protocols, which can make it difficult to find
devices that are compatible with each other.
4. Security: Zigbee’s security features are not as robust
as other IoT protocols, making it more vulnerable to
hacking and other security threats.

Zigbee Network Topologies:

 Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a

coordinator and several end devices, end devices
communicate only with the coordinator.
 Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology
consists of one coordinator, several routers, and end
devices.
 Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists
of a central node which is a coordinator, several routers,
and end devices. the function of the router is to extend
the network coverage.

Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.

1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer

 Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical

and the MAC (Medium Access Control) Layer are defined
by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The Physical layer is
closest to the hardware and directly controls and
communicates with the Zigbee radio. The physical layer
translates the data packets in the over-the-air bits for
transmission and vice-versa during the reception.
 Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The
layer is responsible for the interface between the
physical and network layer. The MAC layer is also
responsible for providing PAN ID and also network
discovery through beacon requests.
 Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between
the MAC layer and the application layer. It is responsible
for mesh networking.
 Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee
stack is the highest protocol layer and it consists of the
application support sub-layer and Zigbee device object.
It contains manufacturer-defined applications.
Channel Access:
1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple
Access With Collision Avoidance Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a
specific time slot to each device (Guaranteed Time Slot
(GTS)))

Zigbee Applications:

1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems
4. meter reading system
5. light control system
6. Commercial
7. Government Markets Worldwide
8. Home Networking

What are IoT protocols?

Before we dive into common IoT protocols, let's define the term "protocol" at a high level.

Protocols are a set of rules for transmitting data between electronic devices according to
a preset agreement regarding information structure and how each side will send and
receive data. Correspondingly, IoT protocols are standards that enable the exchange
and transmission of data between the Internet and devices at the edge.

IoT protocols can be divided into two categories: IoT network protocols and IoT data
protocols. Data protocols mainly focus on information exchange, while network protocols
provide methods of connecting IoT edge devices with other edge devices or the Internet.
Each category contains a number of protocols that each have their own unique features. We'll
take a look at those next.

List of Common IoT Protocols

IoT Network Protocols

 Wi-Fi
 LTE CAT 1
 LTE CAT M1
 NB-IoT
 Bluetooth
 ZigBee
  LoRaWAN

IoT Data Protocols

 AMQP
 MQTT
 HTTP
 CoAP
 DDS
 LwM2M

Layers of the IoT protocol stack

"IoT protocol stack" refers to a hierarchy of software and hardware layers.

As Particle's Sr. Solutions Architect Dan Kouba phrased it, "It is all the things that sit in
between the data being produced at the edge to the data being received by your systems."

The IoT network stack can be represented using the seven-layer OSI Network Model, starting
from the physical layer at the bottom and ending with the application layer at the top.
Specific protocols may represent only one layer or span many—regardless, they must be
interoperable to ensure that the network functions as intended.

Next, let's take a closer look at each layer and its related functions.

Physical and Data Link Layers

The first two layers from the bottom—the physical and data link layers—define the physical
connection of end devices to the network. More specifically:
  The physical layer receives unstructured raw data between devices and physical
transmission media, then transmits the digital information into electrical, radio, or
optical signals.
 The data link layer catches the data and detects/corrects any errors that may have
occurred. This layer also defines the protocol for flow control, as well as establishing
and terminating connections between two physically connected devices.

"The physical layer is the actual hardware that the electronics are on," explained Dan. "The
data link layer represents how the modem negotiates with the cell tower—for example, to
establish a communication channel between a device and the cell tower or other networking
equipment."

Network, Transport, and Session Layers

The network, transport, and session layers facilitate data transfer over the connection,
with a focus on logical addressing, traffic directing, error correction, flow control,
congestion avoidance, session management, and reliability.

"From the user’s perspective, these layers are the protocols that run on top of the tunnel to
facilitate communication," Dan noted. "What does that message look like? How is it
formulated? How do I put data in it? How do we get data out of it?"

Presentation and Application Layers

The two layers at the top—presentation and application—deal with data formatting and the
boundary between the data coming from devices in the field and a business application or
database.

 The presentation layer transforms data into the form that is accepted by the
application.
 The application layer—the layer closest to the user—typically identifies
communication partners, determines resource availability, and synchronizes
communication.

At this point in the process, all procedures are accomplished over an encrypted channel.
Security applies to every layer in different ways and is often a function of the protocol being
used. Once the data reaches the cloud, the systems will unpack it, analyze it, and make
decisions accordingly before pushing each decision to the user's cloud platform.

IoT network protocols: What are they and what do you need
to know?
Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a ubiquitous protocol that can be found almost anywhere—industrial plants, homes,
commercial buildings, and even your neighborhood restaurants. This widely favored
technology is able to transmit large volumes of data over reasonable distances. However,
many low-power or battery-powered IoT devices are unlikely to use Wi-Fi due to its high
power consumption rate.
Read our in-depth comparison of cellular vs. WiFi for IoT applications to learn more about
when WiFi makes sense and when it doesn’t.

LTE CAT 1

LTE CAT 1 is a communication standard specifically designed for servicing IoT applications.
Compared with other standards, it scales down bandwidth and communication demand to
save power and cost for large-scale and long-range IoT systems. Though LTE CAT 1
performs inferiorly to 3G networks, experts predict that it will replace 3G as major U.S.
carriers sunset 3G in 2022.

LTE CAT M1

LTE CAT M1—which can also be referred to as Cat-M—is a low-cost, low-power, wide-area
network that specializes in transferring low to medium amounts of data. It was developed by
the 3rd Generation Partnership Project as part of the 13th edition of LTE standard and is a
core cellular IoT technology.

Cat-M stands out as a protocol option because it is compatible with the prevailing LTE
network, meaning major carriers pivoting to it will not have to invest in new antennas.

Comparison: CAT M1 is considered a complementary technology to NB IoT. However,

CAT M1 has a faster upload/download speed of 1 Mbps and a lower latency of 10 to 15
ms.

As of 2024, LTE CAT M1 and NB-IoT are now widely deployed and supported by
major carriers worldwide, as the rollout has significantly progressed since 2022. This
widespread availability has enabled the growth of large-scale, low-power IoT
deployments across various industries.

NB-IoT

While the protocols detailed previously have been in application for a long time, Narrow
Band-IoT is a new, fast-growing, low-power, wide-area technology intended to specifically
target the needs of battery-powered IoT devices.

When compared to other cellular protocols, NB-IoT's advantages include improvements in

power consumption, system capacity, and spectrum efficiency. For example, NB-IoT can
connect huge fleets with up to 50,000 devices per network cell.

However, NB-IoT doesn’t come without challenges. The protocol has very limited
bandwidth, which can slow or limit data transmission capabilities and make essential features
like over-the-air updates difficult or impossible to achieve. Also, the protocol has seen
limited rollout and support in worldwide geographies. While support is growing, fragmented
availability is a risk to any IoT deployment.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth focuses on point-to-point, short-range communication of a relatively small amount
of data. In the IoT space, Bluetooth is commonly used to connect small, battery-powered
sensors to IoT gateways or to facilitate communication with a smartphone, eBike, or other
smart device.

ZigBee

Ratified in the early 2000s, ZigBee stands out as a low-cost, low-power, and reliable wireless
network technology. The standard is adaptable and supports multiple network topologies,
including mesh networks, point-to-multipoint, and point-to-point. ZigBee is most commonly
used in home or building automation settings.

LoRaWAN

Long-range wide area network—also referred to as LoRa—is a long-range, radio-wide

networking protocol with low power consumption. Normally, LoRaWAN wirelessly connects
multiple battery-operated devices to the Internet within regional, national, or global networks.

In the IoT field, LoRaWAN plays an important role in bidirectional communication, end-to-
end security, localization, and mobility services.

IoT data protocols: What are they and what do you need to
know?
AMQP

Known for its reliability and interoperability, Advanced Message Queuing Protocol is an
open messaging standard. This protocol utilizes queues of data, enabling connected systems
to communicate asynchronously and better handle issues like traffic spikes and poor network
conditions.

Additional AMQP features include durable and persistent queues, federation and high-
availability queues, clustering, and flexible routing. However, AMQP is known to be a
verbose protocol in some circumstances.

Comparison: Compared with MQTT (discussed next), AMQP is more reliable and
secure.

MQTT

Message Queue Telemetry Transport is a lightweight pub/sub messaging protocol suitable for
connecting small, low-power devices.

This data protocol was designed specifically for IoT communication and requires minimal
memory and processing power. On the wire, MQTT's bidirectional pub/sub architecture
makes the protocol flexible and scalable for a wide variety of use cases and IoT system
architectures.
Additionally, the MQTT protocol is designed with reliability and scalability in mind—
security is provided via Transport Layer Security, and persistent sessions allow the protocol
to adapt to poor network conditions and reduce connection time overhead.

HTTP

You might recognize this acronym as appearing at the beginning of every website address
you type, as Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the foundation of data communication for the
World Wide Web.

However, within the context of IoT applications, HTTP has many drawbacks. For instance,
this protocol establishes a synchronous connection between two devices in order to transfer
data—which presents a number of challenges for IoT deployments because devices and
endpoints may not be online at the same time and connections may be unreliable due to
network conditions.

Additionally, HTTP relies on transferring data in ASCII, which is an inefficient way to

transmit the small bits of data often exchanged by IoT systems and requires more processing
power to encode and decode messages at both ends.

Ultimately, while HTTP is a great choice for transferring website data, it is generally not a
good choice for an IoT application.

CoAP

Constrained Application Protocol is used with constrained nodes and networks. This protocol
is suited for IoT applications as it reduces the size of network packages, thereby decreasing
network bandwidth overload. Other benefits of CoAP include improving the IoT life cycle,
saving battery power and storage space, and reducing the amount of data required to operate.

DDS

Released in 2004, Data Distribution Service is a middleware architecture for real-time

systems that focus on data communication between the nodes of a publication- or
subscription-based messaging architecture.

DDS is mainly used under circumstances that require real-time data exchange—for example,
autonomous vehicles, power generation, and robotics.

LwM2M

Lightweight Machine-to-Machine protocol is designed for remote management of M2M

devices and related services. LwM2M reduces costs associated with low-power module
deployment and equipping devices with faster IoT solutions. Learn more about M2M vs IoT.

Comparison: Note that the CoAP, LwM2M client initiates the connection to an LwM2M
server that will use the REST API to manage the interfaces.

Why are protocols and standards important in IoT?

While this synopsis might seem like information overload, protocols are essential in IoT
implementations.

"You want to make sure that whatever language your computers are speaking is really meant
to be used for your use case," explained Dan. "There are lots of ways to establish
communication between two machines, and picking the right one will give you advantages
such as a low data rate."

Simply put, different protocols provide data in vastly different ways. For example, video call
protocols might deliver data in a specific order all the time—something that's not necessarily
guaranteed with other protocols—but may not be able to ensure that low data is passed
between devices.

IoT security is another important element to take into consideration, as standardized IoT
protocols can prevent further fragmentation and reduce the risk of security threats.

"Security requires some exchange of information to establish a secure tunnel, and doing that
over certain protocols can be very data-intensive," said Dan. "Using the IoT-based protocols
leveraged by Particle minimizes this intensity."

What protocols does Particle use and why?

At Particle, we mainly use CoAP and MQTT for our customers, as both minimize the amount
of data transmitted and MQTT has a lot of institutional weight behind it.

As of 2024, we have expanded our protocol support to enable multi-radio networking. In

addition to the previously supported CoAP and MQTT protocols, Particle now leverages
LoRaWAN and satellite-based NTN (Non-Terrestrial Networks) protocols through
partnerships with leading network operators like Helium, The Things Industries, Comcast's
MachineQ, and Skylo.

"When Particle was created, we prioritized optimizing the amount of data used for each
transaction via our cloud because that directly ties into the value we provide for our
customers," Dan explained. "We give customers an allotted amount of data, and the more that
they can do with that data, the more value they're able to extract from our solution."

Nowadays, many companies don't optimize the layers of the protocol stack, which tends not
to be a direct driver of business value. This makes Particle's off-the-shelf solution an
excellent choice for most use cases.

The beauty of our approach is that you don't have to think about choosing a protocol, as
Particle's expert team will provide the stack and reference system for you. With this aspect
taken care of, you'll have more time to focus on the two end layers of the stack—namely,
what's happening at the edge and what's happening in the cloud.

According to Dan, "As long as you're transmitting your data, your data is relatively small, it's
sent relatively infrequently, and there's not necessarily a need to have it explicitly ordered,
Particle is going to be a great fit.
 Connectivity standards

The Internet of Things (IoT) encompasses a wide array of

devices and systems interconnected through the internet,
enabling them to communicate and share data. Connectivity
standards play a crucial role in ensuring interoperability,
security, and efficiency within IoT ecosystems. Here are some
of the prominent IoT connectivity standards:

1. Wi-Fi (802.11): One of the most widely used standards for IoT
connectivity, Wi-Fi offers high bandwidth and a long-range
connection, making it suitable for various IoT applications,
especially those requiring high data rates and continuous
connectivity.
2. Bluetooth: Bluetooth technology is commonly used for short-
range wireless communication between IoT devices. It's well-
suited for applications like wearable devices, smart home
gadgets, and proximity-based solutions.
3. Zigbee: Zigbee is a low-power, low-data-rate wireless
communication protocol designed for short-range, low-cost, and
low-power consumption IoT applications. It's commonly used in
home automation, industrial automation, and smart energy
management systems.
4. Z-Wave: Similar to Zigbee, Z-Wave is a wireless
communication protocol specifically designed for home
automation and IoT applications. It operates on the sub-1 GHz
band, providing longer range compared to Zigbee and
Bluetooth.
5. Thread: Thread is an IPv6-based wireless mesh networking
protocol developed for IoT devices. It offers secure, reliable,
and scalable connectivity suitable for smart home and
commercial building automation applications.
6. LoRaWAN: LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) is a
low-power, wide-area networking protocol designed for long-
range communication with low data rates. It's well-suited for
IoT applications requiring long-distance connectivity, such as
smart agriculture, asset tracking, and smart city deployments.
7. NFC (Near Field Communication): NFC enables short-range
communication between devices (typically within a few
centimeters). It's commonly used for contactless payments,
access control, and pairing IoT devices.
8. Cellular (3G, 4G, 5G): Cellular connectivity provides
ubiquitous coverage and reliable connectivity for IoT devices,
especially in remote or mobile applications where other
connectivity options may be limited. 5G networks, with their
low latency and high bandwidth capabilities, are expected to
further expand the possibilities for IoT deployments.

These standards offer various trade-offs in terms of range,

power consumption, data rate, and scalability, allowing
developers to choose the most suitable option based on their
specific IoT application requirements. Additionally,
interoperability initiatives and platforms, such as IoT
middleware and IoT standards organizations, aim to address
compatibility issues and promote seamless integration among
diverse IoT devices and systems.

IEEE 802.15.4

Welcome to the world of wireless communication, where IEEE

802.15.4 technology reigns supreme in industrial settings and
beyond! This powerful standard has revolutionized how we connect
and automate our lives, making it vital for anyone interested in
wireless networking and IoT applications. In this post, we'll look at
what makes IEEE 802.15.4 so special, look at actual
implementations, and discuss why you should care about this game-
changing technology.

Understanding IEEE 802

IEEE 802.15.4 is a wireless networking technology that provides the

technical specifications for low-rate wireless personal area networks
(LR-WPANs), allowing networked devices to communicate with one
another in a variety of industrial and commercial settings, including
healthcare, environmental monitoring, smart energy, home
automation, and more.
Definition and key features

IEEE 802.15.4 is a wireless networking standard developed for low-

power, low-data-rate applications in Personal Area Networks (PANs)
for IoT, embedded systems, and wireless sensor networks. It is
known for its low power consumption, extended battery life, mesh
networking capabilities, and cost-effectiveness. This RF-based
technology operates on various frequencies such as 2.4 GHz band
while supporting data transmission rates up to a maximum of 250
kbps. IEEE 802.15.4 also offers robust network security using
encryption methods like Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) to
ensure secure communication between connected devices within a
PAN ecosystem.

Basic architecture and network topology

The IEEE 802.15.4 technology's basic architecture consists of three

layers, including the physical layer, media access control (MAC)
layer, and networking layer. Mesh and star network topologies are
used to connect devices. Mesh topology enables direct
communication between devices without the need for a central hub
or node, while star topology has all devices communicate with a
central node. The technology offers versatile options for designing
networks based on specific requirements and constraints of various
applications such as industrial automation, healthcare monitoring
systems, smart homes, and environmental monitoring systems,
while keeping low-power consumption costs in mind due to their
energy-efficient features.

Types of devices in IEEE 802.15.4 Technology

IEEE 802.15.4 technology includes various types of devices that can

be used for wireless communication and networking. These devices
are −
  Coordinator − This device is responsible for initiating the PAN
(Personal Area Network) and managing the network.
 Full Function Device (FFD) − This device has the ability to
act as a coordinator or a router, and can also host other
devices.
 Reduced Function Device (RFD) − A device that can only
communicate with FFDs, but not capable of hosting other
devices or working as a coordinator.
 Sensor Node − This device includes sensor modules for
monitoring physical parameters such as temperature,
humidity, pressure, etc., and transmit data wirelessly to the
receiver.
 Actuator Node − This device receives information sent by the
controller node and performs actions accordingly to control
actuators such as motors, pumps, valves, etc.
 Gateway Node − A bridge between different networks to
exchange data using different protocols such as Wi-Fi or
Ethernet.
 Repeater Node − A device that retransmits data packets
from one node to another in order to extend the range of
network coverage.

These different types of devices offer versatile options for creating

industrial applications using IEEE 802.15.4 technology, ranging from
monitoring physical parameters to controlling electrical appliances
remotely via wireless networks.

Applications of IEEE 802

IEEE 802.15.4 technology finds numerous applications in various

fields, including industrial automation, smart energy, healthcare,
home automation, and environmental monitoring and control.

 Industrial Automation − This section highlights how IEEE

802.15.4 technology is an integral part of industrial automation
 and how wireless sensor networks utilizing IEEE 802.15.4
Technology can support a range of applications such as asset
tracking, temperature control, and predictive maintenance.
 Smart Energy − This section discusses how IEEE 802.15.4
technology enables remote control, monitoring, and
management of energy consumption by using smart meters
and sensors, resulting in better demand management, lower
costs, and prevention of blackouts.
 Healthcare − This section discusses how IEEE 802.15.4
technology enables remote patient monitoring systems,
facilitates telemedicine services for remote diagnosis and
treatment of various illnesses, and enables seamless
communication between different medical devices like insulin
pumps, pacemakers, and cardiac monitors.
 Home Automation − This section explains how IEEE 802.15.4
technology impacts home automation, allowing homeowners to
have remote control over different devices in their homes,
making life more comfortable, convenient, and secure.
 Environmental Monitoring and Control − This section
highlights how IEEE 802.15.4 technology enables wireless
sensor networks to monitor various environmental parameters
like temperature, humidity, air quality, water quality, etc., and
provide real-time data for analysis and effective control of the
environment.
Benefits of IEEE 802

IEEE 802.15.4 technology offers benefits such as low power

consumption and extended battery life, low cost and simple
implementation, limited data transmission rate, and limited range
and interference.

 Low Power Consumption and Extended Battery Life

 Low Cost and Simple Implementation
  Limited Data Transmission Rate
 Limited Range and Interference

Low power consumption and extended battery life

 Achieved through limiting data transmission and implementing
energy-efficient communication protocols.
 Crucial in IoT and industrial settings where frequent battery
replacements are impractical and costly.
 Popular choice for device manufacturers looking to provide
extended battery life while maintaining reliable wireless
connectivity.

Low Cost and Simple Implementation

 Requires very little hardware compared to other wireless
protocols.
 Easy to implement in a variety of applications without requiring
extensive technical expertise or specialized equipment.
 Lucrative option for a wide range of applications where budget
constraints and simplicity are important considerations.

Limited Data Transmission Rate

 Intentional design choice to balance power consumption with
data transfer needs.
 More than enough for applications that require periodic
sensing and reporting of small amounts of data.
 Reduces network congestion and interference between devices
in a given network, making it ideal for building reliable wireless
sensor networks (WSNs).

Limited Range and Interference

 Maximum range of around 30 meters, limiting its use in larger
facilities or outdoor settings.
 2.4 GHz frequency band used can experience interference
from other devices such as Wi-Fi routers and microwave ovens.
  Still has plenty of applications in industrial settings where a
smaller range is suitable, such as environmental monitoring
systems within a factory or warehouse setting.

Comparison With ZigBee, Wi-Fi, And Bluetooth

 Best suited for applications requiring very low power
consumption, limited data transmission rates, and a moderate
range.
 Ideal choice for industrial applications where energy efficiency
and reliability are of utmost importance.

One of the key aspects of IEEE 802.15.4 technology is how it

compares to other wireless communication standards like ZigBee,
Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. This comparison is crucial in understanding the
unique advantages of IEEE 802.15.4 and its applications in various
industries.

Technolo Data Range Power Applications

gy Rate Consumpti
on

20- 10-100 Very low Industrial automation,

250 meters smart energy,
IEEE kbps healthcare, home
802.15.4 automation,
environmental
monitoring and control

20- 10-100 Low Home automation,

ZigBee 250 meters smart energy, wireless
kbps sensor networks

Wi-Fi 11 Up to 120 High Internet access,

Mbps meters streaming media, file
 -6.9 (indoor), 300 sharing, network
Gbps meters gaming
(outdoor)

1-24 Up to 100 Low to Personal area

Mbps meters moderate networks, wireless
Bluetooth (depending on headsets, file sharing,
the class of smart home devices
the device)

By comparing IEEE 802.15.4 to ZigBee, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth, we can

see that this technology is best suited for applications requiring very
low power consumption, limited data transmission rates, and a
moderate range. This makes it an ideal choice for industrial
applications where energy efficiency and reliability are of utmost
importance.

Conclusion

In conclusion, IEEE 802.15.4 technology has revolutionized the world

of wireless communication, particularly in the realm of industrial
automation and IoT devices. As technology continues to unleash its
potential, we can expect to see further developments in this
standard, particularly concerning energy efficiency and network
security. With low power consumption and cost-effective
implementation, IEEE 802.15.4 has become an essential tool for
engineers and developers alike as they work towards creating
smarter homes, cities and industries using wireless mesh networks
that help people stay connected with each other seamlessly!

5G for IoT
Every day, the devices connected to the Internet of Things (IoT)
are on the rise. A better quality, faster network technology is
essential to sustain the demand. And 5G technology is a high-
 quality cellular networking technology that can satisfy that need.
Read on to find out how 5G technology can impact IoT.

Contents [hide]
 1 5G and IoT Technology
o 1.1 5G
o 1.2 Internet of Things
 2 The Impact of 5G on the Internet of Things
 3 IoT Challenges in 5G
 4 5G Internet of Things Applications
 5 IoT 5G Use Case & Business Opportunities
 6 5G IoT Today
 7 FAQs
o 7.1 What is the Internet of Things?
o 7.2 What is the main aim of the Internet of Things?
o 7.3 Why is it called the Internet of Things?
o 7.4 How many IoT devices are there?
5G and IoT Technology
5G

5G refers to the fifth generation of cellular networking. It can

provide several GB/s data speeds with low latency. A 5G network
will have excellent dependability and support more users than the
current generation. Additionally, the user experience will be more
consistent.
Internet of Things

“Internet of Things,” or “IoT,”refers to the practice of

connecting different devices that can process and exchange data
with each other. It can be over the Internet or other
communication networks; you don’t need the public internet. For
example, a light bulb connected to your Wi-Fi that you can control
using your smartphone.
The Impact of 5G on the Internet of Things
5G will provide a faster communication medium; you can expect
speeds up to a few gigabits per second. As a result, your devices
can coordinate and accomplish tasks faster. In addition, it will
provide an ultra-low latency network; according to Verizon, early
5G deployment showed a latency of 30 ms. That will help use IoT
devices to do delicate tasks such as surgery. Finally, because
5G has a high bandwidth, you can connect more devices to it
without experiencing quality loss.
IoT Challenges in 5G
5G will indeed have an enormous impact on how industries work.
However, there are many challenges that researchers need to
address before fully implementing them.
1. As 5G technology uses short waves, you need towers close to
each other. That means you need more cellular towers for a 5G
network.
2. Because many 5G components will be virtual, there are increased
security risks. Additionally, the increase in users in a network will
need more drastic security measures.
3. The cost of implementing new network devices will be immense.
You require more equipment, and these must support high-
frequency band operation. However, you may reduce these costs if
vendors share hardware.
5G Internet of Things Applications
5G and IoT will have a lot of applications:
 People can use a 5G IoT network to park their cars without going
to a parking spot. Similarly, you can directly summon it.
 Farmers can use the IoT network to monitor crops and livestock
and control equipment remotely.
 Doctors can perform surgeries remotely with low latency
equipment.
 The low latency can also improve your entertainment. For
example, you would be able to play AAA games without installing
them
 People can monitor and maintain their houses while they are on
vacation. For example, you can track your robot vacuum cleaner
while sunbathing at the beach.

Source: 5G IoT applications

IoT 5G Use Case & Business Opportunities
Following are some use cases where industries can improve their
businesses:
 IoT 5G sensors can connect with machines and tools to monitor
their health status. It will enhance productivity. You can gather
data about oil levels, electric outputs, temperature, and speed
without stopping the production.
 Industries can use automated guided vehicles and mobile robots
to automate production and delivery. It will reduce cost and time.
 5G IoT technology will open markets for health-related IoT
devices. Health care providers can use the 5G IoT technology to
monitor their patients’ conditions.
 Cities can themselves become smart. 5G IoT networks can
monitor HVAC systems, water levels, and cleanliness. Therefore,
there will be a vast 5G IoT monitoring devices market.
 Industries focused on AI will also benefit hugely from 5G IoT
devices. They would now be able to integrate their AI with IoT
devices seamlessly. For example, AI in different cars can
communicate with each other and reduce accidents and traffic
blocks.

Source: Traffic safety using 5G IoT

5G IoT Today
Currently, the world has over fourteen billion IoT devices. These
devices have a significant impact on our economy. The IoT
applications and use cases you read above have improved the
standard of living. Home automation gives people more time to
focus on their jobs. They can do chores quickly. For example,
consider an automatic vacuum cleaner programmed to clean
houses at a specific interval. People no longer have to spend
their valuable time doing that. That can make them more
productive.
As mentioned above, the automation of production lines using
private 5G IoT networks can improve productivity and reduce
cost. That will make commodities cheaper, impacting the
economy.
FAQs
What is the Internet of Things?

The Internet of Things is the collection of various devices that

are wirelessly connected. They each can process data and
communicate with other devices. For example, you can connect a
sensor that senses the presence of a person to a fan. Then the
fan will switch on whenever a person is in the room. Here, the fan
and the sensors form parts of the Internet of Things, or IoT.
What is the main aim of the Internet of Things?

The main aim of the Internet of Things is to integrate multiple

devices and communicate with each other. That will eliminate the
need to feed data from one device to another manually. You can
then make an automated system that functions according to set
rules. Additionally, IoT devices are helpful when you need to
operate a remote machine. It will help those working in hazardous
conditions.
Why is it called the Internet of Things?

The Internet of Things, or IoT, gets its name because each

device can send and receive data from one another. So it is
similar to the actual Internet. However, you need to send and
receive data on the Internet. And it only connects two computers.
But in IoT, the network is between various devices or things. And
they send and receive data without human interference.
How many IoT devices are there?

The number of IoT devices is increasing every day. In 2021,

there were 10 billion IoT devices. Currently, the world has over
14.4 billion IoT devices. And after deploying 5G worldwide, this
number may rise to over 75 billion.

UNIT – 4
Edge analytics /edge analytics Architecture

The Internet of Things (IoT) model has attained more significance

in recent times due to the advent of edge analytics. In this data-
driven world, the use of data analytics is the key to developing
solutions. Edge analytics is automation that helps in data
collection and processing.
 Internet of Things (IoT)

Contents [hide]
 1 Edge analytics and why does it matter?
 2 When do businesses prefer to perform analytics at the edge?
 3 How does edge analytics work?
 4 Edge analytics vs. regular analytics
 5 The benefits of edge analytics
 6 Limitations of edge analytics
 7 Edge analytics use cases
 8 Frequently asked questions
o 8.1 1. How is edge analytics different than traditional analytics?
o 8.2 2. What is edge analytics in IoT?
o 8.3 3. What factors drive your business towards edge
analytics?
o 8.4 4. What are examples of edge analytics?
o 8.5 5. What is edge vs. cloud?
Edge analytics and why does it matter?
In many production companies, manufacturing machines,
pipelines, and equipment are monitored through IoT. The IoT
creates and stores data that might be difficult to manage and
process in real-time. With the help of edge analytics, the data is
fed in from the IoT devices to process and understand them.
Analytics algorithms help humans determine which data is
needed and which is not. For example, a faulty running boiler
might send data to the IoT device when the temperature exceeds
the threshold. Edge analytics processes this data, and an alarm
can be raised if there is a problem in the unit. The real advantage
of using edge analytics in this scenario is that the latency is
reduced. For example, when the threshold is reached, the
algorithm can automatically instruct the IoT to shut down the
boiler. This can save time and a lot of manual work.
When do businesses prefer to perform analytics at the edge?
Edge analytics can be used for this purpose when there is a
need to monitor devices. Businesses can integrate edge
analytics with IoT and use them to monitor their production
systems. The analytics algorithm processes data in near real-time
and provides automated resolution. Even if this is not possible,
the data collected from the device can be passed on to the
monitoring team. This insightful data will be useful for business to
decide what action to take. This method also helps businesses
when they scale up. An additional boiler installation can be
accompanied by an IoT device, which can automatically start
monitoring it.
 How does edge analytics work?
The general workflow of edge analytics integrated tools follows
the below pattern:
 Sensors or devices at the edge collect the required data
 Analytics capabilities within IoT devices enable performing
analysis at the edge
 If the IoT device needs to take action, it is done based on the
analysis results
 Relevant data is transmitted from the edge to the cloud, so
businesses can interpret the data by aggregating summarized
data from multiple IoT devices

IoT edge analytics

Edge analytics vs. regular analytics
Edge analytics has the same functionality as a regular analytics
application, except where the analysis is performed. The main
difference is that edge analytics applications need to run on edge
devices that may have storage, processing power, or
communication limitations. These applications are optimized to
work within these limits. In a regular analysis, it takes hours to
days or more to put the data together in a report. And because
the business is moving so fast, you want to be in front of the
 game, not behind it. It also means slower cross-platform
synchronization. If the analytics software is integrated with other
tools, those solutions (and the team members who manage them)
will also be affected.
The benefits of edge analytics
 Faster and more autonomous decision-making because the data
source identifies insights and there is no waiting time. The main
advantage of using edge analytics integration within an IoT
device is that there is almost no latency.
 Fewer centralized data stores, reducing the cost of centralized
data storage and management.
 Reduces data transfer costs by sending fewer data items to the
central data repository. For this reason, the internet bandwidth
issues do not pop up at all. The central data repository usually
resides in a cloud environment enabled with data replication.
 Improves security and privacy as most crucial data, such as video
footage, is not stored or communicated.
Limitations of edge analytics
 The cloud environment is designed for security. Security
breaches in the cloud are very costly for business. However,
edge security is also important because some edge devices
make decisions about the behavior of the actual machine.
Violations can result in device disruption, other costly machine
failures, or at least incorrect information.
 Some edge analytics systems share output only with the cloud
due to bandwidth or storage limitations. In that case, the
enterprise does not have the opportunity to see the raw data that
led to the analysis shared with the cloud system. Therefore, you
need to make sure that your input is processed using the latest
analysis software.
Edge analytics use cases
1. Analyzing retail customer behavior: Retailers can leverage data
from a variety of sensors, including shopping cart tags, parking
sensors, and in-store cameras. Retailers can use behavioral
targeting to provide a personalized solution for everyone by
utilizing analytics on the collected data from the devices.
 2. Remote monitoring and maintenance in a variety of
industries: In industries such as energy and manufacturing, you
may need to take immediate action if your machine is not working
or needs maintenance. Without the need for centralized data
analysis, organizations can more quickly identify signs of failure
and take action before system bottlenecks occur.
3. Intelligent surveillance: Enterprises can benefit from real-time
intrusion detection edge services for security. Edge analytics can
detect and track suspicious activity using raw images from
surveillance cameras.

Ot
her edge Analytics use cases

Frequently asked questions

1. How is edge analytics different than traditional analytics?

Edge analytics has the same functionality as a regular analytics

application, except where the analytics are performed. The main
difference is that edge analytics applications need to run on edge
devices that may have storage, processing power, or
communication limitations. Regular analysis can take hours to
days or more to compile the data into a report. This also means
slower cross-platform synchronization. These solutions will also
be affected if your analytics software is integrated with other
tools.
 2. What is edge analytics in IoT?

IoT edge analytics is best suited for systems that require rapid
data turnover to drive functionality, IoT systems that collect large
amounts of data, and IoT devices that function off-network for
remote deployment and data security reasons. A typical example
of an actual edge analysis is the case of a military drone
deployed in a remote location. Drones can technically reach the
outside world via satellite communications, but data transfer
speeds are too slow to provide real-time feedback effectively.
Instead, edge analysis allows for a near-real solution, ensuring a
safe mission.
3. What factors drive your business towards edge analytics?

For edge analytics to be useful to your business, your

organization needs to know the answers to the following
questions:
 Will analyzing data in real-time improve your company’s
productivity?
 Need a solution that scales over time?
 Does your company operate in an industry that requires
immediate attention when unexpected changes occur?
If the answer to the above questions is yes, then the edge
analytics tool is what your business needs for data analysis.
4. What are examples of edge analytics?

Below are a few edge analytics use cases:

 Autonomous vehicles
 Remote monitoring of equipment in manufacturing industries
 Smart grid
 Predictive maintenance
 In-hospital patient monitoring
 Virtualized radio network
 Cloud gaming
 Content delivery
 Traffic management
 Smart home
5. What is edge vs. cloud?

Both cloud and edge analytics are techniques that collect relevant
data and use that data to perform data analytics. The main
difference between the two is that cloud analytics requires the
raw data to be transferred to the cloud for analytics. While cloud
analytics has its place, edge analytics has two main advantages.
First, edge analytics has much lower latency than cloud analysis.
This is because the data is analyzed on-premises. When the data
is created, it is often analyzed on the device itself in real-time.
The second advantage is that edge analytics does not require a
network connection to the cloud. This means that edge analysis
can be used in bandwidth-constrained environments or where
cloud connectivity is not available.

Challenges in centralized IoT

In a centralized IoT system, where data from IoT devices is sent

to a central server or cloud for processing and analysis, several
challenges can arise:

Network Congestion: Transmitting large volumes of data from

numerous IoT devices to a centralized server can lead to network
congestion, especially in scenarios with limited bandwidth. This
congestion can result in delays, packet loss, and increased latency,
affecting the reliability and responsiveness of the system.
High Bandwidth Requirements: Centralized systems require
significant bandwidth to handle the influx of data from IoT
devices. In environments with constrained network resources,
such as remote locations or areas with poor connectivity, meeting
these bandwidth requirements can be challenging and costly.

Latency: The round-trip time for data to travel from IoT devices
to the central server and back can introduce latency, impacting
applications that require real-time or near-real-time
responsiveness. Delays in data transmission and processing can
undermine the effectiveness of time-sensitive IoT applications,
such as industrial automation or remote monitoring.

Data Privacy and Security Risks: Centralizing data exposes it to

potential privacy and security risks, especially during
transmission over public networks. IoT devices may collect
sensitive or proprietary information, and transmitting this data to
a central server increases the risk of interception or unauthorized
access. Ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of
data in transit and at rest becomes a critical concern.

Scalability Issues: As the number of IoT devices and data sources

grows, centralized systems may struggle to scale effectively to
handle the increased workload. Scaling up the infrastructure to
accommodate more devices and higher data volumes requires
significant investment in hardware, software, and network
resources.
Single Point of Failure: Centralized architectures have a single
point of failure, typically the central server or cloud
infrastructure. Any disruption or outage in this central
component can lead to widespread service interruptions, affecting
all connected IoT devices and applications.

Regulatory Compliance: Compliance with data protection

regulations, such as GDPR in Europe or HIPAA in healthcare,
becomes more complex in centralized IoT systems. Ensuring
compliance while centralizing data storage and processing
requires robust security measures, data governance practices, and
transparency in data handling processes.

Addressing these challenges often involves a combination of

architectural considerations, such as implementing edge
computing for local data processing, optimizing data transmission
protocols for efficiency, deploying robust security measures, and
adopting scalable and resilient infrastructure designs.

diagram
ChatGPT
Certainly! Here's a simplified diagram illustrating a centralized
IoT system along with some of the associated challenges:
 +----------------------+
| Centralized Server |
| or Cloud Platform |
+----------+-----------+
|
+--------v---------+
| Data Center |
| (Processing, |
| Storage, etc.) |
+--------+---------+
|
+---------------------+---------------------+
| | |
+----------v----------+ +-------v--------+ +-------v--------+
| IoT Device 1 | | IoT Device 2 | | IoT Device 3 |
| (Sensors) | | (Sensors) | | (Sensors) |
+---------------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+

Challenges:
- Network Congestion
- High Bandwidth Requirements
- Latency
- Data Privacy and Security Risks
- Scalability Issues
- Single Point of Failure
- Regulatory Compliance
In this diagram:

Centralized Server or Cloud Platform: This represents the

centralized infrastructure where data from IoT devices is
transmitted for processing, storage, and analysis.

Data Center: The data center houses the hardware and software
infrastructure for processing and storing IoT data. It includes
servers, networking equipment, and storage systems.

IoT Devices: These are the devices equipped with sensors that
collect data from the physical environment. Examples include
temperature sensors, motion detectors, cameras, etc.

Challenges: Listed below the diagram are some of the challenges

associated with centralized IoT systems, such as network
congestion, high bandwidth requirements, latency, data privacy
and security risks, scalability issues, single point of failure, and
regulatory compliance.
 This diagram provides a visual representation of a centralized
IoT architecture and highlights the challenges that organizations
may encounter when implementing such systems.

Unit- 5
CPwE

Converged Plantwide Ethernet

Model (CPwE): Transforming
Manufacturing Networks
In this tutorial, we will learn about the Converged
Plantwide Ethernet Model (CPwE), its Purpose,
Scalability, Reliability, Security, Reference
Architectures, Integration, and Convergence of OT
and IT.By Shahnail Khan Last updated : October 03, 2023

In today's rapidly evolving industrial landscape, the need

for a strong and secure network is critical in transforming
manufacturing networks. Here's where the Converged
Plantwide Ethernet (CPwE) architecture comes in. This
model completely changed how manufacturing businesses
develop and implement their network infrastructure. Cisco
collaborated with Rockwell to generate this model which is
tailored to meet the specific demands of industrial
automation and control systems (IACS) applications. This
article explores the key aspects of CPwE and how it helps
in transforming manufacturing networks.

Purpose of CPwE
The main purpose of CPwE is to meet the networking needs
of industrial automation and control systems (IACS)
applications in manufacturing settings. Unlike conventional
office networks, industrial networks supporting IACS
applications demand higher reliability and security. These
networks are the foundation of manufacturing operations,
managing logistics and tasks related to manufacturing.
CPwE ensures that these networks are not only reliable but
also secure.

Scalability
The advancement of technology makes the manufacturing
process dynamic. This is very well acknowledged by CPwE,
stating scalability as the core principle. It offers the ability
to effortlessly extend the network infrastructure as
production requirements increase. This scalability makes
sure that your network can easily adjust to new equipment,
increasing data traffic, and changing automation
requirements.

Reliability
Manufacturing operations demand reliability. A short
network outage can halt production and harm quality. This
model prioritizes network reliability, ensuring disruptions to
the manufacturing process are minimized. Redundancy
features, failover procedures, and real-time monitoring are
essential components of CPwE to ensure that your network
stays active around the clock.

Security
With the rise in cyber threats, network security is critical in
industrial environments. CPwE. CPwE gives importance to
network security measures to safeguard against
cyberattacks. The platform utilizes top-tier security
practices and cutting-edge technologies to safeguard
important information and infrastructure. This model helps
manufacturers in reducing the risk of cyber-attacks by
implementing robust security policies.

Reference Architectures
Cisco and Rockwell Automation have developed reference
architectures. These referencing architectures prove to be
beneficial in the deployment of solutions. Companies can
easily adopt CPwE with the help of detailed blueprints,
recommended configurations, and best practices.

Integration
Modern manufacturing relies heavily on the integration of
various systems, devices, and equipment. CPwE aligns
standard network services with industrial apps for seamless
communication between manufacturing components,
optimizing processes and enhancing productivity.

Convergence of OT and IT
Manufacturing OT and IT networks have traditionally
operated separately, with different protocols and security
measures. CPwE enables convergence between these two
worlds. It seamlessly provides a way for OT and IT
personnel to work together effectively which leads to a
unified network and security strategy.

Conclusion
Converged Plantwide Ethernet (CPwE) is a game-changer
for manufacturing companies looking to establish a
reliable, scalable, and secure network infrastructure. The
CPwE is designed to cater to the distinct requirements of
industrial automation and control systems (IACS)
applications. Its framework serves as a guide to triumph in
today's manufacturing landscape. The CPwE prioritizes
scalability, reliability, and security, guaranteeing that
production operations continue without interruption and
are safeguarded against cyber threats.

THE NEED FOR A SMART PARKING

SYSTEM USING IOT
Due to the rapidly increasing rate of car ownership, it’s
becoming tougher to locate parking spots in densely populated
areas. If you try to search for an available parking lot, it
invariably takes up a lot of your productive time. Increases the
number of cars circulating the roads, and also leads to new
challenges to the existing infrastructure. Smart Parking
systems using IoT and Sensors can help in finding spots
remotely and in real-time.

The rapid increase in demand for parking spaces stems

predominantly from two major trends — the increase in car
ownership and increasing urbanization.

The IoT-based parking management system will have a positive

impact on all stakeholders involved in the process. The system
will enable drivers to book parking spaces beforehand, and plan
trips and commutes with the lot occupancy in mind. It will help
the enforcement agencies to detect and evaluate the gravity of
parking rules violations in a matter of seconds.

Parking facility managers will benefit by being able to optimize

the use of space and resources within their parking lots, and
efficiently strategize and plan the future development of the
lot. Community leaders will make the lives of city residents
more comfortable by implementing IoT parking solutions.
ROLE OF IOT IN SMART PARKING
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
IoT solutions consist of Sensors, Controller-based hardware,
communication to servers, etc.
INNOVATIVE PARKING SOLUTIONS
THAT IDENTIFY THE SAFETY OF
PARKING SPOTS
The IoT platform will help in identifying and alerting the drivers
regarding ‘red’ zones like bus stops, passenger loading-
unloading areas, and parking spots for handicapped people.
This will lead to a decrease in the number of parking violations
by negligence. Suppose the driver still parks the vehicle in a
no-parking zone. In that situation, a connected platform will
immediately notify an enforcement department regarding the
violator, increasing the odds of penalizing the violation
successfully.

SPONSORED METER TIME

EXTENSION
The connected IoT platforms will notify drivers beforehand
when the parking meter expiry date approaches. This type of
tool will help extend the parking time duration in one click as
soon as the driver paid for an extension. Automated parking
meter extension systems will, bring down the number of traffic
law violation cases and increase the revenue of the facility.

EFFICIENT CITYWIDE PARKING

SPACE UTILIZATION
With the help of the IoT platform that includes a network of
connected sensors, automated parking planners can collect
occupancy data for all parking venues. In order to disperse the
number of parked cars equally throughout the city, municipal
communities can adjust meter rates. And allow parking times
using the data provided by IoT platforms in the decision-making
process.
HOW DO SMART PARKING
SOLUTIONS WORK?
The overview

The installed IoT sensors are able to precisely determine where

empty parking spaces are located. This IoT data is transmitted
over a wireless connection to a cloud server. The data from the
parking lot sent by the sensors is collected and analyzed in
real-time to create a map of available spaces and sent to those
looking for a parking space in a cloud/ Mobile Application.

IOT-BASED SMART PARKING

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
The software and hardware requirements for IoT configuration
and system architecture are determined by the number of
parking spaces in a parking lot. For large parking lots, it’s
better to use a gateway and the LPWAN protocol for the
sensors.

The LoRaWAN connectivity standard adoption is a recent IoT

trend. It’s also a way to increase the operating hours of an
autonomous system by reducing power usage.

SENSORS FOR SMART PARKING

SYSTEM
IoT-based Smart parking system uses different sensors that
include ultrasonic, electromagnetic field detection, and
infrared.

Ultrasonic: The accuracy of the sensing is improved by using

ultrasound for measurement detection.

Electromagnetic Field Detection: The electromagnetic

sensor detects small changes in the magnetic field when metal
objects come close to the sensor.
Infrared: This type of sensor measures changes in the
surrounding temperature and detects motion.

USER-FRIENDLY FEATURES OF A
PARKING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Every system which is made for interacting with the users
should consist of user-friendly icons and options so that it
becomes easy for the users to navigate through the app.

INTERFACE SHOWING FREE AND

OCCUPIED PARKING SPACES
An IoT Dashboard (ideally, a cloud-based one) should collect
sensor data and process it into concise, understandable
insights, visual as far as possible, regarding the occupancy of
parking spaces in the facility.

REAL-TIME MONITORING OF
PARKING OCCUPANCY FROM MOBILE
APPLICATION
A useful parking system based on IoT should enable a driver to
see how many free slots all parking facilities around town offer
in real-time. Probably the most indispensable and must-have
feature in an IoT-based parking system is an interactive
occupancy map.

API FOR END-USER AND

MANAGEMENT APPLICATIONS
As the parking management tools are vital to the well-being of
community members. The program developers need to ensure
the tool offers third-party integrations and can be implemented
into other management and parking lot monitoring tools or
software.
USER-FRIENDLY INTERFACE, ACCESS
PERMISSIONS FOR DIFFERENT USER
GROUPS
It is quite realistic to assume that not every driver is tech-savvy
and experienced in handling complex platforms or Applications.
To make the process of finding or checking the availability of a
parking spot as effortless as possible. The app developers
should offer a minimalist interface, and use guiding elements —
arrows, icons, etc. — to help users move around the application
effortlessly. Additionally, an app developer should keep
different user groups in mind. Such as visually impaired people,
drivers who are over 50 years old, and so forth, when designing
the app.

BENEFITS OF SMART PARKING

SYSTEM

REAL-TIME MONITORING OF
PARKING SPACE
It helps in simplifying the search for Parking spots and speeds
up the parking process. resulting in less guesswork and
reduced unpredictability of looking for an available parking spot
while you are driving.

Also, Parking IoT solutions help find space for parking in a new
town and track availability in real-time. It’s done to ensure that
a driver’s time is not wasted driving around jam-packed parking
lots.
BETTER CONTROL FOR CONSUMERS,
BUSINESSES, AND LAW
ENFORCEMENT REPRESENTATIVES
Smart parking solutions promote safety by notifying drivers
when they are about to leave a vehicle in a no-parking area.

Traffic law reinforcement structures will be able to create an

efficient framework for parking violation monitoring. By using
the analyzed data, since connected systems will offer relevant
data on how areas with the highest violation density, peak
timing for parking violations, and real-time alerts for when a
driver parked a vehicle in a no-parking spot.

OPTIMIZING SPACE AND TIME IN A

TIGHT AND BUSY URBAN
ENVIRONMENT
There will be a reduction in the number of vehicles circulating
on busy city roads looking for parking spots. As smart parking
systems help in finding an available spot more effortlessly,
there will be less search traffic in the street. Hence, the traffic
jam problem can be mitigated to an extent, allowing city
residents to save production time.

IoT-based parking facility management tools will help business

owners make the most out of the space available. For instance,
a parking management system automatically adjusts the meter
fares based on the current occupancy of the facility. At a time
of High density of vehicles, fares can be increased. Also,
automated meter renewal tools will help parking facilities
generate more revenue and attract new visitors.
FORESEE THE FLOW OF VEHICLES
BY ANALYZING PARKING ROUTINES
IN MALLS, BUSINESS STORES,
AIRPORT
A connected parking management software is a missing cog in
the decision-making wheel. And brings additional clarity and
insight to parking optimization. By collecting real-time driver
data every day of the year, smart platforms can determine
complex seasonal patterns and trends.

TRENDS IN IOT-BASED SMART

PARKING SYSTEMS:
 Parking demand management and space optimization
 Personalized parking guidance
 Parking reservation systems
 Dynamic parking prices and policy optimization
 Detection of parking zones, fees, and overstay violations.

Also Read: SMART IOT SOLUTION and AUTOMOTIVE EMBEDDED

DEVICES

We, at PsiBorg an IoT solutions Development company,

understand the practical problems associated with an
inefficient parking management system. With our expertise in
IoT, we excel at building the most hi-tech and efficient IoT
dashboards and Mobile applications for use cases like IoT-
based parking management systems. Do reach out to us to
enquire about