1

CLASS 1 – Nuclei
1. Define the terms atomic mass unit (𝑎𝑚𝑢) and electron volt. Express 𝑎𝑚𝑢 in terms of 𝑀𝑒𝑉.
• Atomic masses are measured in 𝑎𝑚𝑢 . Symbol of 𝑎𝑚𝑢 is 𝑢.
!
• One atomic mass unit is defined as !" 𝑡ℎ of the actual mass of the carbon-12 atom.
!
• 1𝑢 = !" × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 12 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚.
!
• 1𝑢 = !" × 1.993 × 10#"$ 𝑘𝑔

• 1𝑢 = 1.66 × 10#"% 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of an electron, 𝑚& = 0.00055𝑢 = 9.11 × 10#'! 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of a proton, 𝑚( = 1.0073𝑢 = 1.673 × 10#"% 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of a neutron, 𝑚) = 1.0086𝑢 = 1.675 × 10#"% 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of a hydrogen atom, 𝑚* = 𝑚( + 𝑚& = 1.0073𝑢 + 0.00055𝑢 = 1.0078𝑢
2. Define the term electron volt. Express 𝑎𝑚𝑢 in terms of 𝑀𝑒𝑉.
• One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through a
potential difference of one volt.
• It is denoted by 𝑒𝑉.
• 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10#!+ 𝐽
• 1𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 10$ 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10#!' 𝐽
3. Derive a relation between 𝑎𝑚𝑢 & 𝑀𝑒𝑉.
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence is
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 "
1𝑢 = 1.66 × 10#"% 𝑘𝑔
𝑐 = 3 × 10, 𝑚/𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 " = 1.66 × 10#"% × (3 × 10, )" 𝐽
1.66 × 10#"% × (3 × 10, )"
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 " = 𝑀𝑒𝑉
1.602 × 10#!'
𝐸 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉
4. Explain nuclear composition. Define the various terms used to describe nuclear composition.
• Neutrons and protons are present inside the nucleus.
• The nucleus contains about 99.9% of the mass of the atom. Hence nuclear density is very
large.
• Neutrons and protons are held inside the nucleus by nuclear forces. These forces are short
ranged and attractive.
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Terms used:
1. Nucleons
Neutron and protons which are present inside the nucleus are collectively known as
nucleons.
2. Atomic number
The number of protons inside the nucleus. It is denoted by 𝑍.
3. Mass number
The total number of protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus. It is denoted by 𝐴.
4. Nuclear mass
The total mass of the protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus is called nuclear
mass.
5. Nuclide
It is a specific nucleus of an atom characterised by its atomic number 𝑍 and mass number𝐴
It is symbolically represented as , .-𝑋
Where 𝑋 → 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Example :
Gold nucleus !+%
%+𝐴𝑢

Number of nucleons =197

Number of protons =79
Number of neutrons = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = 197 − 79 = 118
5. What are isotopes, isobars, isotones and isomers? Give suitable examples.
Isotopes Isobars Isotones Isomers
Atoms of the same Atoms having same Nuclides having same These are nuclei with
element which have mass number (A) and number of neutrons. same atomic number
same atomic number different atomic and same mass
(Z) and different mass numbers(Z). number but existing in
numbers(A). different energy
states.
They have same They have different They have different They have different
number of protons number of protons. number of protons. number of protons.
and electrons.
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They have different They have different They have same They have same
number of neutrons. number of neutrons number of neutrons. number of neutrons
also.
Similar chemical Differ in chemical Differ in chemical Similar chemical
properties. properties. properties. properties.
' ' '% '+
Examples: !𝐻 , "𝐻 !%𝐶𝑙 , !+𝐾
! " '
!𝐻 , !𝐻 , !𝐻

$ % '% '% !+, !+%

'𝐿𝑖 , '𝐿𝑖 !%𝐶𝑙 , !$𝑆 ,/𝐻𝑔, %+𝑃𝑢
'0 '% 1/ 1/
!%𝐶𝑙 , !%𝐶𝑙 "/𝐶𝑎 , !,𝐴𝑟

6. How nuclear size is estimated? Write the relation between radius of a nucleus and its mass
number.
Nuclear size can be estimated through scattering experiments.
Experiments show that the volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to the mass number.
Let 𝑅 is the nuclear radius.
1
Volume of the nucleus = ' 𝜋𝑅'
4 '
𝜋𝑅 ∝ 𝐴
3
𝑅' ∝ 𝐴
!
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴'
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∝ 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
!
𝑅 = 𝑅/ 𝐴'
𝑅/ = 1.2 × 10#!0 𝑚 = 1.2𝑓𝑚
7. Prove that nuclear density is same for all nuclei. Give an estimate of nuclear density.
Let ′𝑚′ is the average mass of a nucleon ( proton & neutron ).
Mass number (Total number of nucleons) = 𝐴
Total mass of the nucleus = 𝑚𝐴
! '
1 1 1
Volume of the nucleus = ' 𝜋𝑅' = ' 𝜋 [𝑅/ 𝐴" \ = ' 𝜋𝑅/ ' 𝐴
2344 67 89& ):;<&:4
Nuclear density 𝜌 = =6<:>& 67 89& ):;<&:4

𝑚𝐴 3𝑚𝐴 3 × 1.67 × 10#"%

𝜌= = = = 2.3 × 10!% 𝑘𝑔𝑚#'
4 4𝜋𝑅/ ' 4 × 3.14 × (1.2 × 10#!0 )'
𝜋𝑅 ' 𝐴
3 /
𝜌 = 2.3 × 10!% 𝑘𝑔𝑚#'
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This density is very high. Such dense matter is seen inside neutron stars.
8. How can you find the average mass of an atom from the masses of the isotopes. Explain with the
help of an example.
The average mass of an atom is obtained by the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes.
Example:
Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98u and 36.98u. The relative abundances of these
isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent respectively.
Average mass of the chlorine atom = weighted average of the masses of the isotopes.
75.4 × 34.98 + 24.6 × 36.98
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = = 35.47𝑢
100

CLASS 2 – Nuclear forces

1. What are nuclear forces? Give their important properties.
The strong attractive force which hold the nucleons (neutrons and protons) together inside a
nucleus is called nuclear force.
Properties:
1. Strongest interaction. Nuclear forces are the strongest known forces in nature. They are
very strong compared to gravitational and electrostatic forces. They can be compared as :
𝐹? : 𝐹@ : 𝐹A = 1: 10'$ : 10', .
2. Short – range force . Nuclear force operates only inside the tiny nucleus. They act up to a
very short distance of 2 or 3 fermi.
3. Charge independent character. The nuclear force between a proton – proton, a neutron-
proton or a neutron – neutron are all same. This shows that nuclear forces are charge
independent.
4. Saturation effect. Nuclear forces interact only with the neighbouring nucleons. Since they
are short ranged they are not extending to nucleons away from it. Hence the binding
energy per nucleon is same over a wide range of mass numbers.
5. Spin dependent nature . The nuclear force between nucleons having parallel spins is
stronger than that between two nucleons with antiparallel spins.
6. Non – central forces. The force between two nucleons does not act along the line joining
their centres.
7. Exchange forces . Yukawa (Japanese scientist) suggested that nuclear force arise due to the
constant exchange of particles (mesons) between them.
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8. Nuclear forces vary with the distance between the nucleons.
2. Explain the variation of nuclear force with distance between nucleons.

• The nuclear force is attractive and increases as

the distance between the nucleons decreases.
• After a minimum separation, the nuclear force
decreases.
• At about 0.8fm, the nuclear force becomes
zero.
• For distances less than that the nuclear force is
repulsive.
3. Explain the variation in potential energy between a pair of nucleons as a function of distance.

• The potential energy is minimum when

the nuclear force is zero (at about 0.8fm)(𝑟/ ) .
• For above 𝑟/ , as the distance between
the nucleons decreases, the negative
potential energy increases. This indicates
stronger attraction.
• For distances less the 0.8fm, the
negative potential energy decreases and
becomes zero.
• Positive potential energy indicates repulsion between the nucleons.
4. What is mass defect in a nucleus? Express it mathematically.
The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses of its
constituent nucleons is called its mass defect.
Consider a nuclide .-𝑋.
Number of protons = 𝑍
Number of neutrons = 𝐴 − 𝑍
Mass of the nucleus = 𝑀
Mass of a neutron = 𝑚)
Mass of a proton = 𝑚(
Total mass of nucleons = `(𝐴 − 𝑍) 𝑚) + 𝑍 𝑚( a
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𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
∆𝑀 = `(𝐴 − 𝑍) 𝑚) + 𝑍 𝑚( a − 𝑀
5. What is packing fraction?
Packing fraction is mass defect per nucleon.
∆𝑀
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐴
It is directly related to availability of nuclear energy and the stability of the nucleus.
6. Explain the term binding energy. Express it mathematically.
Binding energy is the energy which binds the nucleons together in a nucleus.
It can be defined as the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent protons and
neutrons and to separate them to such large distances that they may not interact with each other.
The mass defect is converted into binding energy according to mass – energy equivalence of
Einstein.
Binding energy, 𝐸B = ∆𝑀𝑐 "
𝐸B = d`(𝐴 − 𝑍) 𝑚) + 𝑍 𝑚( a − 𝑀e𝑐 "
7. What is binding energy per nucleon? What is its significance?
The ratio of binding energy of a nucleus to the mass number is called binding energy per nucleon.
𝐸B
𝐸B) =
𝐴
𝐸B) gives a measure of the force which binds the nucleons together inside a nucleus.
This also help us to explain the energy release in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

CW 3 Mass – Energy Equivalence

1. What is Einstein’s mass – energy equivalence?
Einstein showed that mass can be converted into energy.
It obeys the following equation.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 "
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = 3 × 10, 𝑚𝑠 #!
2. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1𝑔 of substance.
𝑚 = 1𝑔 = 10#' 𝑘𝑔
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 " = 10#' × 3 × 10, × 3 × 10, = 9 × 10!' 𝐽

3. Draw a graph showing the binding energy per nucleon with mass number of different nuclei.
Give the salient features of the curve. How does this curve explain the release of energy in the
process of nuclear fission and fusion?
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Salient features:
1. The binding energy per nucleon (𝐸B) ) is practically constant for
middle mass (30 < 𝐴 < 170) nuclei. The curve has maximum value 8.75Mev for 𝐹𝑒.
2. 𝐸B) is lower for both light (𝐴 < 30)nuclei and heavy (𝐴 > 170)nuclei.
3. This shows that the nuclear force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a
binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
4. The constancy of binding energy of the middle mass nuclei shows that the nuclear
forces are short ranged. Hence the nucleons can influence only the nearby nucleons
lying within its short range. This is called saturation property of the nuclear force.
5. Nuclear fission
A very heavy nucleus (𝐴 = 240) has lower binding energy per nucleon compared that
of a nucleus with 𝐴 = 120. Hence when a heavy nucleus breaks into two lighter nuclei,
nucleons geta more tightly bound. Hence more energy would be released in the
process. This explains energy release in nuclear fission.
6. Nuclear fusion.
Consider two very light nuclei (𝐴 ≤ 10), joining to form a heavier nuclei. The binding
energy per nucleon of the fused nuclei will be more. Hence energy will be released in
the process.