12/03/2020

Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Introduction
Measurement Fundamentals (1)

Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements (ETM)

Teacher: Assoc. Professor Rodica Holonec

Department: Electrotechnics and Measurements
E-mail: [email protected]
Study Program :
– Applied Electronics
– Telecommunications Technologies and Systems

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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements (ETM)
• Teaching and learning methods:
– Lectures: 2 hours/week (room P01)
– Seminars:1 hour/week (room D12, 368)
– Laboratory: 1 hour/week (room H01, D206)
• Assessment
– 10% Laboratory
– 10% Homework
– 20% Mid Exam (only applications)
– 60% Final Exam
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Textbooks and Bibliography

Electronic and Telecommunications Measurements (ETM)

• Holonec Rodica: Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation, Mediamira, 2003

• Tarnovan Ioan: Metrologie electrica si instrumentatie, Mediamira, 2003
• Todoran Gh., Copandean R. : Masurari electronice-Amplificatore si convertoare
de masurare, Mediamira, 2003
• Antoniu M., Masurari electronice vol I, II, III , Satya, 1999
• Rodica Holonec, B. Tebrean, I.G. Tarnovan, Gh. Todoran, Electronic
Measurements: Laboratory Manual, U.T. PRESS, Cluj-Napoca 2010
• Robert A. Witte-Spectrum and Network Measurements-SciTech Publishing, 2014

• Your group e-mail address !!!!

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• “…. when you can measure what you are

speaking about, and express it in numbers,
you know something about it;…..”
• Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), Institute of Civil
Engineers, London, 3rd May 1883.

1 hand= 4 inches=10 cm

Measurement Fundamentals

The measurement:
•the process of acquiring information from the physical word.
•a procedure by which the value of physical quantity is determinate through an experiment by comparing it
with another quantity of the same kind chosen as a measurement unit.

The measurement process involves 3 fundamental elements:

•The unknown quantity (measurand)
•The measurement unit (measure)
•The measuring instrument (used for measuring the physical or electrical quantity)

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Measurement units
There are 7 base units, and derived units (all
The International System of Units (SI) units which can be expressed in terms of
fundamental units),

•Was adopted by the General

Conference of Weights and Measures -
CGPM- Conférence Générale des
Poids et Mesures..
•Is described in the next standards:
• ISO 1000: “SI units and
recommendations for the use of
their multiples and of certain
other units”
•ISO 31: “Quantities and units”
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ISO- International Organisation for Standardization

Standard Definition
Physical quantity Symbol
unit (It is important to distinguish between the definition of a unit and its realization)
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. (1983)
Length (l) meter m The original international prototype of the meter (platinum-iridium), is still kept at the
BIPM under conditions specified in 1889.
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram. (OLD)
Mass (m) kilogram kg This international prototype is made of platinum-iridium and is kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM ), Sèvres, Paris, France;

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding
Time (t) second s to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium
133 atom.

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter
Electric current (I) ampere A apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7
newton per meter of length . (OLD)

Thermodynamic The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
Kelvin K thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. (OLD)
temperature (T)

The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary
Amount of substance (n) mol mol entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12. (OLD)

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
Luminous intensity (Iv) candela cd monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian

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16 November 2018, Paris, France: redefinition

the International System of Units (SI),
Representatives from 60 countries voted to changing the world's definition of the seven fundamental units:
Definitions
Based on fundamental from May 2019
physical constants

Kilogram.

OLD-International Prototype Kilogram NEW-Kibble balance.

Standard prefixes for the SI measurements units

Measurement units of some electrical parameters

Quantity Symbol Unit Abbreviation Base-Unit Measurement
Unit Description
Electric charge q coulomb C

voltage V (or E) volt V

resistance R ohm Ω

power P watt W

capacitance C farad F

inductance L henry H

frequency f hertz Hz

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Rules and Style Conventions for Printing and Using Units → Guide for the Use SI

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Measurement standards
• Metrology: the science of measurement. To get “good” numerical data means to make
accurate measurements using calibrated instruments.
• All instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacture against a measurement
standard.
• Measurement standard is the physical support capable to generate, preserve and transmit
the measurement unit. (material standards or phenomenon).
• The instrument must be calibrated using traceable standards.
• Traceability: the chain of calibrations (checking)
• The most accurate standards used only for calibration of other standards are called etalons
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS (Definition of unit)

PRIMARY STANDARDS (National standards)

TRANSFER STANDARDS (Regional standards) Increasing

accuracy

WORKING STANDARDS (Laboratory standards)

ELEMENT TO BE CALIBRATED (End users)

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Standards of electrical quantities- examples

Can be referred to the physical phenomena and laws or to the materials

KK=25812.807 Ω Klitzing constant

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p2BxAu6WZI8

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Measuring Instruments
Classification
• Based on the output variation
• Analog: the output varies continuously as quantity being
measured, having infinite values in a given range (deflecting
instruments- they use pointers or dials)
• Digital: The output varies in discrete steps , having finite values in
a given range (DMM-Digital Multimeter)

Analog instrument Digital instrument

The accuracy of analog instrument is less. The accuracy of digital instrument is more.
The analog instruments required more power. The digital instruments required less power.
Sensitivity of analog instrument is more. Sensitivity of digital instrument is less.
The analog instruments are cheap. The digital instruments are expensive.
The analog instruments are extremely portable. The digital instruments are not easily portable.
The resolution of analog instruments is less. The resolution of digital instruments is more.
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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Introduction
Measurement Fundamentals (2)

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Analog Instruments Classification

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Signal Measurement Instruments

Signal Measurement Instrument
• Power (level) • Power meter
• Frequency • Frequency counter
• Spectrum • Spectrum analyzer
• Transmission/Refection • Network analyzer
characteristics
• Time characteristics • Oscilloscope
• Modulation characteristics • Modulation analyzer

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Example 1-Analog DC Ammeter

Current Force Pointer and

Mechanical
Moving coil Magnet Observer
linkages scale

• Analog Instrument
• DC instrument: Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type
• Direct method measurement
• Indicating (deflecting) instrument
• Electromechanical type
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Example 2: AC clamp meter

current transformer (CT)

• Digital instrument
• AC instrument: Current Transformer principle
• Direct method instrument
• Indicating instrument
• Electronic type (conditioning circuits, analog to digital converter, digital display)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Afv6jAf411w 18

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Example 3: Wheastone Bridge

• Analog Instrument
• DC instrument
• Comparison (Null type) method measurement:
– a null indication leads to the determination of magnitude of the unknown quantity
– high accuracy for small input values
• Indicating instrument
• Electromechanical (Built in galvanometer)
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Example 4: Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

• Digital Instrument:
• It uses an analog to digital converter (ADC)
• It includes a microprocessor that processes the measured signal, coordinates
display activities, manages the front panel controls, and more.

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Example 5: Spectrum Analyzer

• A device used to examine the spectral composition
of some electrical, acoustic, or optical waveform.
• Measurement of power spectrum (modulation,
noise, distortion)
• For testing electronic equipment that uses radio
frequency (RF) signals. (in designing or repairing)

Analog spectrum analyzer Digital spectrum analyzer

Computes the Fast Fourier transform (FFT)

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Instrumentation systems
• Instrumentation system: is s collection of instruments used to measure,
monitor and control a process .

The structure o a typical instrumentation system

True value Measured value

Input:x Output: y
Physical Instrumentation Transmission
process system and display

Measurand Sensor, signal conditioning , signal processing Process Monitoring and

Control

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Instrumentation for automatic process control

error signal
Process variable

Set point
(reference value)

Automatic control loop

Thermocouple

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Sensors, Actuators, Transducers

Sensor:
• a device that receives a stimulus (measurand) and responds with an electrical signal

Actuator:
• A device that actuates or moves something
• The opposite of a sensor: it converts electrical signal into generally nonelectrical energy.
• An electric motor is an actuator;

Transducer:
• Any device which converts one form of energy into another
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• Actuators and sensors are forms of transducers

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Measurement Terminology
Unit
Measurand
Standard

True value x0 Calibration

(unknown, unknowable) •Range
•Sensitivity
Instrument •Linearity
(specifications)
The quality of the measurement •Resolution
result, its accuracy, is
characterized by measurement
Result xm
•Accuracy
uncertainty
•Reliability
Uncertainty of the measurement (u)
X=xm±u ‘Measure thrice, cut once’
A range of values, centered on the measured value, that contains the true value
with a specified probability

Uncertainty estimation
Type A uncertainties Type B uncertainties
statistical analysis series of observations other
Precision (how exactly or sharply an instrument than statistical analysis
can be read) (how closely identically performed Trueness (how closely the average
measurements agree with each other) value agrees with the true value)

Measurement terminology

The accuracy (the quality of the measurement result), is characterized by

measurement uncertainty (an interval around the measured value, where the true
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value lies with some probability.

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Measurement terminology-Uncertainty
-Uncertainty (u)-
•A quantification of the doubt about the measurement result.
•2 numbers are really needed in order to quantify (estimate) uncertainty:
• the confidence interval (range) where the true value is expected to lie
• The confidence level- how sure we are that the ‘true value’ is within that range.

-Uncertainty (u)-
•Example: We might say that the length of a certain stick measures 20 cm ±1 cm, at
a level of confidence of 95%. The statement says that we are 95% sure that the
stick is between 19 cm and 21 cm long.

Uncertainty (u)- Two components:

• Type A (Precision): Arises from random errors
• Unknown events that cause small variations in measurements.
• different people measure, (reading error)
• reaction time
• poor technique
• noise
• Type B(Trueness): Arises from the measurement systematic errors:
• Equipment or environmental errors (problems which persists throughout the entire
experiment)
• Instrumental errors: Sensitivity, Resolution, Non-Linearity, Offset, Hysteresis
• Ammeter needle is not on 0 (zero error) 27

Measurement terminology
Random and systematic errors

Repeated
measurements

Random errors (statistical errors) Systematic errors (bias errors)

-They are evaluated by statistical analysis -They can not be statistically evaluated.
through a series of observations
-Precision (variance value) of an experiment -Trueness ( bias value) of an experiment
refers to this kind of errors refers to this kind of errors

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Interrelation between the concepts of precision, trueness,

accuracy and measurement uncertainty

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Measurement terminology
The measuring instrument specifications

Instrument Range (span) (Full scale-FS)

FS = [ xmax − xmin ]

Instrument constant→ Analog meters

FS [x]
C = αmax is the maximum deflection
α max div

xm = C ⋅ α
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Instrument Sensitivity
• Change in the instrument output / Change in the instrument input.
• Transfer function of a process.
• Sensitivity should always be high.

∆y dy
S = lim = Static sensitivity
∆x →0 ∆x dx
dy
If y = a⋅x S= = a = tgα
dx

div 1 dy
Analog meters→ [S ] = , S= =
[ x] C dx
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Instrument Linearity

Error of non-linearity Error of offset Error of hysteresis

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Instrument Resolution
Indicates the minimum change in input variable that is
detectable.The term, discrimination, is also used.

Analog meters

Absolute resolution
FS
ra = FS=Full Scale if FS = 30V
α max α max = 30 divisions
ra = 1V
Relative resolution

1
rr =
α max
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1
Resolution rr =
counts
Digital meters FS 1 digit
ra = value on
counts a certain
range
•A 2-digit meter can display values from 00 to 99 (100 counts)
→ rr=1/100=1%
•A 3-digit meter can display values from 000 to 999 (1000 counts)
→rr=1/1000=0.1%
•A 3 ½ digital meter (the last 3 digits can take all values from 0 to 9 and
the most significant one can take 2 values: 0 and 1) can display values
from 0000 to 1999 (2000 counts)
→rr=1/2000=0.05%
•A 4 ¾ digital meter (the last 4 digits can take all values from 0 to 9 and
the most significant one can take 4 values: 0,1,2, 3) can display values
from 00000 to 39999 (40000 counts)
→rr=1/40000=0.0025%
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Application: Absolute Resolution

FS 250
Range=FS=250V DC ra = = = 5V
αmax 50

A 3½-digit display DMM (Digital Multimeter)………2000 counts

Range
FS 200
200V ra = = = 0.1V
counts 2000
DC

Um=1.6 V
Range
FS 20
(true 20V ra = = = 0.01V
counts 2000
value) DC

Range ra =
FS
=
2
= 0.001V
2V DC counts 2000 35

Instrument Accuracy
Instrument Accuracy:
– a measure of the capability of the instrument to indicate the true value of the measurand
– It is a measure of the total error in the measurement without looking into the sources
of the errors.
Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value

Absolute error
ε = ∆x = xm − x0
xm-measured value
xo- conventional true value (etalons)

Maximum absolute error Δxmax

Result of the measurement is given by:
Maximum
absolute error
x = xm ± ∆xmax 36

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Relative error

 percentage ε r [%] = ε r ⋅100

ε ∆x xm − x0 
εr = = = → ratio
x0 x0 x0  ppm ε [ ppm] = ε ⋅10 6
 r r

Maximum relative error

ε max ∆xmax
ε r max [%] = ⋅100 = ⋅100
x0 x0
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Instrument Accuracy →Class of Accuracy (c )

ε max ∆xmax
c [%] = ⋅100 = ⋅100
FS FS [%]

•Analog instruments: Class of accuracy are standardized: 0,001; 0,002; 0,01; 0,02;
0,05; 0,1; 0,2; 0,5; 1; 1,5; 2,5;
c × FS
•The measurement result: x = x m ± ∆x max = x m ±
100
•Digital Instruments:
•The measurement resultx = x m ± (% rdg + offset),

% of reading number digits

GDM-395 Multimeter Specifications
3¾- max display 3999
Demo:
DC Voltage →ranges: 400mV, 4V, 40V,
A 1.5V DC battery is measured.
400V, 600V
On DMM we read Um =1.522V; 1digit=0.001V
DC: accuracy : ±(0.7%rdg +3 digits)
The measurement result: U=1.522V±(0.7%x1.522V+3x0.001V)=1.522±0.0136 [V]

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Application: Instrument Accuracy

If the analog meter is on V DC (range=250V) and the instrument has a class of accuracy of 3,
what value will you read from the instrument?

The voltage is 220±(3·250)/100=220±7.5 V

If the digital meter is in one of the next situations and from specifications we have the
instrument accuracy expressed like ±(0.5%rdg + 3 digits), what are the values that you
will read from the instrument?
After rounding
0.5
1 digit=0.1V 1.4 ± (
100
1.4 + 3 × 0.1) = 1.4 ± 0.307 [V ] ≈ 1.4 ± 0.3 [V ]
(1.4 ± 0.3) [V ]

0.5 (1.58 ± 0.04) [V ]

1 digit=0.01V 1.58 ± (
100
1.58 + 3 × 0.01) ≈ 1.58 ± 0.04 [V ]

0 .5
1 digit=0.001V 1.602 ± (
100
1.602 + 3 × 0.001) ≈ 1.602 ± 0.01 [V ] (1.602 ± 0.01) [V ]

The Tolerance
• Tolerance is a term that is closely related to instrument accuracy and
defines the maximum deviation allowed from the conventional true value.

Application- Tolerance

A packet of resistors bought in an electronics component shop gives the nominal

resistance value as 1000 Ω and the manufacturing tolerance as 5%. If one
resistor is chosen at random from the packet, what is the minimum and
maximum resistance value that this particular resistor is likely to have?

The minimum likely value is 1000Ω – 5%1000Ω=950 Ω

The maximum likely value is 1000Ω +5%1000Ω=1050 Ω

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Methods of Measurement

• Direct measurements:
– The quantity being measured produce certain effect
with gives the indication on meter (measurement of
current with ammeter)
– Direct methods:
• deflection methods (wattmeter, ammeter, voltmeter)
• comparison methods (potentiometer measuring
instrument- based on Poggendorff's Compensation
Method)

• Indirect measurements:
– The quantity to be measured is not measured directly, but other parameter related to
that quantity are measured
– Example: The measurement of power (P); we measure the voltage (U) and the
current (I) and then P=U*I
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Error propagation (uncertainty). Combined

errors (uncertainties)
Computation of combined uncertainties in indirect measurements

x = f ( x1 , x2 ,...x n ) x-the true value of the quantity

measured indirectly

xi-the true values of quantities

xm = f ( xm1 , xm 2 ,...xm n ) measured directly
xm-the measurement result

The absolute error ε of the measurement will be

ε = xm − x  ε + x = xm 

 ε + x = f ( x1m , x2 m ,...xnm )
ε 1 = x1m − x1  ε 1 + x1 = x1m 

ε 2 = x2 m − x 2  ε 2 + x2 = x2 m 
M  ε + x = f ( ε 1 + x1 ,ε 2 + x2 ,...ε n + xn )

ε n = xnm − xn  ε n + xn = xnm  42

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ε + x = f ( ε 1 + x1 ,ε 2 + x2 ,...ε n + xn )

If we make the expansion in Taylor series of the function f around the value (x1,
x2,…xn) we obtain:

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
ε + f ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) = f ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) +  ε 1 + ε2 + ...ε n  f ( x1 , x 2 ,...x n )
 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x n 
2
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
+  ε1 + ε2 + ...ε n  f ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) + ... +
2!  ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x n 

From here we obtain:

n
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
ε ≈ ε1 + ε2 + ....ε n = εi
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x n i =1 ∂xi

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Computation of combined errors (uncertainties)

in indirect measurements
The maximum absolute error at indirect measurement:

n
∂f
ε max =  ε i max
i =1 ∂x i

The maximum relative error in indirect measurement:

ε max ε max
ε r max = =
x f
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Computation of errors (uncertainties) in

indirect measurements. Usual functions

x1 → ε1max = a  n
∂f ε max ε max

x2 → ε 2 max = b
f ( x1 , x2 )
ε max =  ε i max ε r max = =
i =1 ∂xi x f
Measured values

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Application- Combined errors

(uncertainties)
The power in a circuit is measured indirectly using a voltmeter and a ammeter.
The instruments indicates: U=(100±2)V and I=(10±0.2)A.
Give the result of the power measurement.

n
∂f
P = UI = f (U , I ) ε max =  ε i max
i =1 ∂x i
∂f ∂f
ε P max = ε I max + εU max = ε I max U + εU max I = 0.2 × 100 + 2 × 10 = 40W
∂I ∂U
ε Pmax ε Pmax 40
ε rPmax [%] = 100 = 100 = 100 = 4%
f UI 100 ⋅10

P = (1000 ± 40)W
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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Random errors analysis (3)

Random Errors Analysis

Statistical analysis

Basic concepts in probability

• Population: all possible events or
outcomes of an experiment
• Sample: a subset of the population
that is analyzed statistically (v)
• Statistic: a numerical attribute of
the sample (mean, standard
deviation)
• Probability of an event

0 ≤ P(event ) ≤ 1

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We consider a population of measurements (variable x) and a

sample of these measurements: x1,x2,…xn

1 n
The mean (for sample data) x =  xi
n i =1

1 n
True mean (for population data) µ = lim
n →∞ n

i =1
xi

Absolute individual errors (deviations) ε i = xi − x

1 n
Variance For a population data σ2 = 
n i =1
( xi −µ ) 2

1 n
For a sample data 2
s = 
n − 1 i =1
( xi −x ) 2
(experimental)

Standard deviation σ→precision

σ→ of data

1 n
For a population data σ= 
n i =1
( xi −µ ) 2

1 n
For a sample data s= 
n − 1 i =1
( xi −x ) 2
(experimental)
• A discrete random variable : may take only a
countable number of distinct values such as 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, ...
– Examples : the number of children in a family, the
Friday night attendance at a cinema, the number of
patients in a doctor's surgery, the number of defective
light bulbs in a box of ten.
• A continuous random variable is one which takes an
infinite number of possible values. Continuous
random variables are usually measurements.
– Examples: height, weight, the amount of sugar in an
orange, the time required to run a mile.

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Application: statistical parameteres

Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the data set A: 15,15,15,14,16

xi x xi − x (xi − x )2 The mean for the data set:

15 15 0 0 n

x
1 75
15 15 0 0 x= i = = 15
15 15 0 0
5 i =1
5
14 15 -1 1
The variance (s2) and the standard deviation (s) :
16 15 1 1

n
0 + 0 + 0 +1+1 2
 ( x −x )
2 1 2
sA = i = = = 0.5  s A = 0.5 = 0.707
n −1 i =1
4 4

Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the data set B: 12, 18, 14, 18, 13
n

y
1 75
yi y yi − y ( yi − y )2 y= i = = 15
12 15 -3 9
5 i =1
5
18 15 3 9 n
9 + 9 + 1 + 9 + 4 32
 ( y −y )
2 1 2
14 15 -1 1 sB = i = = =8
18 15 3 9 n −1 i =1
4 4
13 15 -2 4
s B = 8 = 2.828

The Histogram

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www.mentimeter.com

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The Histogram
Considering a discrete random variable, the histogram is a bar graph that represents a
frequency distribution. It is obtained by splitting the range of the data into equal-
sized bins (classes) such as:
The first bin: x1 < x < x2
The second bin: x2 < x < x3
The number of points from
the data set that fall into
each bin are counted.

How many bins to use in a histogram (N)?

N = 1+ 3.3 log10 n Sturges’ rule

N = 2 ⋅ n1/ 3 Rice rule

n is the total number of measurements in the sample

Probability Histogram
•The histogram → by dividing the vertical axis by the total number
of measurements, n → The probability histogram will look the same,
but the vertical axis will represent a relative frequency or probability,

The probability that x lies between x3 and x4 is about 0.1 or 10%.

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Normalized Histogram
The vertical axis of the normalized histogram is defined as :
relative frequency probability
f ( x) = =
∆x ∆x

Bin width

The area of the bin is equal to the probability that x will lie in that bin.

f ( x ) ⋅ ∆x = relative frequency = probability

Probability Density Function PDF

PDF is the smooth limit of a normalized histogram if there were
millions of measurements and a huge number of bins.

→continuous random variable

Mathematically the probability density function f(x) is defined such that:

P ( xi < x < xi + dx) = f ( xi )dx

For the given infinitesimal range between xi and

xi+dx, the integral under the PDF curve
represents the probability that a measurement will
lie within that range.

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The Usefulness of the PDF

The probability that a measurement will lie between a and b is simply

the integral under the PDF curve between a and b.

b
P (a ≤ x ≤ b) =  f ( x)dx
a

∞
P (−∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞) =  f ( x)dx = 1
−∞

Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

For every real number x, the CDF is given by:

F ( x) = P( X ≤ x)

The probability that the random variable X takes a value less than or equal to x.

a
P( X ≤ a ) =
−∞
 f ( x)dx = F (a)

b
P ( a ≤ X ≤ b) =  f ( x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

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Shoe size

Types of Histograms

Right skewed –the tail

is on the right side

60

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Normal Distribution (Gaussian PDF)

Normal distribution is the PDF that results from a measurement

with purely random errors. PDF will be:
( x− µ ) 2
1 −
2σ 2
f ( x) = e
σ 2π
X ~ N (µ ,σ 2 )

Properties of Normal Distribution

o The normal curve is symmetrical about the mean μ;

o The mean is at the middle and divides the area into halves;
o The total area under the curve is equal to 1;
o It is completely determined by its mean and standard
deviation σ (or variance σ2).

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Standard normal distribution (normalized curve)

The normalization is accomplished through the next variable transformation

z-score=standard score

x−µ 1
z=  dz = dx  dx = σ ⋅ dz
σ σ
x1 ( x−µ )2 z1 z2 1 z
1 − 1 −2
P ( x ≤ x1 ) = −∞σ 2π e 2σ 2
dx ⇔P( z ≤ z1 ) = 
−∞ 2π
e dz =  ϕ ( z ) dz = φ ( z )
−∞

2
1 − z2
ϕ ( z) = e Standard normal distribution N(0,1)
2π µ=0, σ=1
φ (z ) CDF of the standard normal distribution

Standard normal distribution (normalized curve)

This standard normal density function is valid for any signal
measurement, with any mean, and with any standard deviation,
provided that the errors are purely random.

x−µ ϕ (z )
z=
σ
P( z ≤ z1 ) = φ ( z1 )
for x − µ = 1σ  z = 1
.....

z1

The values of φ(z) are tabulated in statistics books

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https://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/positive-z-score-chart.php

Find P( z ≤ 1,18)

Answer:
P( z ≤ 1,18) = 0,8810 = 88,1%

Application
Find: P( z ≤ −1.47)
P( z ≤ −1.47 ) = P( z ≥ 1.47 ) = 1 − P( z ≤ 1.47 ) = 1 − 0.9292 = 0.0708
x−µ
z=
σ
≡

Application A population of resistors with a normal distribution has the

following characteristics: µ = 1.27kΩ σ = 0.02kΩ
One thousand of such resistors are measured. How many resistors are expected to
have values greater than 1.3kΩ?
x − µ 1.3 − 1.27
z1 = 1 = = 1.5
σ 0.02
P(x > 1.3) = 1 − P(x < 1.3) = 1 − P(z < 1.5) = 1 − 0.9332 = 0.0668

In conclusion, from the 1000 resistors, 67 are expected to have values greater than 1,3kΩ.

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Application
We consider the normal distribution x~N (85, 400). Find the symmetrical
distribution interval (x1,x2) where 80% of the population is situated.

x−µ
z=
σ
≡

P(x1 < x < x2 ) = 80% = P(− z1 < z < z1 ) = P(z < z1 ) − P(z < − z1 ) = P(z < z1 ) − (1 − P(z < z1 )) = 2 P(z < z1 ) − 1
1 + P(x1 < x < x2 ) 1 + 0.8
 P(z < z1 ) = = = 0.9
2 2
By checking the table to find the corresponding z: z1 = 1.28
x1,2 − µ 
Finally, x1 and x2 are computed: = m z1  x1 = 85 − 1.28 ⋅ 20 = 59.4
σ 
x 2 = 85 + 1.28 ⋅ 20 = 110.6
x1,2 = µ m z1σ 

x = µ m z1σ ( P%)

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Reporting the result when repeated

measurements are made
• Size x is measured n times→ n 1 n
measurements results : x1, x2,…xn x =  xi
n i =1
Compute the mean value
1 n
• Compute the standard deviation s= 
n − 1 i =1
( x i −x ) 2

• Compute the standard deviation of s

the mean (Standard Error-SE) sx = = SE
n
• Reporting the result (standard error.xls)

x = x ± 1⋅ s x 70

Confidence Interval With a probability of

68.27% (confidence level)

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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Classical Electrical Measurements (4)

Indicating analog meters

• A pointer is moving along a graduated scale

• Continuous varying readout
• Easy to track changes in meter reading
• Analog multimeters are sometimes referred
to as "volt-ohm-meters", abbreviated VOM.
• They are simple, reliable and they have low
price
• Indicating instruments:
– Electromechanical type
– Electronic type

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Analog meters. Classifications and symbols

Analog meter panel

1. The parameter to be measured (voltage, current…)

2.The scale (linear, square, logarithmic)
3. Scale position

vertical horizontal inclined

Analog meter panel

4. Conventional symbol of the

instrument

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5. Class of accuracy and the nature of measured quantity

1.5 2 1.5

dc ac dc and ac

6. Testing voltage for electric isulation –kV (Instrument safety)

Analog meters principles

x- measured quantity (electrical energy)
a- pointer deflection (mechanical energy)

force torque balance

x →F → Md → Md + Mr = 0 →α
Mr

M d = f (x)
Md − Deflecting Torque
M d = f ( x, α )

Spring control
Mr − Controlling (restoring) Torque
Gravity control

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Spring control- is twisted in opposite direction Gravity control

M r = − Dα
D − specific restoring torque

When the moving system is in motion there are also:

M da − Damping Torque dα
M da = − F
dt
•F- is the specific damping torque
•The pointer comes to its final position without overshooting

Mf − Friction Torque M f = k f Gn
kf-friction coefficient
G- movement weight

d 2α
MJ − Inertia Torque M J = −J 2
dt
J-moment of inertia

The general equation of the moving mechanism in dynamic conditions:

d 2α dα
M d + M r ± M f + M J + M da = 0 J 2 +F + Dα ± M f = f ( x, α )
dt dt
The balance condition will be:

Md + Mr = 0

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Types of analog instruments

Permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument
DC-direct current

M d = kd ⋅ I Kd-dynamic constant

N-number of wire
k d = NBS B-induction
S-coil area

M r = − Dα
α-angle of rotation
M d + M r = 0 ⇔ k d I − Dα = 0
kd
The permanent deflection will be: αp = ⋅I
D
dα k d
The sensitivity of this instrument: SI = =
dI D

Finally: α p = SI ⋅ I This instrument type has a linear scale

These instruments work only in d.c !!!

Moving coil instruments with rectifiers

Considering a PMMC instrument connected to an AC (alternative current) power supply :
RMS (root mean square)
T
1 2
T 0
I= i (t )dt

i = I m sin ωt = I 2 sin ωt

meter displays the

The instantaneous torque is: average value of
the input waveform

md = k d i
The average (mean) torque for a full period will
be zero:
T T
1 1
M d average =
T0 md dt = kd  I m sinωt dt = 0
T 0

The solution is the rectifier instrument.

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Moving-coil instrument with half-wave rectifier (1)

The average rectified value (arv) of the current that flows through the instrument coil is:

  π
1
T  2 I sin ωt ,Lt ∈ 0, 2 
 
I arv1 =  i1 dt where i1 = 
π 
T0 0 Kt ∈  , π 
 2 
Half wave rectified (1)
2 1
I arv1 = I= I
π 2,22

SI
The permanent deflection will be: α p = S I I arv1 = I
2,22

Moving-coil instrument with full-wave rectifier

The average rectified value (arv) of the current that flows through the instrument coil is:

T T T
1 1 1 2 1
T 0
Iarv2 = i2 dt =  i dt =  2I sinωt dt = 2 I = I
T0 T0 π 1,11

Full wave rectified (2) 1

I arv2 = I
1,11
SI
The permanent deflection will be: αp = I
1,11

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Meters are often calibrated to directly display r.m.s. of sinusoidal waves !!!
The form factor of sinusoidal current is:
I rms I
kf =
rms value
arv value
k f sin =
I avr 2
=
1
= 1.11 k f sin = 1.11
I
1.11

The instruments are often calibrated in rms (effective values) I of sinusoidal

wave (kf sin), so we read:

I read = I k f sin =1.11 r.m.s for 1.11

If we measure another waveform (another form factor k’f) the result must be adjusted
in with a correction factor:

k' f
correction factor =
1.11

k' f
I'= ⋅ I read
1.11

Form Factors-Different Waveforms

84

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Moving-iron instrument (in ac and dc) The iron is magnetized

by the coil carrying the
operating current.
They can be of two types:
•With attraction: the soft iron vane is drawn into the field
•With repulsion: double iron instrument
They measure a.c. signals at frequencies up to 125 Hz.

1 dL 2
The deflecting torque Md = I
2 dα
dL is the rate of change of the inductance of
dα coil with the rotation of moving iron

I is the effective value of ac through the coil Attraction type

Md + Mr = 0

1 dL 2 1 dL 2 Nonlinear scale
I − Dα = 0 αp = I
2 dα 2 D dα

These instruments are used in industrial applications (c=1; 2; 2,5)

Electrodynamic instruments
The most accurate indicating instruments

They measure both d.c. signals and a.c. signals up to a frequency of 2 kHz
They are transfer-type instruments.
A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then
used without modification to measure a.c.

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The deflecting torque

dM
ψ Md = I f I m cosψ ( AC )
dα
dM
Md = I f I m ( DC )
dα

1 dM
αp = I f I m cosψ ( AC )
D dα
1 dM
αp = I f I m ( DC )
D dα

Electrodynamic voltmeter

U
U Im = I f =
RV

load

The total resistance RV of the measuring circuit

•Rm is the resistance of moving coil
RV = Rm + R f + Rd •Rf is the resistance of fixed coil
•Rd is the dropping resistor

The permanent deflection will be

1 dM 1 U 2 dM
In d.c αp = ImI f = = f (U 2 ) In a.c α p = f ' (U 2 )
D dα D RV2 dα

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Electrodynamic ammeter

For I< 0.5A For I> 0.5A

In d.c In d.c

1 dM 1 2 dM 1 dM k1k2 2 dM
αp = ImI f = I = f (I 2 ) αp = ImI f = I = f (I 2 )
D dα D dα D dα D dα

Electrodynamic wattmeter

If = I
U
Im =
Rm + Rd

dM
= k (Through a proper design)
dα
1 U
In d.c αp = k I = K'P
D Rm + Rd
1 U
In a.c αp = k I cosψ = K ' P
D Rm + Rd
UnIn
The wattmeter constant CW =
α max

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Wattmeter connection

Rf

Rm
Uw

Upstream
PR = UI
PR = Pw − R f I 2
U = Uw − Rf I f
2
I = If U 
PR = Pw − R f  
PR = (U w − R f I f ) I f = Pw − R f I 2f R

PR = Pw − R f I 2
For medium and high
PR ≈ Pw
resistance values (R)

Wattmeter connection

Rm
Uw U

PR = UI
U = Uw
Uw U2
I = I f − Im = I f − PR = Pw −
Rd + Rm Rm + Rd

PR = U w ( I f −
Uw
) ( RI ) 2
Rd + Rm PR = Pw −
Rm + Rd
Uw
PR = U w I f − U w
Rd + Rm
PR ≈ Pw For low resistance values (R)

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Voltmeters, ammeters, ohmmeters

Voltmeter….voltage measurement…parallel connection
Ammeter…current measurement…series connection

Ammeter shunt
A shunt is a low-resistance conductor connected in parallel (shunt) with
the meter terminals. It is used to carry the majority of the load current.

Internal shunts
External shunts

Ra Ra I a
mA Ra I a = Rs I s  Rs =
Ia
Is
I = Ia + Is ,  Is = I − Ia
Rs
I a Ra Ra
Rs =  Rs =
I Is I − Ia I
−1
Ia

The multiplying power”of the shunt:

I
n=
Ia
The value of the shunt will be:

Ra
Rs =
n −1

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Ammeter shunt

•The shunt resistor's resistance: mΩ or µ Ω→

•Resistance this low is comparable to wire connection resistance, which means
voltage measured across such a shunt must be done so in such a way as to avoid
detecting voltage dropped across wire connections →
•Shunts are usually equipped with four connection terminals

Voltmeter sensitivity
1 1
IV SV = =
IV full − scale current
Umax V RV Ω
RV SV = [ SV ] =
U max V
RV = SV ⋅ U max

Specific resistance On the scale

(voltmeter sensitivity)

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Voltmeter dropping resistor

U = Rd I v + U v
Iv
Uv
rV Uv U = Rd + Uv
mV rV
U
Rd U
U = Uv ( + 1)  Rd = rV ( − 1)
rV Uv
Rd

U
Multiplying power m=
Uv

Rd = rV (m − 1)

Analog ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is normally part of a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM).
Ohmmeters do not usually exist as individual instruments.

Series ohmmeter: for measuring low values of Rx (102-105Ω)

E
I=
Short
Ra + R1 + R2 + Rx
PMMC instrument
circuit
E
If Rx = 0  I max =
Ra Ra + R1 + R2
Open
R1 break
E
If Rx = ∞  I min = lim =0
E Rx → ∞ Ra + R1 + R2
R2
I
Rx

Inverse and non linear scale!!!

Parallel ohmmeter (Shunt type ohmmeter): for measuring very low values of Rx (10-1-102Ω)
The megohmmeter (MΩ)(Megger): for measuring very high resistance →to test the insulation
found in power transmission systems, electrical machinery, transformers and so on.

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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Measurements with Bridges

DC&AC Bridges (5-6)

Measurements with Bridges

• Bridges use the null measurement method
(comparison principle).
• A known (standard) value is adjusted until it
is equal to the unknown value.

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The balanced DC Wheatstone Bridge

I1 R1 I4 R4
A •Rx=R1; Rx-the unknown resistor (range of 1–106Ω)
•R4-a calibrated variable resistance
Ig •R2 and R3-fixed known resistors
C D
•ND -Null Detector-Galvanometer (PMMC type
ND
sensitive ammeter)
R2 I3 R3
I2
B
Balance condition: No potential
difference across the
galvanometer (no
E U AB = 0 ( I g = 0) current through
the galvanometer)

U AB = 0 ⇔ U AC = U BC ⇔ R1 ⋅ I1 = R2 ⋅ I 2 (a )
U AB = 0 ⇔ U AD = U BD ⇔ R4 ⋅ I 4 = R3 ⋅ I 3 (b )

But: I g = 0 ⇔ I1 = I 4 I 2 = I3
R1 R2
It results: (a ) /(b) ⇔ = R1 ⋅ R3 = R2 ⋅ R4
R4 R3

R1 ⋅ R3 = R2 ⋅ R4
The unknown resistor will be:
R2
Rx = R1 = R4
R3
R2
is the measure ratio and it gives the order of Rx
R3
R4 is the adjustable resistance (fine adjustments)

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Application: Wheatstone Bridge

Consider using a Wheatstone bridge having R2 = 2000 Ω and R3 = 200 Ω to

measure a resistance, R1 , of a temperature sensor. Suppose the resistance
of the temperature sensor, R1[Ω], is related to the temperature T[°C], by
the equation
R1 =1500 + 25T

The bridge is balanced by adjusting R4 until R4 = 250 Ω. What is the value

of the temperature?

I1 R1 I4 R4
A

R2 2000 ⋅ 250
R1 = R4 = = 2500Ω Ig
D
R3 200 C
ND

R2 I3 R3
I2
R − 1500 2500 − 1500
T= 1 = = 40 o C B
25 25
E

The Wheatstone bridge sensitivity

I1 R1 I4 R4
A

Ig
C D
ND

R2 I3 R3
I2
B

E VTH
Ig = RTH = R1 R4 + R2 R3
RTH + R g

The permanent deflection of the ND (galvanometer):

R2 R4 − R1 R3
α p = SI I g = SI E where A = f1 ( R1 , R2 , R3 , R g ); B = f 2 ( R1 , R2 , R3 , R g )
AR4 + B

R4 Wheatstone
α
Bridge

∆α R2
The absolute sensitivity: S = lim = SI E
∆R4 → 0 ∆R4 AR4 + B

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The Wheatstone bridge sensitivity

R4 Wheatstone
α ∆α R2
S = lim = SI E
Bridge ∆R4 → 0 ∆R4 AR4 + B

•Bridge sensitivity increase with SI and with E. The value of E is limited because the
currents in the bridge branches are limited.
•Bridge sensitivity tends to zero when R4 = ∞. 
•Wheatstone bridge is used to measure medium values of resistances.
•Kelvin Bridge is used to measure small values of resistances (0.00001 to 1 Ω)
•Megaohm Bridge is used to measure high values of resistances (106 to 1012 Ω)

The unbalanced Wheatstone bridge

I1 R1 I4 R4
A

Temperature (thermistor)
C D
Force (Load cell-strain gauge)
∆U R4→sensor Pressure (strain gauge)
I3
I2 R2 R3 Light (photoresistor)
B •piezoresistive sensors
E •Hall sensors

Initially ∆U=0 (R1R3=R2R4) Balanced bridge

R4→R4+∆R ∆U≠0 Unbalanced bridge

The amount of ∆U is the amount of

parameter being measured.
Load cell
∆U must be amplified!!!

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Stress, Strain and strain gages

We consider a wire or cylinder, fixed at the top, and hanging down. A

force F is applied.

A- original cross sectional area

L-original wire length

The material will experience a stress, called axial stress.

F N
σa = [σ a ] = pressure
A m2

When F increases then L increases and A decreases.

Axial strain (deformation)

δL (nondimensional)
εa =
L

The Hooke’s law: For elastic materials→ stress is proportional to strain.

σ a = Eε a
Elastic
stress
region
E→Young’s modulus (modulus of elasticity)
For a given material is a constant.

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ρL
The electrical resistance R of a wire: R=
A
We apply logarithm: ln R = ln ρ + ln L − ln A
dR dρ dL dA
By differentiating: = + −
R ρ L A

It is demonstrated that:

dR dL •The resistance of the wire increases with deformation

= S •S-strain gauge factor (sensitivity)
R L •Usually S=2.0 (wire of constantan, Cr-Ni)
•The strain and stress can be measured

Displacement, acceleration, pressure,

temperature, liquid level, stress, force or torque
can be determined using strain measurements.

A strain gauge accelerometer

Strain gauges
•Strain gauges are measuring elements that convert force,
pressure, tension, etc., into an electrical signal.
•A strain gauge is a resistive elastic sensor whose resistance is
a function of applied strain (unit deformation).
•A Wheatstone bridge converts this change in resistance to an
absolute voltage.
•Most strain gauges are smaller than a postage stamp.

Tension & Compression

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Direction of strain Strain gauges

Etched metal foil

Typically R=120Ω or 350 Ω

Backing material

Connecting wires
gravat

•A strain gauge consists of a small diameter wire (actually an etched

metal foil), which is attached to a backing material (usually plastic).
•The wire is looped back and forth several times to create an effectively
longer wire. The longer the wire, the larger the resistance, and the
larger the change in resistance with strain.

How are strain gauges used?

•Sustained beam →axial strain
•The strain must be measured. dR dL
=S
•A strain gauge is glued to the surface of the beam. R L
• S is the gauge factor
• R is the nominal resistance of the gauge
• dR is the change in resistance due to the strain.

beam
R = 120 Ω 
 dL VERY
dL −3  dR = RS = 0,00024Ω K 0,24Ω
If = 10 K10  
−6
L SMALL
L 

Strain gage
S =2

The ohmmeter can not measure it!

SOLUTION: The Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge

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The unbalanced Wheatstone bridge

I1 R1 R4
A

∆U = VA − VB = VA − VD − (VB − VD ) = U AD − U BD
C D
ΔU R4
U AD = E
R2 R3
R1 + R4
I2
B
R3
U BD = E
E R2 + R3

 R4 R3  R R + R3 R4 − R1R3 − R4 R3
∆U = E  −  = E 2 4
 R1 + R4 R2 + R3  ( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )

R2 R4 − R1 R3
∆U = E
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )

The unbalanced Bridge with a single strain gauge

(Quarter Bridge)
1 R R+dR 4
I1 A

C D
∆U
2 3
R R
I2
R2 R4 − R1 R3 B
∆U = E
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 ) E

Considering the bridge with equal arms then R1= R2=R3= R

R ( R + dR ) − RR RdR Linear response

∆U = E =E
( R + R + dR )( R + R ) ( 2 R + dR )2 R
Bridge sensitivit y
dR dR dR ∆U ∆U / E 1
∆U = E ≈E  =4 Sr = =
(2 R + dR )2 4R R E dR / R 4
≈0

dR
=S
dL
⇔
dL 1 dR
=
dL 1 ∆U
R L L S R
= 4
L S E

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The Unbalanced Bridge with two

strain gauges (half bridge)

∆U

R2 R4 − R1 R3
∆U = E
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )
tension compression

( R + dR ) R − R ( R − dR ) 2 RdR E
∆U = E =E = dR
2R2R 2R2R 2R
If sensor 1 and sensor 2 are exposed to the pressure but they are exposed to the same temperature variation, is the output changing?
NO!!! The bridge is compensating the sensor for temperature variation

Half bridge
Bridge sensitivit y
∆U / E 1
Sr = =
dR / R 2 Linear response
Deformation
dL 1 ∆U
= 2
L S E
The same result is obtained in the next situation:

tension

tension

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The Unbalanced Bridge with four

strain gauges (full bridge)

∆U

R2 R4 − R1 R3
∆U = E
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )

( R + dR ) 2 − ( R − dR) 2 2 R 2dR E
∆U = E =E = dR
2R2R 2R2R R

Bridge sensitivit y Linear response

∆U / E
Sr = =1
dR / R
dL 1 ∆U
= Two force sensors suitable for a bathroom
scale, each containing a pair of strain
L S E gauges that will flex oppositely under load

AC Bridges (Impedance Bridges)

They are used to measure: inductance L, capacitance C, storage factor (quality factor), loss factor,
frequency of audio signals
They can be used also a oscillator circuits
• signal generators
• to determine an unknown circuit parameter by measuring the oscillating frequency

Z1 = Z1e jϕ1
Z 2 = Z 2 e jϕ 2
Z 3 = Z 3 e jϕ 3
Z 4 = Z 4 e jϕ 4
ND-null detector-headphone; vibration galvanometer
The ac source is an oscillator of f=40…125Hz

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The balance condition I = 0 leads to the balance equations:

Z 1 ⋅ I1 = Z 2 ⋅ I 2
 Z1 Z2
Z 4 ⋅ I 4 = Z 3 ⋅ I 3 ⇔ = ⇔ Z1 ⋅ Z 3 = Z 2 ⋅ Z 4
 Z4 Z3
 I 1 = I 4 ; I 2 = I 3 ;

Z 1 Z 3 e j (ϕ1 +ϕ 3 ) = Z 2 Z 4 e j (ϕ 2 +ϕ 4 ) (polar form)

The balance condition will be:

Z1 ⋅ Z 3 = Z 2 ⋅ Z 4 magnitude condition

ϕ1 + ϕ 3 = ϕ 2 + ϕ 4 phase condition

( R1 + jX 1 ) ⋅ ( R3 + jX 3 ) = ( R2 + jX 2 ) ⋅ ( R4 + jX 4 )  (Cartesian form)

The balance condition will be:

 R1R3 − X 1 X 3 = R2 R4 − X 2 X 4

 R1 X 3 + R3 X 1 = R2 X 4 + R4 X 2

Remarks
Z1Z 3e j (ϕ1 +ϕ3 ) = Z 2 Z 4 e j (ϕ 2 +ϕ 4 )
If Z3=R3; Z4=R4 φ3=φ4=0  φ1=φ2 
 the others arms should contain either L1, L2 or C1, C2

A huge number of various AC bridge circuits were designed and developed: Maxwell, Maxwell-Wien,
Wien, Schering, Hay, Owen, Anderson, de Sauty.

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Examples of ac bridges
The Maxwell-Wien bridge
For unknown inductors: Rx, Lx, (low Q-values inductors)
1
R3
jωC3
R2 R4 = ( Rx + jωLx )
1
R3 +
jωC3
R3
R2 R4 = ( Rx + jωLx )
1 + jωR3C3
R2 R4 (1 + jωR3C3 ) = R3 ( Rx + jωLx )
R2 R4 + jωR2 R3 R4C3 = R3 Rx + jωLx R3

R2 R4
It results: Rx = and L x = R2 R4 C 3
R3

ωL x R R C
The quality factor (Q value) of the inductor will be: Q= = ω 2 4 3 R 3 = ωC 3 R 3
Rx R 2R 4

The resonance bridge (for measure R, L, Q)

1
R1 R3 = R2 ( Rx + jωLx + )
jωC
( R1 R3 − R2 Rx ) jωC = 1 − ω 2 Lx C

R1 R3 1
Rx = Lx =
R2 ω 2C
The Owen bridge (for measure R, L-high values)

R4 C 3
Rx = L x = R2 R4 C 3
C2

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Wien Bridge
• Used for measuring voltage source
frequency
• A series R,C in one arm and a parallel
R,C in the adjacent arm
Z1Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
1
R3
1 jωC3
Z 1 = R1 + ; Z 2 = R2 ; Z 3 = ; Z 4 = R4 ;
jωC1 1
R3 +
jωC3
In most, Wien bridge
R2 R1 C3 R1 = R3 = R and C1 = C3 = C
= + (1)
R4 R3 C1
1
ωC3 R1 = ( 2) R2 = 2 R4 (1)
ωC1R3
1
f =
1 2πRC
f =
2π C1C3 R1 R3 123

Application: Schering Bridge

(for measurement of capacitors and their insulation)
A Schering bridge has the following components values: C1=0.1µF, R1=2kΩ,
C3-standard
R2=5kΩ,C3=0.25 µF, f=2kHz. capacitor (high
quality (no loss)
Determine the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.
C1
C3
1
R1
jωC1  1  1
 Rx +  = R2 R1
1  j ωCx  jωC3
+ R1  
jωC1
R1  1 + jωR x C x  R2
 =
1 + R1 jωC1  jωC x  j ωC
 3 R2 Rx Cx
R1 (1 + jωR x C x ) R2
=
(1 + R1 jωC1 )C x C3
R1C3 (1 + jωR x C x ) = R2 C x (1 + R1 jωC1 ) Dissipation factor.
R1C3 2 KΩ Rx
R1C3 = R2C x  C x = = ⋅ 0.25µF = 0.1µF D = tgδ =
Rx
= ωR x C x =
R2 5kΩ Xc 1
ωC x
R1C1 R1C1 R2 C1 5 ⋅103 ⋅ 0.1
R x C x = ωR1C1  R x = = = = = 2kΩ = 2π ⋅ 2 ⋅ 103 ⋅ 2 ⋅10 3 ⋅ 0.1 ⋅ 10 −6 =
Cx R1C3 C3 0.25 = 2.513
R2

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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Analog Signal Conditioning Electronic

Measuring Systems (7-8)

Amplification in instrumentation
Operational Amplifiers (OA)- Review
Integrated circuit that amplifiers the signal across its input terminals.
The inverting
The output voltage
input terminal
E+

v¯ _

v0
+
v+

E¯

The noninverting
input terminal ± 15V)
Supply voltages (E=±

v0 = aD (v + − v − )
aD-differential gain (in open loop)

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Op-amps
(-) The inverting input terminal means: (+) The noninverting input terminal means:
E+
E+
v¯ _ _
v0 vo= -aD v¯ v+ v0 vo= aD v+
+
+

E-
E-

The ideal op-amp

Z in → ∞ i+ = i− = 0
− i−
v Z in aDuD Z out vo Z out → 0
uD
v0
aD → ∞ uD = v + − v − = →0  v + = v−
v+ i+ aD

The real op-amp Z in ≈ 10 6 Ω a D ≈ 105 − 10 9 Z out ≈ 100...1000Ω

Offset voltage
Practically when v+=v-=0 the output voltage v0≠0
Why? Because of the transistors mismatching in the input stage

voff
vo Determine Voff→ when vo=0

The common-mode voltage

_
vCM vo
+

Ideally if vCM≠0 then v0=0

Really if vCM≠0 then v0=aCM·vCM ≠ 0

aCM -the common-mode gain

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The Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

CMRR describes the ability of a
differential amplifier to reject the signals Electromyography
common to both inputs, and to amplify https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gHsZ0bwxMsg
only the difference between the inputs.
v0
aD u v
CMMR = = D = CM
aCM v0 uD
vCM
aD
CMMR ( dB) = 20 lg
aCM

Ideally aCM → 0  CMMR → ∞ Really CMMR = 100 ÷ 120dB

Real op-amps (like the 741) have CMRR of ~90 dB, meaning the ratio of gains is 30000.

The frequency response of the op-amps

•Really aD has a finite value and it’s function of frequency.
•The frequency response of any circuit is the graph of the magnitude of the
gain in decibels (dB) as a function of the frequency of the input signal.
•The frequency response of an op-amp is a low pass filter characteristic.
•The bandwidth (B) is the frequency at which the power of the output
signal is reduced to half that of the maximum output power. This occurs
when the gain drops by 3 dB.
Gain (log scale)

-3dB point
1 →power
10 lg  = −3.0103dB
2

 1 
20 lg  = 20 lg (0.707 ) = −3.0103dB →voltage
B
 2
Freq (hz)

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Ideal OA versus real OA

The transfer characteristic of an op-amp

vo
E+ vsat
Saturation means that the output voltage
clips at some maximum value Vsat, typically
a couple of volts lower than the positive
uD supply voltage E+supply.

E−

Application. Saturation

Given: The gain of an op-amp (in open loop) is 1 million (aD = 106). The high
supply voltage E+supply is 15 V. The op-amp saturates at 13 V.
To do: Calculate the input voltage difference vD that will cause saturation.
Solution:
v0 13V
vD = = = 13µV
aD 106
With only 13 µV of differential input, the op-amp is already saturated!

•Because of their very high open loop gain, OAs are almost
exclusively used with some additional circuitry (mostly with resistors
and capacitors), required to ensure a negative feedback loop.
• The negative feedback stabilizes the output within the operational
range and provides a much smaller but precisely controlled gain, the
so-called closed loop gain .

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The Open-loop op-amp→ The Comparator

Vcc
Vout

V- - + Vsat

If V+ > V- Vout = Vsat ≈ Vcc

Vout
Vin- V+ + If V+ < V- Vout = -Vsat ≈ - Vcc
Vin+ - Vin-

Vin+ -Vcc
- Vsat

Schmitt trigger circuit (inverting)-hysteresis

The Closed-loop op-amp. The negative feedback

o = aDε
i ε o
- aD r = β ⋅o
r ε = i − r = i − β ⋅o

β o a Dε ⋅ a D (i − β ⋅ o)
A= = =
i i i
A = aD (1 − β ⋅ A) 
aD
A=
1 + β ⋅ aD
For a high aD it results βaD>>1 and finally:

aD 1 The gain is independent of aD

A= = and the circuit is very stable.
β ⋅ aD β

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Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits

There are a lot of circuits with OAs performing various mathematical operations.
The transfer characteristic can be derived applying Kirchhoff’s rules and the following
assumptions (Op-amp is considered ideal):
v+= v-; i+ = i-
The inverting amplifier
R2 

i2 i1 + i2 = 0 
v1 i1 R1
_ v1 − v − v1  v1 v0 v0 = −
R2
v1
i1 = =  + =0
R1
R1 R1  R1 R2
vo
v − v − v0 
+
i2 = 2 = 
R2 R2 

Virtual ground

The inverting voltage follower

If R1 = R2  A = −1 v0 = −v1

The summing amplifier

It's a logical extension of the inverting amplifier circuit , with two or more
inputs.
R
v1 R1

v2 R2
_ n

R v
R
vo v0 = − i
+ i =1 i

vn Rn

The noninverting amplifier

R2


i2 i1 = i2 
i1 R1 v1 − 0 v1  v1 v0 − v1 R2
_ i1 = =  =  v0 = (1 + )v1
R1 R1  R1 R2 R1
v1 vo v − v − v0 − v1 
+ i2 = 0 = 
R2 R2 

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The follower
•This configuration is very important when
the input signal needs to be isolated from
_ the output.
v0 = v1 •It has a very low output impedance that is
v1 +
vo A =1 very useful in some impedance-matching
applications.

Differentiator circuit
R
i1 + i2 = 0
i2
i1 C dv1 v dv1
_ i1 = C ; i2 = 0 v0 = − RC
uC dt R dt
v1 vo
+ dv1 v0
C + =0
dt R

The integrator

C i1 + i2 = 0 
v1 − 0 v1 
i2 uC i1 = = 
R R 
R
i1
_ dq d (CuC ) duC 
v1 i2 = = =C 
dt dt dt  1
RC 
 v0 = − v1dt
+
vo uC = v0 − 0 = v0  
dv0 
i2 = C 
dt 
v1 dv 
+C 0 = 0 
R dt

Vin

1
− ( ) dt
RC

Vout

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Difference amplifier
R2
R1

R1
_
v01 R2
OA1 _
+ OA2
v1 vo
+
v2

R2
v01 = (1 + )v1
R1

R1 R R R
v '0 = − v01 = − 1 (1 + 2 )v1 = −(1 + 1 )v1
R2 R2 R1 R2

R1 R1
v"0 = (1 + )v2
Using the overlapping principle v0 = v'0 + v"0 = (1 + )(v2 − v1 )
R2 R2

Instrumentation amplifiers

• The instrumentation amplifier amplifiers the difference between

two input signals (-) and (+). It has the next essential characteristics:
– High input impedance
– Low output impedance
– Low offset
– High linearity
– Stable gain
– ability to reject common-mode inputs (CMRR)
• Instrumentation amplifier→interface sensors into the
electronics package →noises, ground-voltages
differences=common-mode voltages.
• Instrumentation amplifier → VERY HIGH CMRR

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ONE-op-amp Instrumentation Amplifier

v1 R i1 i2 kR
 v1 − v − v0 − v −
 + = 0 /(−1)
 R kR
_  + +
 v2 − v + 0 − v = 0
vo  R kR
+
v2 − v1 + v − − v + v − − v + − v0
kR + =0
v2 R R kR

i3 i4

i1 + i2 = 0

i3 + i4 = 0 k (v2 − v1 ) − v0 = 0 
+
v =v −
v0 = k (v2 − v1 )  A=k

v1 R i1 i2 kR

_
vo
+

R kR
v2
i3 i4

When external feedback resistors are used with OA →resistor-

mismatch errors →low CMRR
Solution: one-op-amp instrumentation amplifier realized in
integrated technology (IC).
It can be demonstrated that:

CMRRIA = CMRROA

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THREE-op-amp Instrumentation Amplifier

v1 v01 − v1 v2 − v1 
OA1
v01 R kR + = 0 /(−1) 
_ R2 R1

R2 v02 − v2 v2 − v1 
R2
−
R1
=0 
_ 
R1
OA3
v0 v02 − v01 v1 − v2 v1 − v2 
+ + +2 = 0
R2 R2 R1 
R2
_ R kR
v02 − v01 1 2
OA2
= ( + )(v2 − v1 )
v2
+ v02 R2 R2 R1
v0 1 2
v0 = k (v02 − v01 )  = ( + )(v2 − v1 )
kR2 R2 R1
R2 R2
v0 = k (1 + 2 )(v2 − v1 ) CMRR AI = (1 + 2 )CMRR AO 3
R1 R1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c2rW4EPuXyw

In multiplexed systems →Programmable gain IA →R1 is a

digitally programmed potentiometer

CURRENT measurement (relative to ground)

CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTOR
R

v0 − 0 v0 = − Ri
i _ i+ =0
+ vo R
photodiode

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CURRENT measurement (floating)

CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTOR

i1 = i2
v + = v − = vi
vi − v2 
i3 = i =  vi − v2 = iR (1) 
R 

v1 − vi
i4 = i =  v1 − vi = iR ( 2) 
R 

(1) + (2) :
vi − v2 + v1 − vi = 2 Ri  v2 − v1 = −2 Ri
v0 = k (v2 − v1 ) = −2kRi

Resistance to voltage converter

R1 >> Rx  U x = IRx
Rx
R2 R u0 = − IR1  u0 = k ' Rx
u0 = − U x = − 2 IRx  u0 = kRx R2
R1 R1

Example of sensors associated with

resistance to voltage converters:
-thermistors which change
resistance as a function of the
temperature
-carbon microphones which alter
their resistance in response to the
changing in acoustical pressure

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Single op-amp bridge amplifier for

single-element varying bridge
R+dR=R(1+dR/R)=R(1+α)
U 1+α
vA = ; vB = U
2 2 +α
vB − U v −0 v −0
(+) + B + B =0
R R (1 + α ) RF
v A − U v A − 0 v A − v0
( −) + + =0
R R RF

U RF α -poor gain accuracy

v0 =
It results: 2 R 1+α
R (1 + ) -low CMRR
2 RF
-The output is nonlinear

Instrumentation amplifier
for single-element varying bridge
v0 = A∆v
U U
∆v = v1 − v2 = −
2 α +2
α α
v0 = A ⋅U ≈ AU α << 1
α 4
4(1 + )
2

-Better gain accuracy (by adjusting RG) Linear response

-high CMRR (due to AI)
-The output is nonlinear (can be corrected by a software procedure)

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Active bridge- linear bridge- hardware procedure

U
v+ = = v−
2

U − v − v0 − v − 
+ =0 
R R(1 + α ) 
U − v+ 0 − v+  U
+ = 0 /⋅ (−1)   v0 = −α
R R  2
+
v/ − v/ −
v −v −
v + 
+ 0 + = 0
R R(1 + α ) R 

-The response is linear for every value of α

-Because the output voltage is a small one, this will be amplified with a
second amplifier circuit

Lock-in Amplifiers
The Phase-sensitive Detectors

Consider a case in
which you need to
extract a 5 mV sine
wave from a white
noise signal with 5 V
amplitude. Are those The answer is YES!
measurements even
possible?

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Lock-in Amplifiers
The Phase-sensitive Detectors
• Lock-in amplifiers are used to detect and measure very small AC signals (few nV).
• Accurate measurements may be made even when the small signal is obscured by
noise sources many thousands of times larger.
• Lock-in amplifiers use a technique known as phase-sensitive detection: the useful
signal depends on the phase difference between it and a reference signal with the
same frequency or a frequency very close to that of useful signal.
• Noise signals, at frequencies other than the reference frequency, are rejected and
do not affect the measurement.
• Measured signal is greater as the phase difference between the two signals is less,
becoming maximum when the signals are in phase.

The Principle of Phase-sensitive Detectors

•The output signal is maximum when the detector input signals are
synchronized → synchronous detection.
• It acts like a filter-The centre frequency of the filter is locked (hence
lock-in)

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The Principle of Phase-sensitive Detectors

uin U signal sin(ω signal t + ϕ signal )
u

Average value
uo
(DC component)

U ref sin(ωref t + ϕ ref )

u = U signalU ref sin(ωref t + ϕ ref ) ⋅ sin(ωsignal t + ϕ signal ) =

1 1
= U signalU ref cos[(ωref − ω signal )t + ϕ ref − ϕ signal ] − U signalU ref cos[(ωref + ωsignal )t + ϕ signal + ϕ ref ]
2 2

When ωref≠ ωsignal →u0=0 (LPF-average value) and when ωref= ωsignal →u0≠0

The Principle of Phase-sensitive Detectors

Same frequency Electronic

switch

FET-Field Effect Transistors

•The two FETs (T1 AND T2) play the role of electronic switches controlled by alternating
rectangular signal (from triggered reference signal)
•When REF>0 →T1 drives →SIGNAL at (a)
•When REF<0 →T2 drives → signal + inverting follower→ inverting SIGNAL at (a)
•LPF(Low Pass Filter)-Detects the DC component

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Phase-sensitive detector
Δφ

Phase-sensitive detector Δφ

After tle LPF:

Change the variable

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 12/03/2020

Phase-sensitive detector-Review

When ∆ϕ=Ψ=0 (synchronous detection)

2U 0
Ub =
π

When Ψ=90° Ub = 0

•In the lock-in amplifiers a phase sensitive detector is used as the selective element.
•This detector selects from the input signal only
•these components that have the same frequency as the reference voltage.
•these signals that are in phase with the reference signal.
• Noise having a random frequency will be strongly attenuated.
•The phase problems (they appear due to the physical problems, connections, etc) are
resolved by the phase shifter.

Lock-in Amplifier (LiA)- applications

The measurement of small variations of the

resistance – strain-gauge bridge
From the signal (µV) with noises we can
separate only the signal of the frequency
the same as supply voltage
(bridge= modulator device)

The measurement of small resistances (micro-ohm-

meter) = the measurement of very small voltage drop
across the unknown resistance

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Lock-in Amplifier (LiA)- applications

•We can separate both components

of the vector signal – in phase and
shifted by 90°.
•We can analyze the impedance
components Re(Z) and Im(Z),
•We can determine the phase shift
•We can perform spectral analysis

Lock-in amplifier
based on the
AD630 device of
Analog Devices

Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Time Domain Measurements.

Frecquency Counters (9)

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Time/Frequency Measurements
Frequency Counters

• A conventional counter -Frequency Counter/Meter- is a digital device used to measure

the frequency of an input signal.
• Some counters can measure additional parameters of a signal like
• period
• ratio of the frequencies of two input signals
• time interval between two events
• pulse width
• rise time
• fall time
• total number of events

Digital Binary Signals

The counters work with digital binary signals or pulse train.

A digital binary signal (rectangular wave) can take only one
of the two valid logic states: HIGH (1) or LOW (0).
“H Voltage” and “L voltage” are called logic thresholds.
Two standard logic levels: 0V and 5V

TTL- Transistor-Transistor Logic

ECL-Emitter Coupled Logic

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The block diagram of an electronic counter

The frequency f of repetitive signals represents the numbers of n cycles that

occurs in an interval of time t
n
f =
t

Input Circuit
The input analog signal is converted into a digital form.

Output
(Digital

The trigger window adjustment is very important to the correct operation of the counter and it can be
used to minimize the fault counts generated due to noise and other situations.

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The Main Gate

•The main gate is a dual input logic circuit (AND Type)

•One input of the main gate receives the input signal (information) to be
counted and the other input receives the gate control signal (open -close)
•Pulses passing through the gate are routed to the decimal counter unit

The Time Base

The time base contains:
• A quartz crystal oscillator
– It produces oscillation with higher frequency stability and accuracy.
– It is used in digital systems for generating clock signal.
• - A chain of frequency dividers.

Time base dividers

K=100 K=101 K=102 K=108

T=0.1µs T=10µs T=10s

T=1µs

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Decimal Counter Unit (DCU)

The decimal counting unit (DCU) consists of a number of counting units (BCD
counters-decade counters) connected in a cascade. (BCD=binary coded decimal )

Decade counter

The counter unit Decoder/display driver

(BCD counter)

7-segment display
(led or LCD)

Depending upon the frequency range of operation, there may be six to eight digits displayed.

Decimal Counter Unit (DCU)

NAND gate

BCD counter (decade counter) T-type flip-flop circuits

Carry out signal

D=1 and B=1 DCBA = 1010→0000
7490 integrated
circuit

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Modes of Operation: Frequency Measurement

Tx

T0

T0

Tx

T0
N= = T0 f x
Tx
•When the main gate is opened, pulses from the input
conditioning circuit (amplifier/trigger) are allowed to pass
through.
•The opening and closing (1µs…., 1ms…. 10s) of the For T0 =1s
main gate is controlled by the time base dividers.
N=fx the displayed number
•The output of the main gate is then sent to the decimal is the frequency (Hz)
counter unit where the pulses are counted and displayed
after the gate is closed. If T0 =1 ms the frequency is
read in kHz

Modes of Operation: Period Measurement

This mode is useful for measuring very
low frequencies

Tx
Tx
T0

T0

•The main gate is controlled by the frequency of the

input signal.
•The decimal counter unit now counts the output pulses For T0 =1s
from the time-base dividers for one cycle or the period of
the input signal. N=Tx

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Mode of operation: Period Measurement

The conditioned input signal may also be divided so that

the gate is open for decade steps 10nTx of the input
signal period rather than for a single period. This is the
basis of the multiple period averaging technique.

Mode of Operation: Frequency Ratio Measurements

Tx1

Tx2

Tx2

Tx1

•The ratio of two frequencies is determined by

using the lower-frequency signal for gate control
while the higher-frequency signal is counted by Tx 2 f
the counter unit N= = x1
•Accuracy of the measurement may be improved
Tx1 f x 2
by using the multiple averaging technique.

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Mode of operation: Phase shift measurement

Tx

Tx

Tx(fx) must be known

∆t ∆ϕ ⋅ Tx f 0
N= =
T0 2π k

Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements

Digital measuring instruments.

Computer-based measuring
systems (10-11)

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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements (ETM)

• Digital meters. DMM

• Computer-based Data Acquisition Systems

https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/data_acquisition_signal_conditioning/data_acquisition_products/data_acquisition_systems_instruments

Digital Multimeters (DMM)

• The DMM) is a versatile instrument found on all workbenches.
• All DMMs can make basic ac and dc voltage, current, and
resistance
• Most DMMs can also test diodes and capacitors and frequently
will have other capabilities such as frequency measurements.
• Most DMMs have an autoranging feature, meaning that the user is
not required to select a range for making a measurement.

Analog to Digital Convertor

d.c
voltage

a.d. or d.c voltage,

a.d. or d.c current,
resistance etc

• Automatic change of the input ranges (autorange),

• Triggering the measuring cycle,
• Controlling the ADC,
• Saving the data into memory,

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Digital Multimeters- Input Circuit

The input circuits contain the conditioning circuits:
•voltage dividers or amplifiers for measuring the voltage in various ranges,
•shunt resistors for current measurement,
•supply source for resistance measurement,
•AC/DC converters.

•The integrating type

•single-ramp
•dual-ramp
•voltage to frequency
•Counter (staircase) type
•The successive approximation type
•The delta-sigma type

Single Slope Ramp ADC

• Voltage → time → electronic counter
conversion measurement

Vi

fo

Vm T T
= t = Vi
Vi t Vm
k
t T
N= = f 0 ⋅ Vi = k ⋅ Vi
1/ f0 Vm

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Dual Slope Ramp ADC

The integrator is T1

Phase I: S1→ (-vA ) charging with vA for a V peak = −

1
 (− v A )dt = v AT1
fixed period of time T1. RC RC
0 vA
T2 = T1
The integrator is discharging vREF
Phase II: S1→ (vREF ) with vREF for a period of time v REF T2
T2. The counting is stopped
V peak =
RC
when v1 reaches o at T2

Voltage to Frequency ADC

• The voltage to be converted, Vin, must be inverted to (-Vin) at the

input of the integrator, in order to produce a positive voltage at V1.
• The (-Vin) voltage produces a current I, which charges the T = T1 + T2  1
capacitor, increasing V1 until it equals Vref, triggering the   T ≈ T1  f ≈
T1 >> T2  T1
comparator output to go high, thereby causing the monostable
multivibrator to emit a pulse, at the beginning of which the switch, 1 1 1 1
S, is closed, discharging the capacitor over the time T2. Vref = VinT1  Vref ≈ VinT = Vin
RC RC RC f
• At the end of the pulse, the switch is once again opened, starting a 1
new charge process. f = Vin = K 'Vin
RCV ref
• The pulses emitted by the monostable multivibrator are counted.
• The binary output number (frequency) is proportional to the input
voltage Vin

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Counter (staircase ramp) ADC

range

n bit

The clock is a source

of pulses equally
spaced in time.

As the counter counts up with each clock pulse, the DAC (Digital to
Analog Converter) outputs a slightly higher voltage. This voltage
(VAX ) is compared against Vin the by the comparator.
If Vin is greater than the DAC output, the comparator's output will
be high and the counter will continue counting normally. Finally,
however, the DAC output will exceed the input voltage, causing the
comparator's output to go low→
• This stops the counting at the time when Vin ≈ VAX and the The conversion is slow!
counter can be read out as the digital word representing the
analog input voltage.
• Reset

Computer-based Measuring Systems

Data acquisition is the process of gathering or generating information in an automated fashion
from analog and digital measurement sources such as sensors and devices under test.”

Portable DAQ device (USB connection) Plug-in DAQ device

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DAQ Hardware & Software Components

Functional Block Diagram of a DAQ Board

(plug-in DAQ board)
SC
Programmable Gain
ANALOG Instrumentation Amplifier
MULTIPLEXER ADC FIFO
SC (MUX) PGIA S/H
PCAT I/O CHANNEL
I/O Connector

SC
Analog I/O
PC

Digital I/O
Analog-to-Digital-Converter
SC ANALOG DAC
DEMULTIPLEXER
(Channels) (DMUX
SC
Sample and Hold circuit:
SC
the analog signal is maintained
DAQ Board constant at the ADC input

• Signal Conditioning (SC)

– Amplifiers,
– isolation circuits,
– filters,
– linearization circuits,
– power supply circuits Analog Multiplexer (MUX)

Plug-in DAQ boards: they acquire data and transfer it directly to computer memory.

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DAQ Board- Example

LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench) is a system-design platform and development
environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. The graphical language is named "G“.

Sample and Hold Circuits

• ADC converts the continuous analog signal (DC voltage) into a number of
discreet levels (quantization) and allocates a digital (binary) code to these
levels
• S/H circuits (voltage-memory devices) offer a constant level of the signal at
the ADC input

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The S/H circuit principle

K Vi
V0

Vi V0
C

• K→ ON (1) (the voltage on C is Vo, the same

with Vi. SAMPLE MODE (TRACK MODE)
• K→OFF(0) (the voltage on C remains on the last K
value of Vi which correspond to the end of the
sampling time. HOLD MODE

• K must be an instantaneous switch. Field Effect

Transistors (FET) are used.
• On Sample time the voltage on C must follow Vi very 1
with accuracy (the time constant of the circuit τ must be S H S H S H S H
very small) 0
• C must be an ideal capacitor (with low leakage), it must
not lose information in the Hold time. MOS capacitor is
frequently used The ideal S/H circuit

Practical S/H circuit- Open Loop Architecture

K1 is ON τ = Rout AO1C << AO1 − follower Vout AO1 follows Vi

K1 is OFF τ = Rin AO 2C >> AO 2 − follower V0 follows U c
•The circuit is rapid.
•The acquisition time and droop rate are low (no feedback).
•The two amplifiers works independently and their errors will be added (no feedback).

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Sampling Rate
• Determines how fast A/D conversions take place
• Signals must be sampled fast enough to properly reproduce the signal
• Aliasing – signal is undersampled

Adequately sampled

Aliased due to undersampling

Undersampling effects

Aliasing
• Nyquist Theorem – sampling frequency must be at greater than twice the rate of the maximum frequency component in
the input signal (the perfect reconstruction of the signal is possible)
• Nyquist frequency – half of the sampling frequency
• Only possible to recover frequencies at/below Nyquist
• Frequencies above Nyquist will “alias” between DC and Nyquist
• Alias frequency = │closest integer multiple of sampling frequency - input frequency│

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Preventing Aliasing
• (1)Oversampling
• (2)Use filters designed to eliminate frequencies over Nyquist frequency
• (3) Combination (1) with (2)

Digital to Analog Converters

DAC convert the input digital information into an analogue one
(Reconstruction of the analogue signal)

Reconstruction filter →removal of the step transitions in the sampled waveform→ low-pass
filter to remove these unwanted frequencies

Reconstruction
Filter

Output of the DAC Final analog output

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Digital to Analog Converters

Considering a number written in binary code:

N 2 = bn bn−1 ...b1b0 bk ∈ {0,1}, k ∈ {0,1,...n}

The decimal correspondent of N2 is:
N10 = b0 2 0 + b1 21 + ... + bn 2 n
ADC is a circuit that gives at its output an analogue quantity (Uo, Io)
proportional with the number applied at its input
U o = N10 ⋅ U R Uo and Io are Reference Voltage
and Reference Current
I o = N10 ⋅ I R

If N 2 = a1a2 ...an −1an N10 = an 2 0 + an −1 21 + ... + a1 2 n−1

n
N10 = 2 n  ai ⋅ 2 −i
i =1

n
Application I0= N10 Iref N10 = 2 n  ai ⋅ 2 −i
i =1

A 5-bit DAC has a current output.

For a digital input of 10100, an output current of 10 mA is produced.
What will the output current I0 be for a digital input of 11101?

Solution
The digital input 101002 =2010.
Because I0 =10 mA for this case, the reference current must be:

Iref= 10mA /20=0.5 mA.

Thus, we can find I0 for the digital of 111012 =2910 will be:

I0 = 29⋅ (0.5 mA) = 14.5 mA

194

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n
N10 = 2 n
a ⋅2
i =1
i
−i

n
U o = N 10U R = 2 n
 i R
a U
i =1
2 −i

n
I o = N 10 I R = 2 n
a
i =1
i I R 2 −i

ADDER DAC
Two posibilities to obtain
Uoor Io LADDER DAC

The Adder DAC- with weighted resistors

(Binary weighted DAC)

K1, K2, …Kn are electrical switches

digitaly controled (a1,a2…an)

The circuit requires precise resistors

with a very wide range of values

R R R
Uo = − 1
a1 (−U R ) − 2 a2 (−U R ) − K − n an (−U R )
2R 2 R 2 R
MSB
n

LSB
Uo = UR i =1
ai 2 − i

The practical use of binary-weighted DAC converters is limited to 4 converters

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The Ladder DAC

There are three steps: GENERATE
1. Generate weighted quantities UR2-i or IR2-i WEIGHTED Uo
ADDER
2. Switching these voltages or currents (ai) VOLTAGES
(CURRENTS)
and (3) make their addition

R R R
R R R
i
UR

2R 2R 2R R
R-2R Ladder
Converter i1 i2 in R
1 0 1 0 1 0
iinv U0

a1 a2 an

The number to be converted is

N = a1a 2 K a n ai = {0,1}
UR
i=
R
i i i i
i1 = ; i2 = 1 = 2 ; K in = n
2 2 2 2
At the inverting terminal of OA

U n n

iinv = a1i1 + a2i2 + K + anin = i  ai 2 = R −i
a 2 i
−i

R

i =1 i =1

U 
iinv =− 0 
R
n
U 0 = −U R  ai 2 −i
i =1

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The Basic Specifications of DAC

Let’s consider the transfer characteristic of a DAC of 3 bits

N = a1a 2 a 3 ai = {0,1}
3
U O = U R  a i 2 −i
i =1

The Basic Specifications of DAC

•The accuracy of DAC:
It represents the difference between the real output
voltage and the ideal one

U0/UR

OFFSET error SLOPE error NON-LINEARITY error

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The Basic Specifications of DAC

•MSB (Most Signifiant Bit)
MSB=a1 it determines the higest level of the analog output signal
a1=1, a2=a3=…an=0
UO=UR2-1=UR/2
•LSB (Least Signifiant Bit)
LSB=an it determines the lowest level of the analog output signal
a1=a2=…an-1=0 an=1
U0=UR2-n=UR/2n Ex: if n=8, UR=3V 1LSB=3/2n=11.72 mV
• Resolution represents the smallest variation of the analog output signal
which can be detected
resolution=1LSB ΔU=UR/2n
•The maximum output range
a1=a2=…an=1
n
1
U O max = U R  2 −i = U R (1 − n )
i =1 2

Digital to Analog Converter

3 bit 16 bit

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Analog to Digital Converters

TIME DIGITAL
SAMPLE CODE
t1 110
ADC t2
.
111
100
.
tn 101

•The sampling process=The process of collection of the samples

•The frequency fs=1/Ts is called the sampling frequency (Hz or samples per second)
•The quantization of signals= The process of determination of the digital value of
the samples
•The sampling is the digitization of the time, while the quantization is the
digitization of the signal value
•Quantisation of an analog signal distorts the signal information

10 V

Quantization Error
0V

Transfer characteristic of an ideal ADC

DNL≠0

DNL=0

Quantization step (Q)=1LSB

Quantization error ∈[-Q/2, +Q./2] Differential non-linearity of ADC. (DNL)

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Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)

Comparison of the main performances

Most
commonly used

INTEGRATING

There is no universal
INTEGRATING AD converter!!!!

SAR-Succesive
Aproximation Register

Succesive Approximation Register (SAR)

Ux + Control
_
comp circuit Clock
Register fo

a1 a2 an
Performances:
Resolution
DAC 16-18 bit
Speed
0,5-5 Msamples/second

UR Time of conversion
N 1µs for 14-bit converter

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Application: Succesive approximation Register

Find the successive approximation ADC output for a 8-bit converter to a

6.5V input if the reference is UR=10V

N= 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

SAR Converter -LabVIEW implementation

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Flash ADC (Parallel ADC)

8V

4.1V •Flash ADCs require 2n – 1 comparators to

7V LOW
convert an analog input to an n-bit binary
6V LOW number.(ex: for n=3→7 comparators)
LOW •The comparator outputs connect to the
5V 100
HIGH
inputs of a priority encoder circuit, which
4V then produces a binary output.
3V HIGH •The conversion is performed in one step
HIGH
(They are fast!).
2V
•The time conversion is very small
1V HIGH
(less than 1ns)
•The sampling rate above
1Gsamples/second.
3-bit flash ADC circuit
Vref=8V
Binary output=100
Vin=4.1V

Half-Flash ADC

•This architecture reduces the

number of comparators used in
flash ADCs while maintaining high
resolution and speed
•The input is first converted by a
simple 3-bit flash ADC
•The digital value is converted back
in analog format by a 3-bit DAC
and subtracted from the input. That
gives a residue
•The residue is multiplied to get the
EX- The number of converters in 8-bit device full range, and then converted by a
is reduced to 30 (from the original 255). second flash
8-bit flash ADC is constructed from two 4-bit
flash ADCs.( 15+15 comparators)

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Electronic and Telecommunications

Measurements (ETM)
The oscilloscope (12-13)

The oscilloscope
•A device that draws the graph of an electrical signal
•It can be used to:
•Measure voltage (ac or dc), frequency
•View the wave shape of the input signal
•There are analogue and digital oscilloscopes

X, Y, and Z Components of a Displayed Waveform

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Oscilloscope Setup Controls

• Vertical Scaling System
(Attenuation or amplification of
the signal).
– Use the volts/div and vertical
position controls to adjust the
amplitude of the signal before
it is applied to the vertical
deflection plates.
• Horizontal Scaling System
(The time base unit).
– Use the sec/div and
Horizontal position control to
set the amount of time per
division represented
horizontally across the screen.
• The Triggering System
– Use the Trigger Level to
stabilize a repeating signal, as
well as triggering on a single
event.
– The Trigger section
determinates when the
oscilloscope begin drawing by
starting the horizontal sweep
across the screen

The Cathode Ray (CRO) Tube

•CRT its a vacuum tube
•The electron beam is emitted by the heated
cathode
•A cylindrical control electrode (Wehnelt
grid-G) surrounds the cathode →
INTENSITY brilliance of the spot
•The inner face of the screen is coated with
fluorescent material The fluorescent
radiation remains even after the excitation is
stopped (phosphorescence)
•On the inner surface of the screen,
horizontal and vertical lines are dawn →
graticule (8 div x 10 div)

Rise Time
Marks

Minor Div ision Marks Major Div ision

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Understanding the Scope’s Display

Vertical = 1 V/div Horizontal = 1 µs/div

1 Div

1 Div
Volts

Time

Making Measurements
Visual estimation – The most common measurement technique

Vertical = 1 V/div Horizontal = 1 µs/div

V max

V p-p

Ground level (0.0 V)

indicator

Period

− Period (T) = 4 divisions x 1 µs/div = 4 µs, Freq = 1/T = 250 kHz.

− V p-p = 6 divisions x 1 V/div = 6 V p-p
− V max = +4 divisions x 1 V/div = +4 V  V min = ?

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Making Measurements
Using the scope’s automatic parametric measurements

Readout

• Select up to 4 automatic parametric measurements with a

continuously updated readout.

217

Horizontal or Time Base Channel

•Horizontal axis is usually the time axis
•The horizontally deflection plates are fed with a periodic saw tooth signal
generated by a circuit called the time base (sweep) generator.

•td direct trap (trace) -a complete deflection of the beam takes place (from left to right) with a
constant speed.
•tr return trap (retrace) -the beam returns back in the left part of the screen.
•tp pause time -the beam is blocked in the left part.
•Um the maximum value of the saw-tooth signal. It is a constant for a certain oscilloscope.

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The Horizontal Deflection Coefficient

X- the screen width
x-the measured value

The horizontal deflection take place

with a constant speed:

X x t
= t = d ⋅x
td t X
td
= Cx  t = Cx ⋅ x
X

Cx is the horizontal deflection coefficient . We can select

sweep speeds (TIME/DIV) in a 1-2-5 sequence. Most
oscilloscopes have the variable timebase control.

Sweep Control (triggering)

Sweep mode operation

Control modes
•Automatic (Auto)
•Normal (Norm)
•Single shot (SINGLE)

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Sweep Control Modes

• Automatic mode
– The sweep will periodically trigger
even if no signal is present in the
vertical amplifier.
– The signal is unstable on the screen
• Normal mode
– It requires a vertical signal to begin the
sweeping.
– The signal is stable on the screen
• Single mode
– The CRT beam will seep only once.

The Trigger Controls

• They are active at NORMAL and SINGLE modes

Source Level Slope

TRIGGER SWEEP
SOURCE TRIGGER CIRCUIT CONTROL

Trigger source: determinates where the trigger signal comes from.

Sources
•INT (input signal itself on ch. A or B)
•EXT (external trigger input)
•LINE ( the 50 Hz ac line will cause triggering)

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Triggering

Trigger level

Trigger Slope

The control determinates whether the trigger occurs on a negative or

on a positive-going edge of the input signal

Positive Slope

Negative Slope

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Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

DSO: serial-processing architecture to capture, display, and analyze signals

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bf3547WB5qs

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

With CRT With LCD screen

•all operations (signal processing) are performed digitally

•there is storage function enabling simple recording and
reproduction of signals
•additional functions: FFT analysis, statistical functions

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Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope (DPO)

DPO: parallel-processing architecture to capture, display, and analyze signals

Tektronix DPO70000

• The DPO displays signals in three

dimensions (3D): amplitude, time and the
distribution of amplitude over time
(interpretation of signal dynamics).

They simulate phosphor persistence with various post processing techniques

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