Jangmin 2024

Course Code: BTW14

Feminist Theology
BD IV. Semester 1, 4 Credit Hours, Senate Paper

UNIT 1: UNMASKING PATRIARCHY

Unmasking Patriarchy refers to the process of revealing and challenging the system of male dominance,
known as patriarchy. This system has granted primarily power and privilege to men in various aspects of
society, including politics, economics, and culture.

1. Understanding the basic concepts of gender/sex and Sex role stereotypes

Basic concept of gender/sex: Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men
and women. It is a physical differentiation between biological male and the biological female. Gender on the
other hand is a social construct, related to societal roles and behaviours considered appropriate for men and
women.

Sex role stereotypes: Sex role stereotype also known as gender role stereotypes are the societal
expectations about how individuals of a certain gender should act. It is seen at home, when the societal
norms control women insisting that, woman must regard her husband as a god/master no matter what kind of
man he is.

2. Different theories of gender and origins of patriarchy

Gender theory is the study of how gender is understood and formed in different contexts. It explores the
social construction of gender, challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes. The term patriarchy
literally means ‘The rule of the father.’ However, in the feminist theology, it describes a broader social
structure in which men as a group dominate women and children.

Different theories of gender:

a. Frederick Engel: According to him, there was a time when there were no class-gender differences
but in the course of the development of private property, the man started taking control of the home.
Woman was degraded and her role was reduced to servitude. She became the slave of his lust and a
mere instrument for the production of children.
b. Claude Levi-Strauss: For her, "exchange of women" - sending a woman to be with another family
and taking in a woman from another family marks the beginning of women's subordination because this
in turn reinforces a sexual division of labour which institutes male dominance.
c. Sherry Oatner: She argues that in all known society women are identified as being closer to nature
than to culture. Since every culture devalues nature, women became symbolic of an inferior being.

3. Analysing the construct of "ideal woman" / man" in the patriarchal culture

In a patriarchal culture, the construct of the “ideal woman or man” is often based on traditional gender roles
and stereotypes. The “ideal woman” in a patriarchal society is often portrayed as nurturing, emotional, and
submissive. She is expected to be a good wife and mother, prioritizing the needs of her family over her own.
Her worth is often tied to her physical appearance and her ability to maintain a household. Any deviation
from these expectations, such as being outspoken or ambitious, can label her as a “bad” woman.
On the other hand, the “ideal man” is expected to be strong, independent, and unemotional. He is seen as the
primary authority figure and the main provider for the family. Men are often discouraged from showing
vulnerability or engaging in activities that are considered feminine.

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UNIT 2: FEMINIST TRADITIONS/MOVEMENTS: A HISTORICAL SURVEY

1. History of Global Feminist Traditions/Movements
History of global feminist tradition/movement is a feminist theology that primarily focuses on women’s
rights on a global scale. It is closely aligned with the post-colonial theory and postcolonial feminism. It is the
story of courage, and transformation.

2. History of Feminist Traditions/Movements in India

The root of the Indian feminist movement goes back to the 19th century male social reformers who took up
issues concerning women and started women’s organization. Women started forming their own organization
from the end of 19th century, first at the local and then at the national level. In the year before independence,
the two main issues they took up were political rights and reform of personal laws.
The history of feminist movement in India can be divide into three phases:
1. First phase (Mid – 19th century): This phase began when the reformists started advocating for
women’s right, focusing on reforms in education and customs involving women.
2. Second phase (1915 – Indian independence): During this phase, Gandhi incorporated women’s
movements into the Quit India movement, and independent women’s organizations began to emerge.
3. Third Phase (Post-Independence): This phase has focused on fair treatment of women at home
after marriage, in the workforce, and their right to political parity.

3. Different Waves of Feminism

The unjust treatment of women on the basis of gender is the fundamental factor which give rise to women’s
movement.
1. The first wave:
The concerns of the first wave of feminism were voting rights, equal pay, equal participation in public, and
equal access to education.
Factors developed the first wave of feminist women were:
a. Feminist consciousness: According to Mary Wollstonecraft, “demanding women’s rights to be
included in the rights of men” historically marked the beginning of feminist consciousness of the
struggle of women’s right.
b. The influence of evangelical Christianity contributed to the rise of feminist movement. There was a
growing participation of women in reform movements such as anti-slavery movement, temperance
movement and other various public campaigns.
c. Socialism: Providing sources of inspiration for feminism

2. The second wave:

The concern of the second wave is to abolished patriarchy because women were claiming that their power
should not be ignore but accepted. When men took part in the war (World War) they left their works both in
institutions, factories, industries, and the Church. So, women took over the role of men in such places left
vacant by men. Therefore, women concerned itself was not only getting certain rights but moved further to
abolished patriarchy. Enrolment of more women in theological studies was the great achievement for women
by this wave.

3. The third wave:

The concern of the third wave is not simply the social, political, and economic equality of women with men
but with the fundamental re-imagination of the whole humanity in relation to the whole of reality, including
non-human creation. The two important aspects that emerged during this period in feminist movement is
feminism of difference and eco-feminism.
Feminism of difference is a view that men and women are different but equally valuable.
Eco-feminism is to draw attention to the connection between women’s struggle in patriarchy and ecological
crisis.

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UNIT 3: FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGY

The term Epistemology is derived from Greek word “episteme” (knowledge) and “logos” (reason).
Therefore, epistemology means the nature, origin, and the scope of knowledge. However, feminist
epistemology (epistemology in feminist perspective) emphasizes the role of gender in shaping our
understanding of knowledge. It argues that social and political values influence our interpretations of
evidence and knowledge practices
1. Women's Experience as the Primary Epistemological Source
Women experiences refers to the realities and roles of women. In feminist epistemology, these experiences
are crucial for building knowledge and challenging power dynamics that often marginalize women’s voices.
According to Judith Plaskow, “Women experience means the experience of women in the course of history
never free from cultural roles and definitions.”
a. Women’s feminist experiences
According to women’s feminist experience, women experience is the experience of liberation itself –
recognising oppression, confronting patriarchal culture and institution, and moving into freedom.

b. Women’s traditional experience including women body’s experience

The second model is the traditional women experience like marriage and motherhood which can provide
clues for transforming patriarchal culture. Women’s experience such as menstruation, pregnancy, etc are part
of women’s traditional experiences.

In brief, women’s various experience of oppression and discrimination throughout history is the basic
source for doing theology from a feminist perspective. This implies a critical analysis of the ways in
which religious beliefs, patriarchal institutions and practices have overtly legitimated oppression. It
also implies analysis of the development of a viable alternative, a non-sexist theology. Hence, women’s
experience represents a radical discontinuity with the patriarchal norms and ideologies that can no
longer continue to be normalized as universal.

2. Developing Tools of Feminist Reading and Interpretation of History

a. Understanding the history
History is often constructed by the powerful, shaping our understanding of the past. It has been used as a tool
of domination, legitimizing those in power and marginalizing others, particularly women and other
powerless groups. This process shapes identities and socialization across generations. However, history is
not objective and can be critiqued. When marginalized groups write their own histories, they can challenge
dominant narratives and bring forth new perspectives on the past.
Here, questioning Women’s Exclusion may be crucial, because ‘not everything that is written is necessarily
right.’ It is necessary to ask whether texts and traditions promulgate women’s dignity and well-being and
fostering women’s participation as equal.

b. Herstory
In traditional history, women’s existence is often overlooked, with their identities defined by the authority
writing the history. The language of “herstory” differs, capturing the voices often lost in official narratives.
Women’s struggles and experiences become a part of this narrative, turning their powerlessness into a force
to reveal new perspectives and birth a new understanding of the world.

c. Reclaiming women’s presence

Reclaiming women’s presence is important to search an alternative history and tradition to support the
inclusion of women as full historical beings. It starts by acknowledging that although women have been
basically written out of history and excluded from texts, without recognition of their acts or deed, women are
indeed participants in the process of culture and society. In the process of recognizing that women are
historical beings, the question of the untold history comes up.

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UNIT 4: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN FEMINIST/WOMANIST THEOLOGIES

1. Feminist/Womanist Critique of Dominant Theologies
Feminist/Womanist Critique of Dominant Theologies is a compelling challenge to traditional church
theology. It is rooted in the experiences and reflection of mostly women but also by some men, who draw its
sources from the pain of exclusion in the story of faith.
There are several ways in which Feminist Critique of Dominant Theologies:
a. Male dominated & oriented western theology
A western theology was developed in a western patriarchal societal structure. Therefore, this theology fails
to find details of women experiences in theological articulation.
Feminist theologian argues that, this theology is imported and transplanted in our context. So, there is no
point credibility to be found in male dominated and oriented western theology because the experiences of
women are not considered.
b. Dualistic approach
According to this approach, it is suggested that women and men are of different nature and that these
different natures determine what is appropriate for each sex. Dualism provides a hierarchical graded system
of subjugation and domination in which the first is superior to the second or values one part over the other.
In this perception, women are reduced to the status of being subordinate, weak, irrational, and mere objects
to be used by men and men on the other hand are identified as strong and rational beings. Thus, alternative
worldview or anthropology is needed in order to reconstruct Christian theology to recover the image of
women into full humanhood.
c. Androcentric Interpretation (Androcentric: Male-centred perspective)
Feminists reject the androcentric male stream interpretation of the Bible. They concentrate on how to read
androcentric texts to remove and uncover biases against women. This is done because androcentric
interpretation of certain biblical passages that have done by male from a male dominated point of view imply
and support women's inferiority and maintain their established socio-cultural norms of women's subordinate
status. Language, sin, salvation, redemption, God, Christ etc have been understood and interpreted within the
dominant framework of androcentrism. Therefore, feminists seek to assess critically the meaning of
androcentric texts and their socio-political functions.
d. Historiography
Historians have distorted, erased, misinterpreted and sometimes even almost completely wiped-out women's
stories and roles from the mainstream of history. Though women and men have been equally involved in the
process of making history, until very recently the interpretation of the meaning of history has been done
exclusively by males. These historians played a significant role in creating the gender paradigms which
determined the way both women and men have understood their relative status and roles within the church.
So, feminist theology searches for alternative traditions which recognize the reality about women
e. Ecclesiology
The most important factor responsible for the exclusion of women from the ecclesial roles is the way in
which the church reflects the rigid patriarchy of its socio-cultural context. A male dominated society is
mirrored in a male dominated church. Feminists critique the present ecclesial reality and anticipate what the
church can mean, can be and must become. Feminist theological task is therefore to overcome the ecclesial
silencing and official marginalization of women. Feminist theology does not seek for the integration of
women into patriarchal ecclesial structures nor does it necessarily advocate for a separatist strategy but it
works for the transformation of structures, Christian symbols, tradition, liturgy, and community by calling
the whole Christian church for conversion.

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f. Indian Christian Theology

Utilizing the Hindu philosophical thought pattern to formulate theology, it interprets and translate the
academic western man-made theology within the framework of Vedic hindu theology. It tries to work within
the advaitic philosophical framework and perpetuated Brahmanic tradition. It is male biased, philosophical,
and abstract theology. It ignores women and other marginalized groups - dalits, tribals and adivasis.

2. Feminist/Womanist Reconstructions of Theology

Reconstruction of theology with feminist is to give rise to new avenues of thought . Therefore, the following
points are the area where feminist wants to reconstruct the theology:
a. Towards a holistic, contextual, and liberating theology
Feminist theologians argues that feminist theology is a holistic theology. They rejected the traditional
dualistic understanding of theology (body/spirit, darkness/light, weak/strong, evil/good) because in
traditional theology women were placed in the inferior position. So, feminist theologians are searching for
other metaphors to understand theology in amore holistic way, keeping the integrity of women as full
humans. In this, feminist theology draws from the non-dualistic tradition and tries to achieve a new mode of
relationship which is neither hierarchical nor equality rather a mutuality.
Feminist theologians further argues that feminist theology is also a contextual and liberating theology
because women have been experiencing oppression in various ways in different societies at various level.
Therefore, liberation from patriarchy and calls for the eradication of this oppression is needed for a woman.
Therefore, it tries to reconstruct traditional theology by insisting that wholeness is attainable only when
hierarchy is overcome.
b. Feminist reconstruction of History
The process of historical reconstruction is not aimed at writing women's history in early Christianity but it is
a feminist reconstruction of Christian beginnings. Reconstruction of early Christian history in a feminist
perspective raises difficult hermeneutical, textual, and historical problems. Since feminism has developed
different theoretical perspectives and models, this reconstruction must also include the formulation of a
feminist heuristic framework or model that allows for the historical agency of women in early Christianity. A
feminist reconstruction of early Christian history has not only a theoretical but also a practical goal: It aims
at both cultural-religious critique and at reconstruction of women's history as women's story with
Christianity.
c. Reconstruction of various doctrine
The process of feminist reconstruction of theology also involves the reconstruction of various doctrines as
these have been traditionally explicated in systematic theology. Feminist theologians seek to revise various
doctrines in ways that take account of women's presence, of women's experience. They also revise these
doctrines so that they will not contribute to the continued oppression of women. The doctrine of God, for
example, is no longer the doctrine of the all-male God. Rather, God is seen in a variety of images, either in
gender-neutral terms or in both female and male terms. Likewise, salvation is seen not simply as a ticket to
heaven or salvation from the bondage of sin but salvation from the daily experiences of oppression and
exploitation.
d. Towards new symbols, images, and myths
Feminist reconstruction of theology gives importance to new symbols, images, and myths because images
and myths provide a worldview and give meaning to our lives. Images and myths do not necessarily uphold
abstract ideals and doctrines but rather offer a vision of the basic structure of reality and present a model or
prototype to be imitated. They encourage forms of behaviour and implicitly embody goals and value
judgements. Feminists are finding new myths and stories to embody their goals and value judgements.

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e. The ekklesia of women and women-Church

Another area which needs to be taken into consideration in the process of reconstruction is the realization of
the ekklesia of women and Women- Church. The goal of the ekklesia of women is explaining women's as
religious self-affirmation, power and liberation from all patriarchal alienation, marginalization, and
oppression. Therefore, they need to build alternative worship communities where they can use the texts and
symbols and stories that speak to them.

3. Feminist/Womanist Re-imaginations of Sources

The concept of feminist re-imagination of sources is to suggest a critical reassessment and creative
rethinking of fundamental texts, narratives, and social doctrines.
a. Women’s experiences as source for theology
Women feminist experience gives us the key to the use of women's experience because it is women's
feminist experience which cause to begin as a source for theology. Women began to realize that they
themselves needed to articulate their experiences rather than accept a male definition of what it should be.
(You can compose, it is easy )
b. The bible as the source of doing feminist theology
Feminist theologians identify the Bible as the site of many different voices rather than a source of objective
information. The focus in a feminist reading of the Scripture is therefore not merely on the content of
Scripture as authoritative and normative for the Christian community; it is focused primarily on the
interactive process of reading, a process that creates meaning for those who participate in the Christian
community as the people they are. It is also important to consider another factor in the interactive process of
reading. There are two contexts to be taken into account: the first is the context of the text itself; the other is
the context of the reading and interpreting.

4. Feminist/Womanist Re-imaginations of Theological Authority

It emphasizes the importance of women’s voices in shaping religious thought and practice, advocating for
leadership roles and decision-making power for women within religious institutions. By doing so, it aims to
transform theological authority to be more representative of all believers’ experiences, particularly those
historically marginalized. (Write whatever it comes in your mind during exam )

5. Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Reconstruction of Feminist Theology

The Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi reconstruction of feminist theology is an approach that seeks to understand the
experiences of Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi women within the context of feminist theology. It addresses the multiple
layers of oppression faced by these women due to caste, tribe, gender, and economic status. This
reconstruction aims to challenge and transform the patriarchal and hierarchical structure within religious
institutions and theological framework for a theology that is liberative, inclusive, and reflective of the
diverse realities of all women.

UNIT 5: FEMINIST HERMENEUTICS AND FEMINIST LANGUAGE

1. Texts of Terror" Hermeneutics of Suspicion
The “Texts of Terror” refers to biblical narratives that recount acts of violence, often against women, which
can be deeply troubling to readers.
The “Hermeneutics of Suspicion” is a critical approach that encourages readers to look beyond the surface
meanings of texts to uncover underlying power dynamics and ideologies. It involves questioning traditional
interpretations and considering how texts may perpetuate systems of oppression. This approach is
particularly relevant to the “Texts of Terror,” as it allows for a deeper engagement with the text that
acknowledges and wrestles with its complexities and challenges.
According to Phyllis Trible, hermeneutics engages in three approaches
a. First, documents the case against women.
b. Second, approach discerns within the Bible critiques of patriarchy.
c. Third approach incorporates the other two.
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According to Fiorenza, hermeneutics of suspicions can be applied in the following situations:

1. To grammatically masculine kyriocentric texts to unravel (loosen/disentangle) their ideological
functions.
2. To kyriocentric stories to express the aim of the narrative and ask how women are represented in those
stories
3. To contemporary commentaries and interpretations of the text as well as its history of interpretation.
4. To our own assumption, pre-understanding, prejudices, and value system.

2. Hermeneutics of Retrieval
The “Hermeneutics of Retrieval” is an interpretative approach that attempts to find out/to discern critiques of
patriarchy from within.
1. It searches and brings the forgotten, nameless, neglected stories of women, so that their stories may
come alive today and their contributions and struggles in the community be made known.
2. Hermeneutics of retrieval seeks to displace the kyriocentric dynamic of the biblical text in its literary
and historical contexts by re-contextualizing the text in a socio-political-religious historical method of
reconstruction that aims at making the subordinated and marginalized "Others" visible and their
repressed arguments and silences "audible" again.
3. It attempts to recover women's history and the memory of their victimization, struggle, and
accomplishments as women's heritage.
3.1. First, we must assume that women were present and active in history until proven otherwise. Hence,
we have to read kyriocentric texts in an inclusive fashion unless it is explicitly stated that women
were not present.
3.2. Second, the texts and injunctions that seek to limit women's behaviour/participation must be read as
prescriptive rather than descriptive of reality.
3.3. Finally, texts and information must be contextualized in their cultural and religious environments
and reconstructed not only in terms of the dominant ethos but also in terms of alternative social
movements for change.

3. Re-reading Bible with new eyes + Inclusive Language to Develop Non-Gender

Bias Language
"New Eyes" means looking at things differently, especially in the context of challenging old ways of
thinking influenced by patriarchy. It involves recognizing unfair treatment based on gender, caste, race, and
sex. The idea is to embrace feminism, despite negative stereotypes, and understand that it exposes deep-
seated power imbalances.
The Bible is written by males from a male dominated society, it is marked by male languages, imagery,
and symbols. Usually, it is again interpreted by male for the articulation of theology. It is used as a tool
for the oppression of women as it reinforces patriarchal ideology. Feminist theologians have challenged
the traditional biblical hermeneutics from feminist perspective especially by Elisabeth Schussler
Fiorenza

Inclusive language in feminist biblical reading aims to develop non-gender-biased interpretations that
reflect a more egalitarian view of the divine and humanity. It involves using gender-neutral terms and
avoiding language that reinforces traditional gender roles, thereby creating a more inclusive and affirming
religious experience. This approach is part of a broader feminist theological movement that seeks to
reinterpret sacred texts in ways that empower all individuals, regardless of gender.

Feminist theologians’ critique traditional masculine language in theology, leading to alternative expressions
like “God/dess” or “Sophia” to avoid patriarchal connotations. Some Bible translations now use gender-
neutral language to reflect modern English and feminist influence, affecting contemporary theological
discourse and practice.

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UNIT 6: FEMINIST SUBJECTIVITIES, BODIES, SELVES AND SEXUALITY

Feminist subjectivities, bodies, selves, and sexuality are central themes in feminist theory, which examines
how gendered identities are socially constructed and experienced. Feminist approaches critique traditional
views of the body and advocate for a more inclusive understanding of sexuality that respects diverse
experiences and expressions. These discussions often involve challenging societal norms and power
structures that have historically marginalized certain groups, aiming to empower individuals to define their
own identities and sexualities.
1. Body in Feminist Theological Discourse
In feminist theology, the body is seen as a source of knowledge and experience. It is often celebrated and
used as a tool for understanding and expressing religious and spiritual experiences. The body is also
considered in relation to issues of gender, race, and class, recognizing that different bodies experience
different kinds of marginalization and discrimination.
The discourse includes the work of second-wave theologians like Carter Heyward and Beverly Harrison,
who have contributed significantly to body theologies. It also considers postmodern feminist challenges to
the reified and essentialized body, examining what is called the subversive body in third-wave or postmodern
feminism.
Moreover, feminist theology also reflects upon Christian bodily practices, considering what it means to
become a specifically Christian body through church practices. It critically engages with concerns raised by
feminism about the subjugation of women’s bodies in the church, considering the resources that might be
available within the tradition itself for critical and emancipatory practices.

2. Understanding the Nature and Purpose of Human Sexuality

“Human sexuality” refers to people’s sexual interest and attraction to others; it is the capacity to have
sexual feelings and experiences.
Sexuality differs from biological sex, in that “sexuality” refers to the capacity for sexual feelings and
attraction, while “biological sex” refers to how one’s anatomy, physiology, hormones, and genetics are
classified (typically as male, female, or intersex).
Sexuality is also separate from gender identity, which is a person’s sense of their own gender, or
sociocultural classification (i.e., man, woman, or another gender) based on biological sex (i.e., male or
female). It is also distinct from—although it shapes—sexual orientation, or one’s emotional and sexual
attraction to a particular sex or gender.
Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires,
beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviour, practices, roles, and relationships. These manifests themselves not only
in biological, physical, and emotional ways, but also in sociocultural ways, which have to do with the effects
of human society and culture on one’s sexuality. Some researchers believe that sexual behaviour is
determined by genetics; however, others assert that it is largely moulded by the environment. Human
sexuality impacts, and is impacted by, cultural, political, legal, and philosophical aspects of life, and can
interact with issues of morality, ethics, theology, spirituality, or religion.

3. Celebrating Human Sexuality

Sexuality is a divine gift, integral to our humanity and a path to knowing God. It is important to value our
bodies and all aspects of our sexuality. Love and sexuality are intertwined, with femininity and masculinity
as complementary aspects of our capacity for love. This capacity is embodied in our physical selves. Every
form of love carries this masculine and feminine character.
Human sexuality is a part of God’s creation, seen as “very good.” It is a way of relating to others, with love
as its core purpose. In marriage, this love becomes a self-giving that enriches individuals and contributes to a
civilization of love. However, when the sense of gift is absent in sexuality, it can lead to a civilization where
people are objectified.

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UNIT 7: FEMINIST RE-IMAGINATIONS OF DOCTRINES AND TRADITION

Feminist re-imaginations of doctrines and traditions involve a critical examination and interpretation of
established beliefs and practices from a feminist perspective. This process often involves challenging
androcentric biases, dualisms, and binaries that have characterised the development of knowledge.

1. Metaphorical Theology and Radical Re-imagination of God

Judith Plaskow and Elizabeth Johnson discuss the male representation of God in Jewish and Christian
traditions. They argue that this is not just a reflection of a male-dominated society, but it also shapes
religious understanding and behaviour. God is often referred to with male terms and metaphors, which are
used exclusively and literally. This male language for God emerges from and supports a system where men
are seen as the norm and women as the ‘Other.’ It validates a hierarchically structured community. The male
image of God also continues to legitimize male authority. This is so ingrained that it is often taken for
granted and even exempted from philosophical critique. They suggest that this does not mean men cannot
serve as references to God, but the issue lies in the exclusive and patriarchal use of these terms.
Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza and Mary Daly discuss the patriarchal language of the Bible and its
implications. Fiorenza suggests that if we view oppressive patriarchal texts as the Word of God, we portray
God as oppressive and dehumanizing. She calls for a new naming of God and the church, transforming the
metaphor of Scripture from an unchanging “tablet of stone” to nurturing “bread.” Daly argues that if God is
seen as a male ruler, it justifies male-dominated societies. They both emphasize the importance of using
female metaphors and non-patriarchal language for God to reverse biased doctrines and value women’s
experiences.

2. Feminist Theological Engagement with Mary

Feminist theological engagement with Mary, the mother of Jesus in involves reevaluating traditional
interpretations of Mary within the Christian tradition and exploring how these interpretations have been
influenced by patriarchal structures.

Roman Catholic Mariology studies not only the life of Mary but also the veneration of her in daily life,
prayer, hymns, art, music, and architecture in modern and ancient Christianity throughout the ages. In the
Catholic perspectives, Mary has a precise place in the plan of salvation and a special place within tradition
and devotion.

Four dogmas are said to form traditional Mariology:

1. Perpetual virginity: Mary was believed as ever-virgin for the whole of her life, making Jesus her only
biological son, whose conception and birth are held to be miraculous.
2. Mother of God: Mary is seen as the humble handmaiden of God who, because of her submissive
obedience and her unquestioning acceptance of the will of God became the mother of God.
3. Immaculate Conception: According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the Immaculate
Conception was the conception of the Virgin Mary in the womb of her mother. Mary was conceived by
normal biological means but God acted upon her soul, keeping her immaculate at the time of her
conception.
4. Assumption: Having completed the course of her earthly life, Mary was assumed into heavenly glory.
The development of Mariology is ongoing and since the beginnings it has continued to be shaped by
theological analysis. In parallel to the traditional views, since the late 19th century, a number of other
perspectives have been presented as a challenge to Roman Catholic Mariology. One of these is feminist
criticisms that consider the image of Mary a construct of the patriarchal mindset which limits equal
opportunity for women.

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Feminist critique of Mariology highlights difficulties women faces due to Mary’s portrayal as an ideal
woman, which is often used to define women’s roles and sexuality. This patriarchal interpretation glorifies
motherhood and views women’s sexuality as mainly procreative. It also depersonalizes women in
gynaecological practices. The idealized feminine image of Mary hinders self-affirmation for real women.

Liberation Mariology, on the other hand, views Mary’s divine favour to bear the messianic child as a
symbol of revolutionary transformation against social injustice. It contrasts Mary’s situation with Hannah’s,
who is redeemed from the shame of barrenness. Unlike Hannah, Mary’s pregnancy does not conform to
societal norms, putting her at risk of being labelled a “loose woman.” This highlights the struggle of women
making choices about their bodies and sexuality.

Feminist theology seeks to understand Mary for herself, moving beyond traditional symbols like the ideal
woman or mother. It criticizes the use of androcentric texts and relational language that perpetuates women’s
passive roles. Feminists aim to reclaim female language and images of God, and interpret Mary in a way that
doesn’t depersonalize her or fit her into a dualistic body/soul/spirit split. They seek to redefine motherhood,
not as a sole definition of femaleness or female sexuality, but as a symbol of creativity and nurturing. Mary
is seen as a call to mutual redemption and self-affirmation, giving voice to those who cannot articulate their
own protest and hope.

3. "In Memory of Her": Re-imagining Tradition

Feminist theologians, like Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza and Rosemary Radford Ruether, aim to reconstruct
Christian history as women’s history. They argue that the woman who anointed Jesus in the Gospels was a
prophetic figure who recognized Jesus as the Messiah. This interpretation challenges traditional readings and
seeks to reclaim women’s stories in Christian history. Feminist theologians engage in dialogue with the
Christian tradition, critiquing patriarchal distortions and advocating for a theology that values women’s
experiences and full humanity. They seek usable texts within and beyond Christian tradition for a more
holistic theology. (Jihsao angaihih’e )

UNIT 8: FEMINIST CHRISTOLOGY

Feminist Christology is a branch of theology that examines the nature and role of Jesus Christ from a
feminist perspective. It addresses issues such as the male representation of Christ and its implication for
women’s roles and self-perception. Therefore, Feminist Christology is a critical re-evaluation of traditional
interpretations of Christ, aiming to reclaim women’s stories and experiences in Christian history and
theology.

Feminist theologians argue that traditional Christological interpretations have been shaped by patriarchal
structures, leading to the exclusion and subordination of women. They contend that the historical Jesus being
male has been used to justify male supremacy and limit women’s leadership within the church.

Feminist Christology seeks to redefine these interpretations, focusing on the full humanity of women and
their experiences. It aims to uncover the complexities of traditional rhetoric surrounding women and
challenge the patriarchal mindset.

Some feminist theologians, like Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza and Rosemary Radford Ruether, argue for a
new reading of Christian theology that uses women’s experiences as the criterion by which theology is
judged. They strive to find ‘usable texts’ within and beyond the Christian tradition for a more holistic
theology.

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1. Can a Male Savior Save Women?

From a feminist perspective, the question of whether a male saviour can save women is complex. Critics
argue that the masculinity of Christ’s human nature could render him unable to save women as well as men.
Theologian Rosemary Radford Ruether posed the question, "Can a male saviour redeem and save
wo/men?", highlighting the gendered nature of Christian faith and humanity.

Feminist theologians argue that the male saviour concept supports a patriarchal system that privileges the
masculine. They suggest that the gender issue changes Christian reflection and discourse in a
groundbreaking way. Some feminist theologians advocate for a new reading of Christian theology, using
women’s experiences and the full humanity of women as the criterion by which theology is judged.

However, some scholars have developed models of the Incarnation that avoid such criticisms, drawing on
feminist metaphysics and analytic Christology. They argue that the gender of Jesus/Christ should not limit
his ability to relate to and save all of humanity. So, while the question is complex, it has sparked important
discussions and developments in feminist theology.

2. Understanding Jesus Movement and the "Discipleship of Equals" in the Bible

What is Movement/Jesus Movement? Movement is an act of moving. Without action there cannot be
movement and without movement there cannot be change. A movement is never a well-organized or
systematic institutions or organizations.
The Jesus movement was not the institution of Jesus. Acts 17:6 somewhat describes the nature of Jesus
movement: "When they could not find them, they dragged Jason and some believers before the city
authorities shouting these people who have been turning the world upside down have, I come here also..."
When a movement is turned into a collective mobilization, the opposers could not tolerate because it is so
powerful that it becomes a threat for those who are against a movement. The Jesus movement was a renewal
movement within Judaism; it should be understood as a renewal movement because there was not an attempt
to create a separate historical institution rather Jesus and the earliest disciples saw themselves as a renewal
movement within Judaism.

“Discipleship of Equals” is a term coined by Fiorenza for a church where women do not feel alienated. It is
not about imitating Jesus, but sharing his vision and practice. In this discipleship, everyone’s voice is heard
and respected equally. Leadership arises from community needs. Jesus demonstrated this by treating
everyone with respect and dignity. The Jesus movement sees his ministry as a prophetic announcement that
God is for the poor and oppressed. Women were the first non-Jews in the movement and crucial for its
continuation after Jesus’ arrest and execution. They stayed in Jerusalem for his burial and were the first to
express their experience of God’s power in raising Jesus from the dead.

The early Christian confession of Jesus’ resurrection was first revealed to the Galilean women disciples,
according to Mark 16:1-6, 8. These women, who stayed in Jerusalem after Jesus’ arrest, believed that God
had vindicated Jesus and were empowered to continue his work. The Jesus movement disrupted patriarchal
family structures. Jesus’ saying in Mark 3:35 includes brothers, sisters, and mothers in his “true family,” but
notably excludes fathers. This new family is not based on blood ties, but on doing God’s work. In this new
familial community, all members are equal, challenging the patriarchal norms of ancient Jewish society.

3. Jesus Christ- the Theological Basis and Principle for Gender Justice
Jesus Christ’s teachings form a theological basis for gender justice. The Bible teaches that Jesus Christ came
to redeem women as well as men. Through faith in Christ, all become children of God, one in Christ, and
heirs to the blessings of salvation without reference to racial, social, or gender distinctives.

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The concept of gender justice is rooted in the Biblical vision that women and men are created in the image of
God. It advances the biblical notion that boys and girls and men and women are created by God, redeemed
by Christ, and gifted by the Holy Spirit without partiality.

Feminist theologians argue that the male saviour concept supports a patriarchal system that privileges the
masculine. They suggest that the gender issue changes Christian reflection and discourse in a
groundbreaking way. Some feminist theologians advocate for a new reading of Christian theology, using
women’s experiences and the full humanity of women as the criterion by which theology is judged.

Therefore, the teachings of Jesus Christ provide a theological basis for gender justice, advocating for
equality and respect for all, regardless of gender.

UNIT 9: FEMINIST PNEUMATOLOGY

Feminist Pneumatology is a critical re-evaluation of traditional understandings of the Holy Spirit, aiming to
reclaim the Holy Spirit as a source of empowerment and transformation for all believers, regardless of their
gender. Feminist Pneumatology also explores the role of Holy Spirit in liberating women from the
oppressive structures, both within the church ad in the society at large. It seeks to reclaim the Holy Spirit as a
source of empowerment and transformation for women.

1. Understanding the Nature and Work of Holy Spirit

Feminist theologians, like Elizabeth A. Johnson, have explored the nature and work of the Holy Spirit. They
emphasize the Spirit’s presence in all creation, personal and interpersonal relations, and social structures.
a. The Spirit – Immanent and Present in nature
The presence of the Spirit in nature is important for two reasons. First it alerts us to the creative agency of
the Spirit (Gen 1:1-2; Wisdom 7:22, 8:1), allowing us to understand the revelatory capacity of nature (Rom
1:20 "...ever since the creation of the world has eternal power and divine nature..."), then we have identified
one important way of redeeming environmental abuse.
Acceptance of a theological position that emphasizes the immanence of the Spirit in all creation challenges
us, humankind to have a holistic worldview, grounded in belief in the presence of the Spirit in creation.
b. The Spirit – Present in Personal and Interpersonal Relations
A revelation of the Spirit occurs in the love of human persons for each other.' The wish to reach out to
another in love is an experience of transcendence that can alert us to the experience of the source of all love.
To experience the love of another is life-giving for both the giver and the recipient.
c. The Spirit – Present and Experienced in Social Structure
The Spirit is experienced as present when structures serve human love through the birthing and nurturing of
systems which ensure justice for all, particularly for those marginalized by political and economic elites.
The absence of God's Spirit is on the other hand experienced when social structures are dehumanizing, when
difference becomes a reason for discrimination, not for celebration.
A Feminist Pneumatology invites us to understand and appreciate the Spirit of God dwelling among us,
immanent in all creation, awakening us to reach out for kinship with all that is marginalized and thereby
welcoming the other into the dance of life.
This happens because the Spirit is the source of relationality - a relationality which is intrinsic to her very
being as love, gift, and friend both to the world and within the mystery of God.
The emphasis on understanding the Spirit as the principal relationality requires humankind to come to grips
with the oppression of women, the reality of the poor and with environmental degradation, for the presence
of the Spirit urges humankind to let justice roll down like waters on the whole earth.

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2. Personification of Holy Spirit

The personification of the Holy Spirit is a topic of theological debate. Personification, as a figure of speech,
ascribes personal action or characteristics to a nonpersonal thing and is prevalent in the Bible. Some argue
that the Holy Spirit is a personification of God’s power or influence.

However, many theologians assert that the Holy Spirit is a distinct person, not merely a personification. They
point to the use of masculine pronouns in Greek grammar to refer to the Holy Spirit, instead of neuter
pronouns used for objects. For instance, in John 16:13-14, Christ refers to the Holy Spirit as “he,” not "it."

Feminist theologians like Elizabeth A. Johnson suggest that understanding God’s presence in the world is
often through our first experience of the Spirit. They emphasize the Spirit’s immanence in all creation and its
role in relationality.

In conclusion, while some view the Holy Spirit as a personification, others see it as a distinct person. The
interpretation varies based on different theological perspectives.

3. Feminine Images and Metaphors of Holy Spirit-Sophia

Feminist theologians like Rosemary Radford Ruether and Elizabeth A. Johnson have critiqued traditional
views of the Holy Spirit as the feminine aspect of God. Ruether argues that a trinity of two males and one
female is still male-dominant, and suggests using both female and male metaphors for God. Johnson
criticizes the androcentric framework of the trinity and emphasizes the importance of Sophia, a female
personification of God’s being, in feminist theology. Sophia, associated with creativity, transformation, and
fertility, offers a way to speak of God’s mystery in female terms.
Scholars like Dennis Edwards and Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza have different interpretations of Paul’s
reference to wisdom. Edwards suggests Paul is identifying Jesus with Wisdom, using language rich in
Wisdom literature context. Fiorenza, on the other hand, argues that early Christian theology within Judaism
is Sophiology, where Jesus and the Spirit are identifiable with the divine Sophia. She emphasizes the
theological significance of Jesus as a messenger of Sophia, asserting his unique particularity without
resorting to exclusivity or superiority. This Sophia-Christology, valuing life, creativity, and well-being, has
been attractive to feminists and those engaged in Christological reflection.

4. Reclaiming Women's Spirituality

Traditional spirituality focused on prayer, asceticism, and self-denial. Today, spirituality extends beyond
organized religions to include movements like gender, ecological, and justice spirituality. Feminists are
reinterpreting women’s spirituality, which was traditionally seen as passive and individualistic. Spirituality is
diverse, manifesting differently in each person based on their experiences, context, and personal journey. It
can be congregational, charismatic, evangelical, ecumenical, liberation, tribal, or feminist. This plurality of
spirituality reflects the diversity of our experiences, including our daily and gender experiences.

a. Feminist spirituality
Feminist spirituality, a form of liberation spirituality, seeks a new spiritual path for women beyond
traditional expectations of passivity and submissiveness. Defined by the Asian Women’s Conference as faith
based on convictions that influence our thoughts and behaviours, it embodies a person’s faith through daily
experiences. It awakens women to their historical realities and challenges patriarchal structures. This new
spirituality encourages creativity and flexibility, empowering women to strive for societal well-being, social
justice, human rights, and peace.

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b. A Feminist Spirituality of Struggle

Feminist spirituality of struggle, articulated by Anna Julia Cooper over a century ago, emphasizes the need
for holistic vision and justice. Cooper metaphorically described the world as a one-eyed man, whose vision
is completed when the bandage is removed from the other eye. This feminist spirituality is not just about
individual well-being, but also about justice and well-being for all, especially those at the bottom of the
pyramid of exploitation and oppression. It upholds the infinite dignity of every human being as God’s image
and respects the integrity of our earth as God’s creation.

c. Spirituality of Hope
Feminist spirituality of hope is rooted in past and present feminist struggles to change dominating structures
and envision a radical democratic society. It seeks justice, well-being, and an emancipatory imagination that
sustains hope. Asian feminist theologians critique a disembodied spirituality focused on personal prayer and
heavenly rewards. Instead, they advocate for a life-affirming, eco-conscious, communal spirituality that
empowers women. This spirituality celebrates life, nurtures justice, and challenges patriarchal narratives. It’s
grounded in communal struggles against oppression and injustice, and is shaped by women’s experiences of
societal subordination and their efforts to articulate an alternative vision of communal survival. This enables
women to experience the transformative power of the Spirit in new ways.

d. Eco – Feminist Spirituality

An eco-feminist spirituality challenges insatiable consumerism and the obsessive gratification of material
needs.
The massive media has popularized the idea that possession of material goods is essential to a good life, and
the global economy has promoted a homogenous consumption pattern modelled after the west.

Asian feminist theologians call for a radical shift in a developmental pattern; they urge others to cultivate a
reconnection with a more wholistic, healthy, simple life style that saves wastes and respects the integrity of
the earth. (Kwok-PuiLan)

Feminist spirituality represents a major development in modern theological thought. It reflects a totally new
paradigm of theologizing that transcends an individualist, interior experience of faith, and seeks to transform
society.

UNIT 10: "CHURCH IN THE ROUND": FEMINIST ECCLESIOLOGY

“Feminist Ecclesiology” or “Church in the Round” is a concept that explores the role and experiences of
women within the church. It seeks to rebuild the church as a meaningful, open sacramental space where
everybody’s presence is celebrated.
Feminist ecclesiology’s often begin from a situation of invisibility and discrimination, while arguing for the
historic and contemporary legitimacy of women’s full participation alongside men. They draw on biblical
and historical evidence to refute patterns of hierarchy and exclusion in favour of more egalitarian traditions
of the church as a community of equals.
Feminist theologians like Natalie Watson have explored women’s experiences of being church and
reclaiming the church. They emphasize the Spirit’s presence in all creation, personal and interpersonal
relations, and social structures.

1. Feminist Critique of the Kyriarchal Church

Feminist critique of the Kyriarchal Church is a significant aspect of feminist theology. The term “Kyriarchy,”
coined within theological feminism, determines power structures based on a pyramidal hierarchical system
of oppression and privilege. It goes beyond a focus on patriarchy and adds to the well-known
Intersectionality theory.

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Feminist critiques and reconstructions have drawn on biblical and historical evidence in order to refute
patterns of hierarchy and exclusion in favour of more egalitarian traditions of the church as a community of
equals. These critiques aim to change Kyriarchal structures of domination by articulating new sites of
struggle, developing more sophisticated categories for analysing structures of domination, and fashioning
new visions of a radical democratic society and religion.
Feminist theologians like Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza and Rosemary Radford Ruether have been
instrumental in this critique. They argue that the church has often been a place where women’s voices and
experiences are marginalized or silenced, and they call for a reimagining of the church as a place of equality
and inclusivity.
The feminist critique of the Kyriarchal Church seeks to dismantle patriarchal power structures within the
church and replace them with more egalitarian and inclusive models.

2. "Church in the Round": Church as a community of disciples and equals

"Church in the round" is used by a feminist theologian Letty M. Russell as a metaphor to speak about a
vision of Christian community of faith and struggle that practices God's hospitality.
To speak of "Church in the round" is to provide a metaphorical description of a church struggling to become
a household of freedom, a community where walls have been broken down so that God's welcome to those
who hunger and thirst for justice is made clear.
Church in the round describes a community of faith and struggle working to anticipate God's New Creation
by becoming partners to those who are at the margins of church and society.
Letty Russell in her book Church in the Round: Feminist Interpretation of the Church uses a table metaphor
to speak of people gathered around the table and in the world in order to connect faith and life in
action/reflection, work for justice in solidarity with those at the margins of society and to welcome everyone
as partners in God's household.

3. Feminist Perspectives on Ministry and Mission

The feminist perspective in mission and ministry is an approach that seeks to understand and address the
unique challenges and contributions of women within the context of religious practice and theological
education. It emphasizes the importance of women’s voices and experiences in shaping mission strategies
and ministry practices. By incorporating a feminist lens, mission and ministry can become more inclusive,
responsive, and transformative, aligning with the values of equality and justice central to many faith
traditions.
From the feminist point of view, God created male and female as equal partners from the very beginning for
His mission into the world and both were given responsibility to work in mutually submissive roles of
service without a need for hierarchy for the cause of the gospel. An acknowledgement that there is now
neither male nor female in Christ is paramount to the future status and role of women in mission. From the
Feminist perspectives, the word ‘mission’ involves change. Change not from one religion to another
necessarily, but a change in one’s worldviews, values, goals, and life-style to be more human. The word
mission involves justice. It means the readiness to see in the face of the other, the face of God, to help that
image of God in the other bloom to its capacity, to uphold the voices of justice though they may be drowned
in the chaos of injustice, bloodshed, and violence. Mission and ministry to God involves being sensitive to
listen to the cry of God in our midst. The content of the gospel of mission can only be lived, it cannot be
empty words and phrases. According to feminist, the image of God and the understanding of God are to be
informed on the basis of their faith in Jesus Christ as one who came to give life in abundance to all, the
power of resurrection and hope, the promise of the Spirit to empower in their struggles. This creates a
possibility of new theology, a new task for mission and ministry for today.

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